Report of the Committee on Awards of the World's Columbian Commission : special reports upon special subjects or groups

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HARVARD UNIVERSITY

FRANCES LOEB LIBRARY
GRADUATE SCHOOL OF DESIGN

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57th C!on6RE88, I HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. J Document

l8t Session, f } No. 610.

WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION

CHICAGO, ILL., 1893.

EEPOET

OF THE •

COMMITTEE ON AWARDS

OF THE

WORLD'S COLUMBIAN COMMISSION.

SPECIAL REPORTS

UPON'

SPECIAL SUBJECTS OR GROUPS.

IN TWO VOLUMES.
Vol. II.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
10 01.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS.

VOIiUME I.

Page.

Architecture of the World's Columbian Exposition. By Henry Van Brant, judge 5

Art Embroideries in the Woman's Building. By Mrs. F. G. Stebbln.«», judge 25

Modem Bread-Making Machinery and Ovens. By P. J. McMahon , judge 35

Brick-Making Machinery. ByW.-C. Lemert 43

Bronzes. By L. G. Larcau 85

Bronaesin the Japanese Section. By Miss Emily Crawford 117

Collective Exhibit of the Bureau of the American Republics. By Thomas Wilson 1 23

Cocoa and Chocolate. By J. S. Brenning 157

Colonial and Revolutionary Objects. By Anne Hollingsworth Wharton, judge 167

Portraitsof Columbus. By Prof. Thomas Wilson, judge 187

Collective Exhibit in the Convent of La Rabida, at the World's Columbian Exposition. By

Thomas Wilson, judge 193

Corsets and Dress-Cutting Systems, etc. By Hannah Freud, judge 201

Cotton Threads and Fabrics. BvMrs. Peter M. Wilson 209

Diamond-Cutting Display of Tiffany & Co., New York. By J. D. Yerringtou : 217

Drawn Work. By Margaret Windeyer 221

Electricity:

Report on Direct Constant-Current Dynamos. By Henry S. Carhart, LL. D 227

Report on Rubber Covered Insulated Wires for Electric-Light Wiring. By Dugald C.

Jackflon 268

Present Stage of Electro-Therapeutics. By Wm. J . Herdman, Ph. B., M. D 275

Embroidery and Needlework. By Mary Imlay Taylor 293

Enamels:

Enamels of all Nations, as Exhibited in the Columbian Exposition. By E. Crawford 303

Japanese Cloisonn<5. By Mrs. E. Crawford 307

Division of Entomology, Department of Agriculture 311

Ethnology :

Anthropology'. By Prof. O. T. Mason 819

Archaeological Exhibits of Central America and Mexico. By Zelia Nuttall, judge 323

The Archseology of the Saginaw Valley, as Illustrated at the World's Columbian Exposi-
tion. By Harlan I.Smith 829

A Cave-Bear Skull Exhibited by Dr. Wankel, of Austria. By Prof. Thomas Wilson 383

Egypt, Babylonia, and Greece. By Mrs. Sara Y. Stevenson 335

Notes on Eskimo Traditions. By Harlan I. Smith 347

A Collection of Pictures and other Objects Illustrating the Manners, Customs, and Condi-
tions of the People of the Latin- American Republics. By Thomas Wilson, judge 355

Historical and Educational Report on Psychology. By Prof. J. Mark Baldwin 357

Europe and the Fair. By Theodore Stanton 405

Farming Tools, Implements, and Machinery. By Calvin Young, judge 425

Ferris Wheel. By Luther V. Rice.. 473

Ftsh and Fisheries. By W. R. Capehart 481

Fisheries Exhibit. By L. Z. Joncas, judge 485

Preliminary Report of Investigation of Foods Exhibited at the World's Fair. By Prof. W. O.

Atwater 497

Forests in Japan. By ShikazoSuwa 549

III

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IV TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Page.

Utilization of Forest Product*. By G. ScUergren 657

Nova Scotia Fniits and Fruit-Growing. By B. Starmtt 618

The Furs. By Edmund R. Lyon 61&

Gold and Silver Mining: The Accessories, Processes, etc. By William P. Blake 62»

Gox-ernment and Law. By Dr. Richard Hirsch, judge 719

Hair. By Ellen D. Bacon 7»

Horticulture:

The Cannas. By Fred Kanst 745

Ciderand Fruit Juices. By Lud wig Schiller, judge 749

Grapes. By Sylvester Johnson 753

Hardy Plants and Garden Designs. By Warren H. Manning 757

Seeds, Seed Raising, Testing, and Distribution. By Dr. L. Wittmark, judge 789

Heating Appliances. By Prof. R. Hitchcock 811

VOIiUME II.

Honey and Bees. By Eugene Secor * 85ft

Horology. By Charles F. Carpenter, M. D 869

Hygiene and Sanitation. By Miss Annesley Kenealy, judge 923

Instruments of Precision other than Electrical and Magnetic. By J. H. Gore, judge ffJ*

Artistic Ironwork. By L. G. Laureau 951

Ivory and Wood Carvings, etc. By Albert H. Dainty 96a

Machine- Made Laces and Curtains. By Fritz Graeber 97&

Lamps. By Walters. Lenox 981

Liquors:

Beer: History and Advancement of the Art of Brewing. By Eugene F. Welgel 987

Whiskies, etc. By GuidoMarx 997

History of the Vine, the Grape, and the Wine. By E. Dubois . . .• 1019

Wines and Brandies of California. By E. Dubois 1043

Livestock: Arab Horses. By Rev. F. F. Vidal 1049

Machinerj'. By R. H. Thurston, judge 1055

Manganese from Virginia. By John S. Apperson 107i

Munitions of W^ar:

Munitions of War. By W. C. Dodge 1077

Firearms, Ammunition, etc. By W. C. Dodge 1105

Government Exhibit of Guns and Ammunition. By Capt. Andrew H. Russell, U. S. Army. 1129

Knipp Exhibit. By W. C. Dodge 1297

Orchids. By F. Sander 1305

Ornithology:

Ornithology. By Prof. Robert Rlilgcway 1313

Birds. By Dr. R. W. Shufeldt 1341

Pharmacy. By J. D. Humphrey, M.D 1347

Photography. By C.T.Stuart 1363

Refrigerators. By Dr. Robert W. Hill 1369

Sewing, Crocheting, Knitting, and Embroidery. By Miss Helene E. Correll 139S

Sewing Machines. By James Bolton 1403

Silk Exhibit of Lyons, France. By H. L. Gargan 1415

Sugar and other Sweets. By George C. Taylor, LL. D 1421

Tapestry. By Mrs. Henry Stockbridge 1447

Taxidermy. By Dr. R. W. Shufeldt 1463

Tobacco. By Joseph B. Moos 1471

Transportation: Vej^els, Boats, Marine, Lake, and River Transportntion, Naval Warfare, etc.

By Capt. V. M. Concas 1487

Wool:

New South Wales Wool Exhibit. By Henry G. KIttredge 1505

Wools and other Animal Fibers. By William McMurtrie, E. M ., Ph. D 1519

Yom Kippur on the Midway. By Isidor Lewi .^-^ ^... 1691

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HONEY AND BEES.

EUGKNE SECOR.

ST)!)

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HONEY AND BEES.

By Eugene Sboor.

The landing of the caravels on the shores of the New World marked
an epoch in the world's history. Four hundred years, occupancy of
this Continent by the Caucasian race was fittingly commemorated by
the Columbian Exposition. The celebration of the discovery of
America by Columbus furnished the American people an occasion to
review the progress made along many lines of thought and industrial
activity never before enjoyed. At that marvelous aggregation of the
world's products there was an opportunity for comparison, for study,
for instruction in science, in art, in manufactures, and in the products
of the field, mine, and forest, which was only circumscribed by the
limitations of time and the endurance of the student. As in other
lines of activity specialists delight to compare notes and record
advancements made, so it is interesting to the bee keeper to review
the progress made in the domain of apiculture.

It is supposed that bees appeared on the earth in the cretaceous
period, or at the same time that flowering plants were created. That
the earth might the more speedily and effectually be clothed with lux-
uriant vegetation, bees, which act as marriage priests to the flowers,
were needed for the highest development of plant life. It is probably
true that when man appeared on the earth he found the nectar of
flowers in the form of honey already stored for his use. We assume
that the bee industry is as old as the dairy, and that milk and honey
were among the articles provided for the sustenance of man from the
earliest times. Sugar is a comparatively recent invention. Honey is
as old as the race.

We have very early mention of honey as an article of food and com-
merce, and if the bee of that period was not identical with the Apis
mdifica of the present time, it must have been a near relative. As
early as the time of Joseph the land of Caanan was celebrated for its
delicious honey. That was one of the dainties which Jacob ordered
his sons to take to the Egyptian ruler as a peace offering when they
went down the second time to buy corn. No higher recommendation
for any country was then known than to say it was a land *' flowing
with milk and honey." It is also mentioned in Ezekiel, chapter 27, as
an article of commerce between the Jews and the inhabitants of Tyre

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six hundred years B. C. The fragmentary history preserved 'of that
early period gives us but little insight into the art of bee keeping. It
is not likely, however, that bees were domesticated to any considera-
ble extent, if at all. Being natives of a mild climate, where they
needed no protection except that afforded by caves and hollow trees,
they multiplied rapidly no doubt, and the ancients had only to appro-
priate the stores the bees had provided for their own future use. Later,
we learn that bees were kept (as the}'^ are to-day in some Eastern coun-
tries) in cylindrical earthen tubes open at lx)th ends, from which the
peasantry broke the honey-laden combs and either sold or used it in that
broken condition or pressed the liquid out in the most primitive fashion.
Of course that obtained in the last-mentioned manner was more or less
contaminated by dead bees, pollen, and soiled combs which injured the
color and taste, and was a very inferior article compared with the pure
nectar of flowers thrown from the combs by centrifugal force as now
practiced by progressive and skillful apiarists. Modern bee keeping
is quite a different thing from the practice of those times. Indeed, it
is less than a hundred years since the foundation was laid for a more
intelligent prosecution of the industry.

When the observations of Francis Huber were made public an impe-
tus was given to the subject which has increased to the present time.
From him we obtained the rudiments of the knowledge of the honey-
bee which was the beginning of scientific apiculture. Ignorance of the
natural history of bees and its almost certain concomitant — supersti-
tion— began to give way to a more rational belief and intelligent prac-
tice. But as ignorance is always slow to recede before the ad vance col umn
of a more enlightened theory, it was nearly fifty years later — not a half
century ago — when Dzierzon in Germany and Langstroth in America,
each unknown to the other, developed a system of management in the
apiary that revolutionized bee keeping. It made the hive an open
book to every investigator. That system was the invention of the
movable comb hive. Since that time advancement has been rapid and
constant. It is probably within the bounds of truth to assert that more
real progress has been made in apiarian knowledge and in the develop-
ment of honey production in the last fifty years than in all previous
recorded time.

Within the memory of men now living, a book on the natural history^
of the honeybee, or on scientific bee keeping, was a thing unknown.
The internal economy of the beehive was as much a mystery as a
dream. The bee was accredited with superhuman wisdom by the peas-
antry of all countries. Now thousands upon thousands of eager stu-
dents are prying into the secrets of this newly found worker for man's
benefit, and ransacking the world for improved bees and methods.
Quite a library can now be obtained, devoted exclusively to the sub-
ject of bees and bee keeping. In the English language alone we now

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 18»3. 868

recall creditable volumes by such learned authors and skilled bee
keepers as Cheshire, Cowan, Simmins, Langstroth, Quinby, Cook,
Newman, Root, Miller, Dadant, and Doolittle, besides numerous bro-
chures on some special phase of the subject. There are also published
in this country alone the following journals devoted exclusivel}^ to bee
keeping and its kindred pursuits: One weekly, one biweekly, five
monthlies; while nearly all of the agricultural weeklies and monthlies
devote a portion of their space to the apiary under the editorial charge
of some practical bee keeper. Thus, apiarian knowledge is disseminated
through the press.

BEE keepers' societies.

It is but little more than thirty years since the first apicultural
society was organized. In some of the countries of Europe — notably,
Switzerland, Germany, and Austria — societies have multiplied,
nomadic instruction in apiculture has been adopted and has proved so
oeneficial and popular that a course in apiculture has been included in
some of their agricultural colleges. Societies in the above-named
countries have at times numbered six or seven hundred members, and
the subscribers to their society reports more than twice as many. In
Great Britain the British Bee Keepers' Society is very successfully
managed and influential. It grants certificates of ability to experts
who are permitted to lecture before conventions, affiliated societies,
and farmers' meetings in the Kingdom. Ontario, Canada, gmnts her
leading society a small annual appropriation for the encouragement of
this growing branch of rural economy. In our own country the North
American Bee Keepers' Society was organized twenty-four years ago.
It is intended to be both representative and local in its character and
influence, and is moved annually to accommodate as many bee keepers
as possible in our vast country. Many of the States have State societies
with annual meetings. County and district societies are also numerous.

EXPERIMENT STATIONS.

So important has the subject of apiculture become that several of
the State experiment stations have authorized original investigations
by pi-actical and scientific experts to settle, if possible, some of the
many unsolved problems that confront the honey producer.

The importance of the honeybee in the economy of nature has long
been recognized by scientifi(^ bee keepers, but not so fully by horti-
culturists and farmers from lack, no doubt, of sufficient knowledge on
the subject. But through apicultural societies and publications there
seems to be a better understanding between them and an admission on
the part of most horticulturists that the hive bee is an important agent
in the pollenation of many of the fruits, and that no injury is done to
blossoms or fruit by the bees. Experiments have been conducted

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8134 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

proving that bees never injure sound fruit, and that the beneficent offi-
ces performed by them for the horticulturist, the market gardener,
and the farmer are of such value that the industry of bee keeping
should be encouraged by every proper means. That it is encouraged
by governments generally is proved by the establishments of experi-
ment stations and appropriations by States and provinces in the inter-
est of bee keepers. But as the science and art of bee keeping is becom-
ing better understood the tendency is toward specialization. Instead
of a few colonies kept by each farmer as was fomierly done, men
trained in all the knowledge necessary to, success manage apiaries
aggregating, in some instances, two thousand colonies, kept in sepa-
rate localities, called out-aparies. It has not been found profitable in
this country to maintain in one yard more than two hundred colonies.

STATISTICS.

According to compilations ty the Government Census Bureau in the
enumeration of 1890 the number of pounds of honey produced in the
United States in the year previous was 63,897,327. Pounds of wax
returned for same year, 1,166,588. At a very moderate average price
for these products their value is nearly $7,000,000. If the year 1889
was not an average one, which I believe was true, then the value of
the average crop of honey in the United States would exceed the above
estimate. Honey being a distillation in nature's floi'al laboratory, the
supply depends largely on atmospheric or meteorological conditions.
To get a fair average of the annual production a series of consecutive
years should be taken. The above-mentioned aggregate of honey pro-
duced in one year is but a small fraction of the honey resources of the
country. This is shown by the enormous kmounts produced by
specialists within limited areas. The areas so occupied and developed
are but the beginnings of possible production.

EXHIBITS AT THE WORLD'S FAIR.

The exhibits in the apiarian department of the Columbian Exhibition
were mostly installed in the east gallery of the agicultui*al building.
Glass cases were provided by the States and provinces competing, under
the direction of the Agricultural Department. These cases were uni-
form in size and were about 5 by 20 feet, 6 feet high, inside. A glance
through this gallery revealed the fact of tons of honey displayed in
every conceivable form that the fancy of the producer and the inge-
nuity of the superintendent could dictate. Besides the glass cases
were many exhibits of bee keepers' appliances, consisting of hives,
supers, honey extractors, sections, foundation mills, machines for
putting sections together and automatically fastening the starters,
smokers, honey knives, escapes, etc. Some old-fashioned round straw
hives, so familiar in illustrations for the past hundred years, were

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 865

there to show the methods employed by bee keepers of past genex*a-
tions. Alongside of these were exhibited the modern movable frame
hive with various contrivances for obtaining honey in its purity and
in the best marketable shape.

The comb honey on exhibition was mostly in 1 -pound section boxes,
made of white poplar or linen, some of which were glassed on both
sides, but whether glassed or not generally built between separators,
giving to the finished product an even and handsome appearance, no mat-
ter what the source from which gathered. There were many fanciful
designs and mottoes worked out by the bees in comb honey.

Extracted honey was shown in large quantities. The style of recep-
tacle varied from the small large-mouthed bottle to the large long-
necked decanter — in packages adapted to retail trade and in cases
suitable for shipment — in its liquid state as taken from the combs, and
in granulated form (a condition which most extracted honey assumes
when long removed from the hive and exposed to changes of climate).
In addition to the exhibit of honey and appliances there were a
number of colonies arranged along the east wall of the building with
exits for the bees outside and far above the crowds of people on the
ground below. These colonies were successfully managed during
the summer and stored a fine lot of honey. They were Italians and
Carniolans.

Of the glass cases above referred to, New York filled three with
exhibits, besides many fixtures shown outside; Illinois, two, and
Ontario, Ohio, Michigan, Iowa, Nebraska, Indiana, Minnesota, and
Wisconsin each, one. States and Territories having entries in smaller
quantities, and in some instances shown in their agricultural sections
below, were California, Washington, Nevada, Colorado, and Maine.
Many of the States had superintendents in charge of their apiarian
exhibits whose pleasure it seemed to be to impait instruction to the
interested visitor. Much useful information was no doubt dissemi-
nated thereby.

The exhibits from the States did not adequately represent the indus-
try in all parts of our vast domain. The reason for this lay chiefly in
the fact that the State appropriations for the fair were in many cases
too small to properly represent all the industries. Many States noted
for their fine and large crops of honey made no exhibit or only a few
samples from some patriotic apiarist.

Only those States which granted a liberal sum to the bee keepers
were creditably represented. A minor reason probably influenced the
bee keepers in some of the States to withhold exhibits. As before
hinted, the yield and quality of honey being largely due to climatic
influences, and the conditions in 1892 not being favorable, they lost
interest in the matter because they could not show what they deemed
worthy of exhibition.

C50L EXPO — 02 55

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866 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

FOREIGN EXHIBITS.

Aside from the fine exhibit from Ontario, which showed that the bee
keepers of that Province were among the foremost in the world, the
foreign exhibits were mostly confined to liquid honey and apiarian
appliances, and were not shown in the east gallery of the agricultuml
building, but were among the foreign exhibits, either in other parts of
the agricultural building or in other parts of the grounds. The British
bee keepers society had a large and exceedingly interesting collection
of extracted honey from different localities in England, Scotland, and
Ireland, put up in bottles of uniform size and style and made attractive
by finely printed labels. The other countries exhibiting honey, or
appliances, or both, were: Italy, Greece, Russia, Ottoman Empire, New
South Wales, Ceylon, Siam, Spain, Argentine Republic, Republic of
Ixjuador, Guatemala, Brazil, Costa Rica, Haiti, Mexico, and Venezuela.

These foreign honeys were subjected to the disadvantages of change
of climate, want of freshness (as they were all of 1892 crop or earlier),
and lack of persons in charge who understood how to properly care for
them, but much fine honey was shown in spite of unf avoidable conditions.

Russia exhibited a very interesting collection of hives and models of
hives, and implements used in the apiaries of that country, showing
that modern ideas have taken root in the minds of the Russian bee
keepers.

LESSONS TAUGHT BY THE EXPOSITION.

Observing bee keepers could not but learn that quality in honey is
essential to the highest success. The low price of sugar brings it into
use in every family in the country. Honey therefore becomes a lux-
ury, as it can not be produced at a profit in competition with cane sugar
or glucose syrup. If these facts are conceded by the honey producer,
the only way to improve his condition is to improve the quality of his
product. If the matter were left entirely to the bees, there would be
little difficulty, but since the invention of the extractor much liquid
honey is taken in an unripe state, with consequent deterioration of
quality, injuring the sale not only of this particular lot, but of good
honey as well.

It is now generally understood by the foremost bee keepers that
nothing but the finest should ever be put on the market for table use,
the cheaper gmdes being sold to bakers and manufai^turers.

In the production of comb honey, the style of box, the manner in
which the comb is finished by the bees, and its general neatness has
much to do with its geneml- acceptance by the public. The section
box should be well filled, the comb straight, all sealed, the wood white
and thoroughly cleaned of all stains; in fact, it must be as near perfect
as possible .to insure the highest price.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893 867

It can be said to the credit of American bee keepers that they are
not only the largest producei*8 in the world, but that the quality of
their products compared favorably with the best from other countries,
while in the matter of improvements they are undoubtedly ahead of
any other nation.

The enterprise shown in the importation of bees from the Old
World is highly commendable. The earth has been ransacked by
Americans for improved strains. Bees from Italy, Syria, the Isle of
Cyprus, Egypt, and Carniola have been introduced and are now bred
in this couutry.

Probably the most important inventions and the most practical
appliances have been in the method of securing comb honey. The
section boxes now in use and the armngement for mpidly handling
them in the apiary are a great advance over the practice a quarter of
a century ago, while in the machinery for making hives, sections, and
for the manufacture of comb foundation for starters there would
seem to be little chance for improvement.

^

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HOROLOGY.

BY

CHARLES F. CARPENTER, M. D.

msi

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HOROLOGY.

By Charles F. Carpenter, M. D.,

Honorary Commissioner of the United Slaies at the Vienna Tnlemaiional ExposUion ofl87S;
Member of the International Board of JudgeSj World^s Columbian J5irpo«7ton, 189S.

The Government reports on the Vienna Exposition in 1873 and on
the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia in 1876 contain full informa-
tion in regard to the progress made in this group to these dates. We
will therefore notice principally the changes and improvements made
during the- past seventeen years. There were exhibits from our own
country, Switzerland, Germany, France, Russia, Great Britain, Sweden,
Denmark, New South Wales, and Spain, showing the degree of excel-
lence they have acquired in this industry.

It must be taken into consideration, in regard to the large number
of awards given to foreign countries, that before their exhibits were
sent here they were submitted to committees for their judgment in
selecting the bes\, as deserving to represent their skillful handiwork.
When we consider the importance of instruments for keeping time in
regulating the affairs of mankind, aiding the astronomer in his nightly
vigils, guiding the mariner over the pathless ocean, controlling the
movements of railway trains, and giving security to the lives of millions
of travelers, we can form some idea of their great value. Representing
as this group does the utmost skill of man in bringing to such marvelous
perfection one of the most wonderful productions of mechanical skill
be is capable of constructing, it should excite our greatest admiration.
It is not only the mechanical execution we should consider, for the
mechanism embraces principles deduced from the highest branches of
science, which but few men in the world understand well enough to
apply practically and successfully to instruments for keeping time.
Fifty years ago England was unrivaled in this industry; now not one
in ten thousand watches sold in this country is of English make. Their
detached or patent levers having a fusee and chain were generally
regarded as giving the best results, and for a long time continued most
in demand. A Swiss writer in 1878 said: '*The English then went
complacently asleep in the conviction of having set up limits which
their rivals or successors could never excel." At this early time
watches without a fusee and chain, with anchor or lever escapements,
of excellent construction and finish, were made in Switzerland, but

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872 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARD8.

owing to the very limited knowledge among watchmakers of the possible
performance of an isochronal balance spring in regulating the effect of
the varying force exerted by the mainspring, the fusee and chain system
still continued mostly in use. The tJurgensens and Swiss made watches
with isochronal balance springs whose performance convinced those
who used them that the fusee and chain might be left out and yet a
satisfactory result in time keeping obtained. Then came the American
watch companies with their millions of watches made by machinery, all
without a fusee and chain, dep)ending upon an isochronal balance spring
to correct the variation in time keeping, caused bj^ the varying force
of a mainspring.

As a result of the exhibits at the Centennial Exposition the Swiss
and English makers became alarmed at their future prospects in this
important industry. A Swiss commissioner and juror after his return
home said:

Had the Philadelphia Exhibition taken place five years later we would have been
totally annihilated without knowing whence or how we received the terrible blow.
We have believed ourselves masters of the situation when we really have been on
a volcano, and to-day we must actually struggle if we do not want to encounter
in all the markets that rival manufacture. It remains for us to profit from thia
sad experience and improve our manufacture.

They went earnestlj'^ to work and with the aid of schools of horology
established at Geneva, Locle, Chaux de Fonds, Nouchatel, St. Smier,
and Bienne have wonderfully improved their watches in principles of
construction, cheapness, and, as we see by their observatory certifi-
cates, in keeping time. They have a hereditary skill in their handi-
work acquired through over nine generations of experience, and with
the aid of technical schools, under the direction of their most skillful
men of genius, their productions now have attained to the mnk of the
fine arts, and are getting the favor of our dealers and the public to
such an extent that is going to be severely felt b}^ our great watch
factories.

In our report on the Vienna Exposition twenty years ago we wrote:

The wonderful advance made in watch making in our own country la one of the
remarkable instances in which an entirely new industry ha.s l)een taken up, an
immense product put upon the market, and a national reputation established in about
twenty years, competing successfully with countries that have Ixjen engaged in it
since its infancy, aided by exceedingly low prices for labor. To sustain the position
we now hold, apart from further progress, will require the utmost energy and skill
we have at our command.

The question will now come up. Have we sustained relatively that
position, and how much progress have we made? We have the
mechanical skill and ingenuity to make wonderful and effective auto-
matic machines for forming and finishing the different parts required,
but when it comes to new principles of construction in watches the
man nmst be born to it, and also educated through nawy years of

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 873

experience. Many so-called improvements, made in late years, have
already been abandoned, and the same fate surely awaits many of the
new constructions now in use. It is remarkable, in looking at the
different forms of construction by celebrated makers, to see the indi-
viduality shown in them; yet with all it will be very difficult, if not
impossible, to find one that has in every part the most approved
principles already known.

We find watches well made in immense numbers of all grades and
makers, but all have some objectionable points in their construction,
which can only be known to those who have an intimate and practical
experience through many years of special study of their mechanism.
Here is an open field for a person having the proper capacity to assem-
ble in one movement the best construction of individual parts. He
must have a superior judgment, resulting from skill and experience,
with a special genius to accomplish such a work in this course. Com-
bined with new principles that may be discovered lies the hope of our
success in the future, for something of this kind must be done soon to
prevent a serious condition of thib industry in our country. For sev-
ei'al years the "tom billon" watch, invented a long time ago, has given
remarkable results, as attested by observatory certificates. This com-
plicated and expensive construction, requires the greatest care and skill
when repair's are done to it. Many other watches of delicate and com-
plicated construction such as split seconds, repeaters, and those
adjusted for isochronism, position, and temperature, made in Switzer-
land, come to this country, and their fate will be a sad one unless
their owners take the greatest care to place them in competent hands
to be kept in order.

The art of watch repairing is now in a deplorable condition in this
country. Fifty years ago it was learned under the tuition of a master
for a period of about five years, individual skill was recognized and
* developed, the apprentice became practically proficient, more or less,
according to his natural talent, and when he could make a perfect
working verge escapement he was capable of doing all the work
required at that time; he received but little education in the theory or
science of horology beyond that he might get from Reid's Watchmak-
ing, if he was fortunate enough to have access to a copy of it. Now
the state of the art is very diflferent; the errors of minutes then are
now reduced to seconds; complicated watches in a great variety of
constructions, requiring the most skillful manipulation to preserve
their adjustments, are everywhere, and when one of them gets into the
hands of an incompetent workman, and his name is legion, its consti-
tution is gone; by filing, hammering, or bending, as the case may be, it
soon becomes of no use to its owner. In our great product of millions
of watches, when a piece is lost or broken its number or description is
sent to the material department of the factory that made it, a corre-
sponding piece is returned which may or may not fit exactly, but with

874 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

a little fitting at furthest ''will do." Consequently a very large num-
ber of workmen who have "learned the business," (?) without proper
tuition, experience, or capacity, are now doing the general repairs,
cleaning, etc. Seldom is found a proprietor of a watch and jewelry
store who has more than the slightest knowledge of watch repairing.
Consequently he employs workmen at the lowest price, and of course
the grade of the work done is as low as the price. The truly skillful
repairers of watches are very few in number. A knowledge of the con-
struction and peculiarities of a great many different kinds of watches
is required, and a special aptitude to understand in a very short time
any new forms of construction that present themselves, so that the
fault preventing a proper performance may be located and remedied.
This faculty is mrely to be found. Thousands of persons can make the
individual parts of watches without a fault, and they are made by a
division of labor, but it takes a master mind to reason out, as is often
required, the cause of unsatisfactory performance in a watch. And,
then, the remuneration is so small for such work that even a competent
and skilled artist will often abandon the business and seek some other
occupation, where his. ability will be properly remunerated, thus too
often leaving the work to fall into the hands of unskilled workmen
who finally ruin it. The long lever, as used in Swiss "ancre" watches
sixty years ago, and more fully developed in the Jurgensen type of
watches, appears to be generally superseded by a shorter construction.
In some watches it is but slightly longer than one arm of the pallet.
This appears to be about as short as it can be made, as it then requiies
a very small roller. The short lever is adopted by nearly all the best
Swiss makers, and in some watches the end of the lever that projects
over the escapement wheel, which is left there more for ornament than
use, is left off entirely, thus allowing the pallets to be more easily
cleaned and preventing the lodgment of fuzzy matter between the free
end of the lever and the escapement wheel. Many forms of patent
regulators have come into use that will be abandoned after having
had their day in serving the retailers as "an important improvement"
when selling their watches. There are objections to most of them.
When an ordinary regulator fails to improve the rate of running, there
is but little or no use for a patent regulator. Thinner and more elastic
mainsprings are much in favor and have superior merits. In some
watches we find the stop work allows five turns of the mainspring in wind-
ing one turn of the mainspring in "getting up," and one free turn that
remains after the watch is wound, having seven turns in all. When
winding such a watch there is an agreeable feeling that no part of its
mechanism is subject to an injurious strain, and that the winding force
required has but little variation from the beginning to the end.
More attention is being given to balances and balance springs. The
improvement in these particular parts is surprising, and the fact that

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 875

watches with observatory certificates can be bought in Switzerland for
60 francs goes to show how wonderfully expert they have become in
rapidly adjusting balances and balance springs in position, tempera-
ture, and isochronism.

Various forms of construction that are very questionable improve-
ments have come into use to prevent injury to the train when a main-
spring breaks. In former years, when the Swiss center pinion had very
thin leaves, it was not very unusual to find, when a mainspring broke,
that one or two leaves of the center pinion were broken by the rebound
of the barrel, and sometimes a third wheel pivot was also broken oflf.
This was particularly the case when some incompetent person had put
in too strong a mainspring. But where watches are provided with a
reasonably thin mainspring, the leaves of the center pinion having a
proper thickness, and rounded at the bottom of the leaves instead of
being cut square, and the third wheel pivot a proper size, it will very
rarely happen that there will be any damage to these parts by a main-
spring breaking. The screw-nut center pinion is the simplest and best
of all the contrivances in use to absolutely prevent this injury to the
train.

Many stem winding and setting arrangements that have been intro-
duced in the past few years are giving great dissatisfaction, and will
be the cai^se of much vexation to owners and repairers of watches.
Some of these systems border on the ridiculous, and in the number of
pieces used are very objectionable; stem winding and setting work
should be made durable and effective, winding smoothly, and with as
few pieces as possible. Some makers accomplish this, and have proven
the soundness of their principles by many years of use. Nickel move-
ments are most extensively shown, and appear to be greatly in favor
with the public; but in artistic beauty and resistance to oxidizing influ-
ences they are far inferior to well grained and gilded work. Many
so-called nickel movements are really an alloy of soft metals that
somewhat resemble nickel, while others are brass, electroplated with
nickel.

A new trouble now confronts the watch industry in the liability of
watches to be seriously injured by magnetizing influences, thereby
affecting their timekeeping qualities to such an extent that they per-
form in a very irregular and unreliable manner. It is said by many
persons that the magnetism can be entirely removed, yet other reliable
authorities say that it will reappear after a short time. Various
devices have been tried to prevent this trouble, but the entirely satis-
factory one is yet to come.

The compensating balance now in general use was invented about
one hundred years ago. Its arms and inside rim are made of steel.
When it is magnetized it will act like a magnetic needle, pointing
north and south, and will be attracted by any iron or steel work that is

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near it, causing a very irregular rate in timekeeping. Nonmagnetic
metals have been used entirely in making compensating balances. So
far they have failed to a great extent in securing the confidence of the
public, and consequently are but little used. The balance spring, or
hairspring as it is usually called, being made of steel, is also affected by
magnetism. Various nonmagnetic metals and alloys have been tried
in the place of steel. Some say they have given good results, but the
fact that they do not come more into general use shows that their
performance is not entirely satisfactory.

It appears that many nonmagnetic watches that have been sold and
practically tested have performed tolerably well for a few months,
and then began to give such dissatisfaction as to finally result in their
being laid aside or returned to the dealer that sold them. Electrical
appliances and magnetic machinery are now all around us. Any person
carrying a watch is liable to have it magnetized, and consequently lose
faith in it as a time keeper. It is therefore greatly desired to have
watches that will perfonn as well as those having steel balances and
hairsprings, and 3^et not be affected by magnetizing influences. We
have faith from the result of experiments recently made that this
trouble will be overcome by the use of a nonmagnetic balance made of
metals having the proper difference in coefficients of expansion in
changing temperatures, and at the same time having the rigidity and
elasticity required, combined with a balance spring that will have and
retain the properties of isochronism and elasticit}^ of flexure.

The author of an English publication says of the firm of Japy
Brothers, Beaucourt, France:

Their production of watch movements began in 1870, and from that time to 1888
amounted to 35,326,930. During 1888 they supplied these movements to Swiss and
Besan^on manufacturers to the extent of 1,200,000, who ciise and complete them.
Besides these, the firm of Japy have lately taken to manufacturing a complete metal
keyless watch at the incredibly low price of 5 shillings — a watch provided, like a
real timekeeper, with a barrel and mainspring, a center wheel, third and fourth
wheels, an escape wheel, a cylinder with balance and balance-spring motion, dial
wheels, and a pair of hands, the whole in rather a tasty case. The work is certainly
rough, very rough, but the watch goes, and one taken at haphazard from several
boxes which were given us for examination, and which we kei)tfora fortnight, went
very well indeed until we broke the cylinder; then the question of replacing it sug-
gested another train of thought as to the relation of repairs to prime cost.

The foregoing shows what has been done by the aid of labor-saving
machinery, division of labor, and an immense capital. These watches,
like the cheapest productions made in this country, soon wear them-
selves out of order, but they answer a purpose to those who wish only
approximate time, and that only for a short period.

It is of the utmost importance to the student, when he commences
practical work in constructing instruments for keeping time, that he
should have a technical education. The schools of horology at Geneva,

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Chaux do Fends, Locle, Neuchatel, Bienne, etc., have had an immense
influence in raising the Swiss productions to the high position they
now occupy. A glance at the following complete course of studies will
show how thorough the instruction is and how assiduously the student
miost apply himself:

First Year.

first period.

Sfwpwork, — The pupil learns to file, holding the file with both hands; he makes
first a steel ruler, then a T-square, and prepares roughly some parts of a tool (lathe,
depthing tool, etc.)» which he has to finish later on, when he has acquired sufficient
dexterity. As much as possible he is made to do, even from the beginning, work
which will be of use to him later on, as it is more encouraging than having to file
pieces of iron or brass without ulterior use; also a series of drills and tape, at first
much larger than those used in watchmaking — this in order that the student may
easily see for himself the correct shape to give to these tools. Practice on the foot
lathe, first with the hand graver. The pupil makes a series of screws with shoulders,
after a graduated design, adhering as much as possible to the exact dimensions. He
next practices on the mandril, turning brass and steel pieces. The attention of the
student is here drawn to the extreme importance of the shape and position of the
cutter. The sharpening of the cutters is equally the object of similar demonstrations
concerning the precautions to be taken so that the cutting edge should always be
rigorously maintained in spite of successive sharpenings. The pieces made are
always parts of tools which the student finishes when he is able to do so, or of which
he delays the finishing until such time as he shall have acquired sufficient ability.

Theory,

Horology. — Preliminary ideas on the divers organs of a watch, their utility and
their functions. The first part of the programme is intended to familiarize the pupil
with the names of every part of the mechanism and their use, so that before passing
to the complete study of all the mechanisms he may have a general idea of them.

MathemcUics. — Recapitulation of the arithmetical knowledge the pupil must possess
whei* entering the school.

ifecAanic*.— Statics, equilibrium of forces, levers, etc.

Dravnng.
Exercises in line drawing, geometrical figures, letters.

SECOND PERIOD.

Shopwork, — Making of a rough movement 18 lines. A drawing five times larger
than the original is given to the pupil, the graduated marks of which have for base
three points placed in a direct line, representing a rough work. This tracing is
copied on a brass plate, and the bars on another, out of which they are cut and then
filed to shape, the hollows turned, and the screws made. Screw holes are tapped
either by hand or on the lathe. This method has replaced advantageously the
method of pointing with the caliber used formerly. The caliber is a steel plate
pierced wherever the plate of brass is to have a hole. It is applied on the brass
disk which is to become the plate of the movement; then the holes for the screws
are pointed. This way was found too easy for a school, where the pupil is to ieam
how to measure exactly, and to know how to transcribe his measurements without
any mistakes. The distances are given in tenths of millimeters. They are taken
with a compass with movable points made specially for that purpose, and with a

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millimeter ruler of the kind used by architects. It is expected that this movement
shall be well filed, that the screws shall be carefully made, but the greatest impor-
tance is attached to accuracy of measurement. One-tenth of a millimeter lai^er is
tolerated, but it must not be the least smaller. In the case of measures of distance
half a tenth only one way or another is permitted. After this movement— which is
composed only of the plate, bars, barrel without arbor, and the screws— the pupil
makes a second one, 19 lines, for a lever, and proceeds in the same manner, except
that in this case screws of commerce are used. He makes a third movement 12
lines; then he finishes a movement of a complicated watch, or else one of an English,
American, Spanish, or other caliber.

Theory.

Horology, — Study of the pieces of support, plates, bars; comparative examination
of the princijml calibers with bars, half plates, three-quarter plates; theory of
adjustments, screws, rivets, feet.

Mathematics. — Principles of algebra, equations of the first degree. Elementary
geometry having for its object the teaching of the pupil only the most important
theorems — which they will have occasions to use in the future.

Elementary mechanics. — Cinematics — Application to mechanic* of equations of the
first degree, and applications of mechanics to the solution of some problems of
bodies in motion.

Drawing.

Drawings in section* of pieces of watch work seen from divers sides and laterally.
Clean copies made to scale and lightly colored. Designs of movements of various
sliapes and calibers. These designs differ essentially from what was formerly done
and from anything done in similar schools. They must not only represent an
object generally, but give the details which are necessary for the execution. They
are designs identically the same as those made for the manufacture of machinery;
besides which, every drawing must be done in a given number of lessons, and if not
finished at the appointed time it is taken away and marked adversely.

THIRD PERIOD.

Keyless mechanism. — Here again the methods used in the.execution of the work
are different from those formerly practiced. The turning is done on a foot lathe or
on a mandrel, the pieces (barrel arbors, keyless wheels, stem-winders, transmission
wheels, etc.) being fixed either in American chucks or between centers. Squai^es
are cut in the lathe, and wheels are cut by the students themselves on the wheel-
cutting machine. The cutters are selected by the master. Pupils up to this time not
having been able to study the theory of depthing or the shape of the teeth, they
give their attention solely to learning the practice of wheel cutting so as to obtain
regular teeth, well cut and well centered. The polishing of the shoulders and of the
rubbing surfaces is done either by hand, by bevel, or by the American wigwag.
Polishing of chambers and hollows is done by means of iron disks on the lathe.
The pupil thus makes the keyless mechanism for his four rough works, always
working from graduated drawing.

Theory.

Horology. — Calculation of wheel trains, connection between velocities and num-
l)er8, inquiry into the numbers to be given to wheels and pinions in order to obtain
certain velocities.

Ktyless mechanism, — Study of the different kinds used, designs and theory of all
the pieces of which it is composed.

Maihematvcs. — Algebra and elementary geometry.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 879

Elementartj mechanics.— DynBLinic study of forces and of their effect, work, active
force, etc.

Draidng,

Designs of keyless mechanisms and of trains. Clean copies to scale of working
drawings with flat tints in the sides and shaded.

SscoND Year.

FIRST PERIOD.

Shopivork, — Mechanical manufacture of the rough works by the help of machines and
processes of the most perfected kind — 3 cylinder movements 18 lines; 3 lever move-
ments 19 lines— with their keyless works. During this period the student must give
his attention to automatic medical processes. He must learn how, by the ingenious
dispositions of tools, one can insure rapidity of manufacture and render the quality
of the work done to a great extent independent of the awkwardness of the work-
man. The professor has again to demonstrate to the student that in many cases,
and when the question is only to produce quantities, there is no need for compli-
cated or costly machines, but that simple accessories, easy to make, can render great
service. The finishing of the tools commenced in his first year is proceeded with.

Theory,

Horology. — ^Theory of depths, cycloids, development of circles, conjugated curves.

Mathematics. — Elementary algebra and geometry continued.

Physics and chemistry. — General principles and application of same to horology.

Dramng.

Illustrating the theories of depths, epicycloids.

SECOND PERIOD.

Shopioork. — Finishing train of wheels, the student first makes the train of his 18-
line cylinder movement, using bought pinions, the turning of the pinions being done
on the pivoting lathe, using shellac. In principle, pivoting on the pivoting lathe and
with rouge is the only recognized method in order to obtain perfect work. How-
ever, as it is better that the pupils should know several ways of attaining the same
object, they are also taught pivoting with the bow, and reducing the pivots to size
with the file and burnisher on the Jacot lathe. They finish by the above methods
their two 18-line cylinder movements. The pinions for the above movements, as
well as for the five preceding ones (total eight), are bought, and for four of them
even the pinions and wheels are already riveted, in order that the student shall not
pass too much time on train work. The wheels are rounded and the shape given to
the teeth by means of wheel cutters. The shape is examined with the eyeglass in a
good light, and the pupil must select his wheel cutter until he obtains a shape of
teeth coinciding suflSciently with the designs he has made previously.

Since the introduction of the ey^lass with camera lucida, reproducing with the
desired enlai^ement and to scale drawings the tetdh of wheels, one can make the
student touch with the fingers the imperfections of depths, and by successive correc-
tions obtain wheel teeth almost perfect, especially after they have l)een made to
pass through the Ingold cutter, which gives them an epicycloidal form very difficult
to obtain otherwise. Sizes of wheels and pinions are given by the drawings. How-
ever, the pupil must learn how to use the proportional compaan, which by and by will
render him great service, and for that object he is not to use those commercial com-
passes, more or leas corrected and which are always inexact, but a normal compass

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accompanied by a table of c«>rrection8. For the la^t two trains, whi(;li are the nineteen-
line levers, one of them handmade and the other machine ma<le, and lx»th destined
for accurate timing, the student must make and cut the pinions. Tlie wheels are no
longer divided and then cut to shape, but the shape which they must ultimately
have is at once given by the cutter, then they are rivete<l on the lathe so as to avoid
retouching with the wheel cutter, as this always more or less distorts the regularity
of the division.

Theoiy.

Horology. — Horological depths, calculation of tables of correction, construction and
usage of the graphics of depths, keyless ciepths, divers combinations.
Study of the mechanism of complicated watches.
MathemcUic*. — Principles of trigonometry.
Physics and chemistry continued.

Dramng.

Designs of horological depths, with rounde<l or elliptical pinions, (-onical depth,
crown depth, keyless depth. Designs of transmission of movements in the mech-
anism of repeaters.

Third Ybab.

It is difficult at the end of the second year to divide the teaithing into regular
{)eriods, because personal aptitude no longer allows of the uniformity of studies.
Students who entered the school at the same time are at the end of two years hH^nsi-
bFy distanced from one another, and as at that time they enter into the most difficult
part of horological teaching, this becomes more and more ac;centuated, and the same
work can not be expected from them.

Pupils well endowed can undertake complicated mechanisms; for others it would
be giving them a task above their capabilities and would prolong indefinitely their
stay at the school. Therefore the classification following serves as a base for intelli-
gent pupils, while it is no longer rigorously maintained for others.

FIRST PERIOD.

Shopivork, — Complicated mechanisms. The pupil already possesses a complii^ated
movement in the rough with keyless work and train wheels. The complicated
mechanisms he must make from his own drawings. He is given a in()del movement,
but to prevent his copying it servilely he is told to introduce a modification of some
sort. Thus, the position of the push piece, of the calender, or some other piece will
be changed; or, if a repeater is under consideration, either the general disposition or
the times of rest of the striking, etc., will l)e modified. The pupil is told that when
once his drawing is made he will not see the model any more and that he is to take
his measures accordingly. Besides, he has already made designs of construction,
whereby he has attaine<i a certain degree of proficiency, and if he is at all serious
there are no grave interruptions to fear. He makes first of all the detached pieces,
and sometimes, when it is a very complicated watch, he is given one or two le.sK
advanced pupils to make for him a certain numlx^r of pieces from the designs he has
worked out.

When all his measurements have Ixien well taken, the assembling of the different
parts and the regulating of all the functions do not present great difficulty.

Theory.

Horology, — Theory of complicated watches. Repeaters, descriptions and designs
of all details, construction of every mobile, trigonometrical cAlculati(ms of the dimen-
sions, chronographs, independent center seconds, simple and ixjrixjtual calenders.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 881

Cogmoffraphy. — Measure of time, movements of the heavenly bodies.
Bookkeeping.

Drarving.

Plans of complicated watches. As in this case the drawings must serve for the
execution of the parts in the workshop, it generally happens that the pupil, instead
of occupying himself with that task only a few hours a week, fixed by the regula-
tions, gives entire days to that work until it is finished, so as to be able to execute
the mechanism without hesitation or stoppage. For the purpose of verification, and
before putting into execution, the pupil cuts out in paper every part to the scale of
his drawings, then fixes them on a piece of cardboard on which he has previously
marked all the places of the mobiles. He can then ascertain at once the errors or
oniiseions which may have oi^curred during the making of the designs.

SECOND PERIOD.

Shopfvork. — Cylinder escapement. After having made a large cylinder (about an
inch in length), so that he can see clearly for himself the shape that part is to be,
the pupil makes the escapement of four eighteen-line movements, and afterwards
another of twelve lines. It happens that for some pupils the transition from eight-
een lines to twelve lines is too sharp; in that case they are given in the meantime
a movement of fourteen lines. For all these escapements the pupils have to set the
jewels themselves.

Theory.

Horology. — Escapement theory. Escapement of clocks of Graham, extension of
that escai>enient to watches becoming a cylinder escapement, trigonometrical tracing
and calculation of dimensions.

Cosmography and Iwokkeeping continued.

Drawing.

Tracing clock and cylinder escapements, designs of construction, drawing of a
cylinder escapement complete, with bars, cock, end stones, etc., vertical and hori-
sontal views.

Fourth Year.

first period.

Shopvxirh.-^ljeyeT escapement. Planting of three lever escapements nineteen
lines, the first with covered pallets and four end stones, and the other two with vis-
ible pallets and six end stones. The pupil has to make the forks and the jewel set-
tings. Execution of an escapement nineteen lines complete with six end stones and
screwed counterweight (fork in the two pieces), cutting of the escape wheel and of
the pallets after the trigonometrical measurements made by the student, and .
inscribed on metal by the method of Grossman's discs. The forms and the dimen-
flions are again verified on the finished escapement by means of a micrometer made
to the thousandth of a millimeter, which enables him to measure all distances, the
angular lifts, the draws, the rests, the drops, etc. This escapement provided with a
first-class balance will subsequently have to l^e accurately timed, and it is with this
object that the best of the nineteen-line movements which the pupil possessed
when he got in the escapement class has been kept. He then has to make the
escapement of his complicated movement, and finally an esca^^ement of different
construction, either English lever, duplex, or chronometer, making altogether eight
escapements during his school course.

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Theory.

Lever escapement theory, tracing, determinations by trigonometry. Chronometer
and duplex escapement, and summary descriptions of some older forms of e8ca|)e-
ment, little used at present.

Drawing.

Deei^s of divers lever escapements; plan, horizontal and vertical, of a complete
lever escapement with bars, endstones, etc. Drawing of the chronometer esc^^pr-
ment.

SECOND I'ERIOD.

Shopuxfrk. — Examining, casing, and lastly finishing the eleven mo\'ementa the stu-
dent has made at school, using the most expeditious means to angle the bars, cross
the wheels, etc. The casing of the six movements, machine-made, is done on the
interchangeable system.

ThcoTii.

Mathematical theory of timing, study of the lialanceand l>alance spring, calculation
of the variations in rates produce<l by the escajieinent, frictions, faults of the l)alance
spring or balance, etc.

THIRD PERIOD.

Shopworh. — Watch and chronometer timing, fitting of the balance spring, correc-
tion of a balance out of truth, or out of poise. Accurate timing in different temper-
atures and in all positions. The pupil must time at least one of his watches, so as to
obtain an A certificate with mention ** Very satisfactory."

Theory.
History of horology.

Special teaching.

Re])airB of clocks, repairs to watch cases, engraving of letters and monograms,
conversions from Cylinder to lever escapements. These four specialties are for
students who are destined for the watch jobbing trade. Decorative engraving of
watch cases, balance making, making of balance springs, cutting, piercing, and finish-
ing of jewels.

W^hen a student leaving school has fulfilled in a distinguished manner the above
programme in its entirety, he receives a diploma of merit.

The foregoing programme of the school at Besangon shows how
thoroughly the students arc educated. The course of studies in other
schools vary somewhat according to the requirements of the locality.
At the Geneva school five yeai-s are required to complete the course of
studies. When we see the result of the training in horological schools,
in the exhibits at the great expositions, we must come to this conclusion
as an absolute fact — to insure our prosperity in the horological art in
the future, we must have technical schools on the basis of those in
Switzerland and France. In former expositions it was regretted that
so few watches had any reliable record of their performance, so that
their relative merits could be ascertained accuratel3\ Now, we have
observatory certificates of various classes accompanying a very large

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number of watches that can be sold at a moderate price. There has
been a great improvement in the time-keeping qualities of watches in
the past fifteen years, and in the same time the prices have been consid-
erably reduced. The advantages of adjustments in position, isochron-
ism, and temperature are utilized to a greater extent, and scientific skill
more appreciated and applied. As the course pursued at astronomical
observatories is but little known, we give that at Kew, near London,
as it resembles to some extent the others. The trials at the Geneva
observatory, we understand, are more exacting.

DfiTAIIiS OF TRIALS TO WHICH WATCHES ARE SUBMITTED DURING RATING.

The trial of a watch entered for a Class A certificate occupies forty-
five days, divided into eight periods of five days each and four
intermediate and extra days, during which the watch is not rated.
First period, watch in vertical position with pendant up at the
temperature of the chamber (kept at 60^-^5° F.); second period,
watch in vertical position with pendant to the right at the same
temperature; third period, watch in vertical position with pendant to
the left at the same temperature; fourth period, watch with dial up in
the refrigerator at a temperature of about 40^ F. ; fifth period, watch
with dial up at a temperature of about 66° F. ; sixth period, watch
with dial up in the oven at a temperature of 90° F; seventh period,
watch in a horizontal position with dial down at a temperature of
65° F. ; eighth period, same as the first, watch in vertical position
with pendant up. The intermediate and extra days, during which the
rate of the watch is not recorded, are at the commencement of the
fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh periods, which are extended one day
each for that purpose.

• Certificates are granted to watches as follows: To those which have
undergone forty -five days test as specified and whose performance is
such that, first, the average of the daily departures from the mean
rate during the same stage of trial did not exceed two seconds in any
one of the eight stages; second, the mean daily rate while in the
pendant-up position differed from the mean daily rate in the dial-up
position by less than five seconds, and from that while in any other
position by less than ten seconds; third, the mean daily i-ate was
affected by change of temperature to an amount less than one-third of
a second per 1 ° F. ; fourth, the mean daily rate did not exceed ten
seconds while in any position.

The words ''especially good" are attached to the certificate when
the watch is awarded 80 marks and upward. In a notice of some of the
exhibits will be found the observatory rates of a few very remarkable
watches, which, by comparison with the foregoing requirements, some

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idea can be formed of their wonderful performance in time keeping.
The great number, variety, and sizes of watches exhibited, with com-
plicated mechanism, executed and finished with marvelous pei'fection,
such as fly-back chronographs, split seconds, various formsof repeaters,
with calendars and moon's phases and also toiirbillion watches, excited
our most profound admiration. Here was the limit of human skill in
the most delicate mechanism at the present time; to take them in detail
and note their specific points of excellence would require a volume.

Fly -back chronographs and repeaters, with very bad principles of
construction and cheaply made, have been sold to a large extent in this
country, and the consequence is that their ownere will soon have only
the value of the cases for their outlay. Even many of the best class of
chronograph watches had a serious fault. They were expected to give
accuracy to one-fifth of a second in starting and stopping, but when
started the second hand would juuip backward or forward sometimes
nearly as much as a second; the same fault also occurred when the
chronograph was stopped. In fact, we seldom saw a fl}' back that did
not have* more or less this fault. Now, it will be found that fly-back
chronographs of even moderate pretensions have this fault to a great
extent eliminated, thus showing that this system under improved con-
ditions can be used to give accurate results.

In the diflJcult and laborious task of examining carefully the many
exhibits we fully recognize the important services rendered by the
foreign judges in this group, Mr. G. M. Rouge, the talented partner
of Patek, Philippe & Co., Geneva, and Mr. Charles Emile Tissot, a
member of the Swiss National Council, and manufacturer of the high-
est class of complicated watches at Le Locle. Their high position as
the leading exponents of the art in Switzerland gave assui-ance of good
and impartial judgment in their awards to exhibitors. Our social
relations were of the most pleasing chai'actcr and a cheerful remem-
brance of the Exposition.

UNITED STATES.

The United States Naval Observatory exhibit: At Wjishington the
Naval Observatory is one of the best, if not the best, equipped in the
world, and the exhibit here showed to some extent the kind of work
that is done there. It lias for its object primarily to determine accu-
rately from time to time the positions of the sun, moon, planets, and
stars for use in preparing the Nautical Almanac, upon which depends
the very possibility of the art of navigation; to test, regulate, and
perfect the (jhaiucter of chronometers, upon whose acicuracy the naval
and merchant marine equall}' depend in the present age; to issue
standard time to the public daily, which time is now needed as a neces-
sity in all parts of the United States for the daily transaction of busi-
ness, and for the satisfactory working of the time schedules on the

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railroads of the country, involving the safety of both life and prop-
erty in land transpoi'tation; to fix accurately the longitude of various
places b}' telegmph for geodetic and other surveys, and to furnish
correct time when requested to other branches of the Government
and scientific departments; to investigate the subject of magnetism
and meteorology, as aids to navigation, and to distribute to vessels of
the Navy instruments of precision for navigating purposes.

This exhibit was located in a small building between the Govern-
ment building and the war ship. It should have had a place in the
Government building, where it would have been seen by many more
people and to a greater advantage. An astronomical clock made by
the Seth Thomas Clock Company was used to obtain the true time for
electrical ti'ansmission. A, small ratchet-toothed wheel was placed
on the seconds arbor of the movement between the plates, which
opened an electric circuit as each tooth passed a small spring which
kept it closed. The fifty-ninth tooth was omitted, so that no signal
was given out at this beat. A stud projected from the side of the
sixtieth tooth, which acted on another spring, giving a signal at the
sixtieth second only. The pendulum had a mercurial compensation,
the jar containing about 40 pounds of mercury.

With this clock a chronograph was connected, in which a pen traces
a spiral line on a sheet of paper placed on a revolving cylinder, the pen
is controlled by an electro magnet, the circuit through which was not
continuous but established at every second by the above clock, the
magnet at the same time drawing the pen to one side marked the
second. By means of this chronograph the time of any observation
may be recorded and the beats of clocks compared, even when set up
at widely separated stations, and so the difference of longitude between
two places established. One such sheet of paper may contain the
record of two hours' work. This chronograph is absolutely necessary in
recording and transmitting true time, which at Washington is sent
over 35,()O0 miles of wire to 70,000 clocks and 9 time balls.

A displa}^ of marine chronometers made by John Bliss & Co. and
H. H. Heinrich, of New York, were remarkable productions, showing
the high degree of excellence in manufacture attained by these makers,
who furnish many chronometers to the Government. A marine chro-
nometer by H. H. Heinrich had a balance with a double rim showing
considerable ingenuity in its construction, the effective length of each
rim being increased 50 per cent over those in ordinary use. Mr.
Heinrich also made a display of the individual pieces of a marine
chronometer in different stages of their manufacture, which were very
interesting and instructive.

J. S. & J. D. Negus, of New York, and Wm. Bond & Son, of Boston,
also exhibited marine chronometers showing excellent workmanship
and careful attention to detiiils of construction. An English chro-

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nometer by JLoseby, purchased by our Government in 1850, has a
mercurial auxiliary' compensation to the balance. Chronometers with
Loseby's auxiliary compensation have had many trials at the Green-
wich Observatory in competition with other chronometers and gave
remarkable results, but they have not been adopted for geneml use.
The construction of this auxiliary compensation part is too fi-agile to
be relied upon in place of other well-known forms of auxiliary com-
pensation, as the balance carries at the extreme end of each rim a small
curved glass thermometer, the bulb of which is fastened to the fi-ee
end of the rim of the balance, and the stem cui-ving towaixl the center
of the balance.

A marine chronometer made by Domk. Eggert, New York, is the
first one of home manufacture purchased by our Government. It was
put in use in 1839 and has been in service afloat and ashore for twenty-
eight years, and is used at the Observatory for ceilain purposes.

A chronometer b}^ J. S. & J. D. Negus, No. 1630, saved from the
Jea7mette^ w«is found among their effects where the party perished.
It has since made a cruise on the U. S. S. Omaha^ 1888-1891.

A chronometer by J. S. & J. D. Negus, No. 1366, was found at
Newmans Bay, arctic regions, by Captain Nares, of the British arctic
expedition. It had been left there by Captain Hall, of the arctic
steamer Polnris, It was returned to our Government by the British
authorities, and the rate papers given with it at the Royal Naval Col-
lege, Portsmouth, December 3, 1876, showing it was going at the lute
of one-tenth of a second per day, losing, being a very slight change
from that given when it was issued to the Polaris expedition on June
28, 1871, during four years of which interval it was exposed to the
inclemency of arctic winters at varying tempei-atures down to as low as
104° F. below the freezing point, a test unusually severe. Probably no
other chronometer has ever been exposed to as great a degree of cold.

J. S. and J. D. Negus, No. 1684: The wheel work of this chronom-
eter is made to break an electric current at the end of each second,
and its beats can be registered on a sheet of paper by the usual chrono-
graphic register. In this manner it is made use of with a transit instru-
ment to record star transits or register the exact time at which any
phenomenon occura.

The American Waltham Watch Company: The pavilion of this com-
pany occupied a prominent location on Columbian avenue, and con-
tiiined a display that attracted crowds of skilled artisans and admiring
sight- seers. Two sides of this exquisitely furnished pavilioa were filled
by a number of highly finished automatic machines for making parts of
watches. The various stages through which the different parts were
tjiken were explained t)y expert young ladies, who seemed to have
their knowledge literally at their fingers' ends, and their lucid explana-
tions were of the greatest interest to all around them. In operation

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were a vibrator and accessory instruments for timing hairsprings and
balances; a staff machine for making balance staffs completely finished;
a pinion-cutting machine operating on eight pinions at the same time;
a drilling and tapping machine; a pinion polisher, which is a compound
wigwag machine; a machine for squaring barrel arbors; a screw-mak-
ing machine; a minute pinion machine; a screw-polishing machine;
and a demagnetizing apparatus with an alternating electric current.
All this complicated and highly finished machinery was automatic,
the different movements positive, and the capacity for doing work
wonderful. One operator can attend to four machines and accomplish
the work of a dozen or more of the most expert workmen by the old
methods.

These beautiful machines, constructed with so much ingenuity, so
accurately made and highly finished, with their automatic movements
so positive and effective, will leave a lasting and elevating impression
on the minds of thousands of skilled artisans who will speak of them
as the most interesting and wonderful of all the exhibits in the Expo-
sition. To the left, on entering the pavilion, was a handsome model
of the factory buildings at Waltham, made to a scale of 1 to 100, occu-
pying a space of about 4 by 10 feet in area. Inside of the pavilion
another view of the automatic machines could be obtained, as they were
open to inspection on all sides. The product of the factory in 1873
was about 367 movements per day, the product of one day in 1893 by
3,000 operatives, was shown in large glass cases, and consisted of 2,000
movements, from the smallest to the largest, from the cheapest to the
most expensive. In a separate case was a line of movements with the
upper plate and balance cock made of rock crystal, showing great skill
in lapidary work. A watch having the case and upper plate made of
rock crystal, and the lower plate of variegated agate with jewels
inserted in the usual way was a great novelty. While we were inspect-
ing its skillful construction it suddenly blazed forth with light, show-
ing minutely all its interior construction, producing a remarkable
effect; the watch being nearly transparent was suddenly illuminated
by an incandescent electric light beneath it, which rather upset our
long-fixed ideas in regard to the manner a respectable watch should
behave itself. A display of mainsprings, tempered so as to have one
side harder than the other, thus imparting peculiar qualities of
increased resilient power and elasticity, was of great interest. It is
difiScult to realize that such a treatment should impart such remarka-
ble qualities to springs, until one sees them coiled one way and then
coiled in a reverse direction, when the difference is plainly apparent.
An exhibit of watch dials also showed the progress made in their
maaufacture.

The Breguet form of hairsprings used are constructed by a new
method. The last turn of the spring is coiled around a solid core or

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''former," upon which the proper shape is given to the overcoil, and
then hardened and tempered before being removed from the ''former,"
thus giving to every spring a uniform shape and isochronism that had
previously been determined by experiment.

A case of balances showed beautiful workmanship, also an assort-
ment of jewels in intermediate stages of manufacture. A collection
of 625 antique watches, belonging to Mr. Evan Roberts, of Manches-
ter, England, showing the progressive improvements made from the
beginning of the art, was of exceeding interest. Many of them were
once owned by the most eminent and celebrated persons in England
during the past three centuries; 12 of them were for more than a
century part of the famous Koskell collection in Liverpool. A metal-
cased alarm watch that belonged to King Jamej> 1 was made by David
Ramsey, London, about 1610. Oliver Cromwell's silver-cased alarm
watch was made about 1648 by Bokel, London. John Milton's silver-
cased watch, with raised points on the dial by which the blind poet
ascertained the time, was made about 1660 by Bouguet, London.

Sir Isaac Newton's astronomical watch, with a shell-enameled case,
was made in the seventeenth century by Girod, Paris. King George
III, a cyclometer used on his carriage to measure distances traveled,
was made by Gout, London. Robert Burns's watch, in three metal
cases, was made in 1771 by Fowles, Kilmarnock A silver-cased wateh
presented by Lord Nelson to Captain Rose was made by Delornie,
Paris. Queen Elizabeth's metal and enameled-case watch was made
by Jeubi, Paris, in the sixteenth century. William of Orange, a
shell-cased watch, silver mounted, was made by Saville, London, 1656.
John Calvin's hour-striking watch, in a metal-gilt oval cAse, was made
in the sixteenth century. John Bunyan's watch, with seconds hand
on plate, was made by Filter, London, sixteenth centurj\ Lady Jane
Grey's silver-cased watch, with enameled dial, was made by Channes,
sixteenth century.

The principal makers of London, Paris, Geneva, Vienna, Liverpool,
and other cities were represented in the different constructions, which
ranged from a watch with a horsehair balance spring and catgut for a
chain to those of Ernshaw & Arnold; repeaters, alarms, and musical
watches were numerous, and the enamel work on the c«ases was some-
thing very remarkable, as also the magnificent repousse work on the
22-karat gold cases.

Tiffany & Co.: In the great Tiffany exhibit was a display of 19
watches, 17 and 19 lines, in gold cases, with gold and enameled dials,
all in the highest style and finish and variety of design in casing; the
casings, with invisible hinges and other artistic work, were particularly
remarkable; 5 mmute repeaters and 5 five-minute repeaters, 17 to 19
lines; 4 split-second chronographs, and 13 ladies' watches, all showing
great care and good principles in their manufacture. Small ladies'

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watches, from 8 to 12 lines, had their cases highly decorated with beau-
tiful designs in diamonds, rubies, pearls, and enamels. A watch in the
form of a red enameled strawberry, set with diamonds and green enam-
eled leaves, was a gem; one in blue enamel with an urn in diamonds,
another in emeralds and pearls, and another a 10-line open-faced, moon-
stone Cupid and dove with ribbon and flower of diamonds, particularly
attracted attention, being exquisite in design and workmanship. A
globe clock, supported by a circular temple with twelve columns, was
a very interesting piece of mechanism. The globe, about 14 inches in
diameter, was made of silver, having on it a map of the world in deli-
cate blue enamel; the equator was a silver band with the twenty-four
houra engraved upon it, so that the time at any part of the world
could easily be seen; revolving around the globe was a small sphere
representing the moon, showing its phases; other arrangements showed
the declination of the sun north and south of the equator, and various
other astronomical phenomena, all being operated by mechanism in
the temple-like base. An astronomical hall clock, showing the rela-
tive positions of the sun and moon as seen from the earth, the seasons
of the year, positions of the fixed stars, the hours of right ascension
of the sun and moon, the tides, etc. A mantle clock, with Westmin-
ster chimes, in an ebony case, with Labrador spar dial, and a skeleton
clock in a gilt and glass case, with Westminster and Whittington
chimes, the open work showing the interior of the movement. An
astronomical hall clock in a Louis XV case, standing 8 feet high, had
twenty -five silver and enameled dials. On the upper dial the sun and
moon were shown in their apparent positions; below, in a line with the
horizon, was a repi-esentation of the sea, indicating the tides at all
hours; then two dials, the right one a pei-petual calendar, with the
signs of the zodiac, the month, the date of the month, day of the week,
leap year, and anno Domini; the other one, on the left, was a disk
divided into twenty-four parts (meridian) and degrees east and west from
Greenwich. On this dial thirty-one of the principal cities of the world
were marked, with the time of day or night indicated by the Roman
numerals marked on the main dial outside of the revolving disk at each
place. Above these, two small dials indicated the year of Independ-
ence and the Julian period; on the main dial were five other dials,
indicating, respectively, the equation of time, or diflference between
the sun and mean time; the chronological cycles, one having the golden
numbers and the epact, and the other the dominical lettera and sun
cycle. The remaining dials showed the local time, Washington time,
Greenwich time, the declination by degrees north and south of the
sun, and the declination of the moon; one of the wheels governing
the latter make one revolution in nineteen years.

H. Conant, Pawtucket, R. I. : This eminent astronomer and math-
ematician made an exhibit of five very complicated astronomical clocks;

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two made by Tiffany & Co. and the others by E. Howard & Co., from
calculations and constructions furnished by himself. They were of
great interest, particularly so to persons who had some knowledge of
astronomy. An isochronal clock, with four pendulums, was a very
complicated piece of mechanism, and required a careful examination
to understand it^s working, and must have required a great amount of
mental application to bring it to such a state of perfection. A differ-
ential clock, showing the difference between solar and sidereal time,
the course of the equinoxes, etc., described as follows:

This clock has been in operation more than four years, and is a duplex differential
instrument. Duplex, because it is composed of two separate, independent clock
movements, each of which will run of itself, as it has a w^eight and pendulum of its
own, whether ite fellow is in motion or not. It is differential because the two move-
ments are so connei'ted to a third train that a difference in their rates of speed
induces motion in this thini train, which records said difference second by second
a^ fast as any is established. The dials are three in number, and are furnished with
hands for marking hours, minutes, and seconds. There is a supplementary hand to
represent the moon in its mean right ascension. This dial shows at a glance the rela-
tive positions of the heavenly bodies, and is really a map of the northern celestial
hemisphere. It locates the points of the vernal and autumnal equinoxes, and marks
the summer and winter solstices, and always shows the absolute difference between
solar and sidereal time, and therefore the constant right ascension of the mean sun.

The other clocks also showed a great amount of labor and thought
in inventing their mechanical construction to produce the results
required, and all together reflect great credit upon the assiduous, per-
severing, and gifted astronomer who brought them into existence.

Waterbury Watch Company": The principal attraction in this exhibit
was the century clock, which gave movement to a large number of
automatics figures as working at their factory in Waterbury; also
showing the primitive methods of old-fashioned watchmaking and
other industries. The display of this company was very comprehen-
sive, showing fully the duplex Waterbury watch, known all over the
world as one of the lowest-priced productions now made to keep
approximate time. Their latest productions are superior in quality
to those first made, and can be wound in the usual length of time.
The output is about 800 watches per day with 500 operatives.

The Ansonia Clock Company: This company claims to be the most
extensive manufacturer of clocks in the world. It gives employment to
1,800 people, and its product ranges from the cheapest nickel clocks to
the most expensive regulators and artistic timekeepers incased in
onyx and gilded bronze. The very large display of clocks showed a
great improvement in artistic forms for cases and movements of good
qualit}^ over those in common use a few years ago, and at such mod-
erate prices that everybody now can have a reliable and artistic time-
piece. It was surprising to see how the desire for the beautiful in
clock cases has been developed and adapted to movements of moderate

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cost within the last ten years, and the price at which they are sold will
let them into all markets. The arrangement of this exhibit deserves
a special notice, as it was all that could be wished for by anyone
desirous of thoroughly examining the different styles and qualities of
the goods manufactured by this company. An open court surrounded
by little pavilions and high cases containing the different styles of
clocks, and a pyramidal display, through the middle of the court, of
their most elegant productions, made it one of the most attractive
exhibits in the building.

Self -Winding Clock Company: The most conspicuous exhibit of
this company was the tower clock in the center of the manufactures
building. The tower was 160 feet high, 45 feet square at the base, and
beautiful in design and construction. It was furnished with mechan-
ism for striking the hours and quarters and opei*ating the hands on
four 7-foot dials, 70 feet high from the floor, and a chime of nine bells
weighing over 14,000 pounds. The hammers that struck the bells were
raised by "sucking magnets." The large solenoids that surrounded
the plungers could be operated by a 110 or a 220 volt current; the
electrical contacts necessary were made by the clock and also by an
operator at a keyboard. This arrangement was veiy successful in
striking the hours and playing the chimes. The hands were turned
by a small electric motor fixed level with the center of the dials and
connected with an ordinary open-circuit battery controlled by a relay
operated by a master clock situated in the pavilion 150 feet from the
tower, by which every minute an electric current was sent to the
motor in the clock tower, causing the hands to move forward one
minute. The keyboard by which the chimes were played by an operator
was also in this pavilion. In the elaborately constructed and beau-
tiful pavilion was a very interesting and complete exhibit of all the
apparatus used in the system of the company, such as master clocks,
various movements showing the construction and theory of the self-
winding and synchronizing apparatus, and a tableful of apparatus ased
by the Western Union Telegraph Company in sending out the time.
Many advantages are claimed for this system, and judging by its
successful operation it is all that is claimed for it. The master clock
in the pavilion synchronized 200 self-winding clocks throughout the
Exposition . The Naval Observatory at Washington furnishes the exact
time, and the Western Union Telegraph Company forwards it to every
part of the country. Three minutes before noon all general business
is stopped and direct communication made with the observatory.
Precisely at 12 o'clock a single electric impulse announces the time all
the way to the Pacific coast, and as our country is divided into belts of
15*^, or one hour each, exact time is furnished to all master clocks with-
out any calculations being necessary. The master clocks then syn-
chronize all the clocks that may be electrically connected with them.

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Over 2,000 clocks are thus kept to correct time in Chicago and 15,000
in all pails of the United States.

In self-winding clocks there is an ordinary tmin from the center
wheel to the escapement. Ai ound the <5enter- wheel arbor is a spring
about one-fourth of an inch wide and 6 feet long; its inner end is
fastened to the arbor and its outer end to a spring barrel, which
rotates freely on the arbor and is geared to a motor by an intermediate
wheel and pinion. As the center wheel, driven by the unwinding of
the spring, makes one revolution it brings up a loose arm carried on
the center arbor until it closes the electric circuit; then the actiofi of a
little motor rotates the barrel containing the spring one revolution,
winding up just as much of the spring as has been required to run the
,clo!ck during the last hour. This action is repeated every hour. As
a result of the frequent winding and reduction of friction it is claimed
that the power required to run a clock on this s\\stem is only one
forty-sixth part of that used in ordinary clocks. Two Leclanche cells
furnish the electro-motive force.

Bundy Manufacturing Company, time recorders: In the beautiful
pavilion of this company were a large number of clocks for recording
a workman's time. On his entering the oflice he takes a key with his
number off a rack, inserts it in the clock, and thus records the time he
entered; with the same key he records the time of leaving and replaces
the key on the first rack. The system worked in a very satisfactory
manner, and no doubt will be very useful in recording the numl^er
of hours between the time of his entering and leaving the office. In
one corner of the pavilion was suspended in the air a plate of glass
about 3 feet square having on it a dial and two hands; the minute and
hour hands could be freely whirled around by the attendant's finger,
and 3'et, after a short time, the hands would settle to a position show-
ing the correct time. It excited considerable curiosity and mystified
all who saw it. In all probability a watch movement was concealed
in the short end of each hand and made so that it would revolve on its
center pinion, the end of the pinion being fastened to the hand, the
movement in the minute hand making a complete revolution around
its center pinion in one hour. In the hour hand the movement would
turn completely around its center pinion in twelve hours. At 12
o'clock the heavy side of each movement would be at the extreme end
of the short arm of each hand; at quarter past 12 the movement in the
minute hand will have turned 90^ and the hand will be balanced or in
a horizontal position; at half past 12 the heavy side of the movement
will be at its nearest point toward the center pivot on which the hands
are mounted, and consequentl}' the long end of the hand will be the
heaviest and point to half past 12. Thus the movements by the
power of their mainsprings will have the position of their center of
gravity moved toward and from the pivot on which the hands revolve.

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knd thus make the hands turn gradually around, keeping approxi-
mate time.

The Newman Clock and Manufacturing Company made a large
exhibit of clocks specially made for factories, offices, etc., to record
the rounds and presence of watchmen at certain localities. They were
well made and capable of giving satisfaction in theii' performance.
Small rudely constructed wall clocks with wooden wheels, a crown or
esctapement wheel, a verge, and a balance consisting of a straight bar
with a weight hanging at each end, all made in the simplest manner
possible, were quite a curiositv, as they showed how the first clocks
with wheels were made, going back nearly a thousand years ago, long
before the pendulum was used. They cost but little, very little, and
would be an attractive piece of mechanism in any one's house.

H. Muhr's Sons, watch cases: This extensive establishment employs
over 600 workmen, and have an average output in gold, gold-filled,
silver, and nickel of 5,000 cases per week. In their pavilion about
500 designs in cases wfere exhibited, and they make them in over 2,000
different styles. They make three grades of cases; 14-karat, war-
ranted for twenty years, 10-karat for fifteen years, rolled plate and
raised gold cases with applied work in heavy gold on the oater side.
Their good workmanship and careful attention to details, elegant
designs with cheapness in price, place them in the front mnk in this,
industry. The stock they use in filled cases was shown having a center
of case metal with a plate of gold hard soldered on each side and then
rolled into proper shape, showing that the cases were really plate work
and not simply heavily gilded.

The Keystone Watch Case Company: This company had an elegant
pavilion, furnished in white and gold, near the center of the building.
The first attraction was a huge watch of good workmanship 4^ inches
wide and 7 inches high, having a solid silver case weighing 5 pounds
7 ounqes, containing an 18-size Elgin movement. The display of 14
and 10 karat gold cases, gold-filled cases, silver and nickel cases, was
very extensive, showing the complete manner in which all their work
is made, and the artistic style adopted in all their different sizes and
qualities of cases. Gold-filled cases is an important invention of late
years and are used to a great extent. The company claims an output
of 2,000 cases per day with 1,750 operatives, and to be the largest
watch-case factory in the world. An exhibit of about 60 antique
watches was very interesting, showing the various forms, qualities,
and styles of workmanship in this art many years ago.

The Ray Watch Case Company: In this exhibit they did not display
a full line of goods manufactured by them, but principally to show
the perfection to which photominiature work on the inside of watch
cases and caps has attained. The photominiatures on the cases exhib-
ited were interesting specimens in this art, showing heads and groups

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of prominent and well-known people; in some instances the original
photographs and their reproductions on the cases were seen side by
side, showing the accuracy of the work. They also exhibited hand-
somely decorated cases with designs in raised gold, showing good work.

Washburn & Moen Manufacturing Company, Worcester, Mass. : A
very extensive exhibit was made by this company of mainsprings for
clocks and watches manufactured by their new methods. Prior to
1884 many attempts were made to make mainsprings from rolled wire,
but this class of stock was not adopted by any clock manufacturers
until 1885. About this time Mr. C. E. Terry, of the Terry Clock
Company, Pittsfield, Mass., concluded to adopt it, believing it would
make the best spring if properly made up. After many experiments
by the Washburn & Moen Manufacturing Company, they, in 1888,
started a clock-spring department, engaging with Mr. Terry to build
it up. At that time no clock company had adopted this class of springs
to any extent, but to-day there is no clock manufacturer in this country
but prefers the flat-wire spring to any other, and all have adopted it.
The flat-spring plant of the Washburn & Moen Compan}'^ is the largest
in the world, and the amount turned out greater than was ever befoi-e
produced in one place. These springs have been adopted for every
purpose where a clock spring can be used. The manager of one of
the largest dock manufactories lately stated that the W^ashburn &
Moen flat-spring wire had made the most complete and succe^ful
revolution of anything relating to clocks that he knew of, and that it
is astonishing how quickly it was done. In addition to the flat springs,
they make all kinds of clock and watch wire, such as clock pinion,
pendulum, balance shaft, hairspring, verge, bell, gong, and pallet
wire of charcoal and Bessemer grades, in all sizes. Their product of
penduliun-spring steel, some of which is one-fourth of an inch wide
by only 0.002 of an inch thick, tempered, polished, and bronzed, is
pronounced the best ever put upon the market. In our examination
we noticed particularly the peculiar fibrous nature and extreme elas-
ticity of the steel after being manufactured.

Nicholson File Company, Providence, R. I.: In the magnificent dis-
play of this company was a full line of files specially made for clock
and watchmaking, pivot, screw head,* burnishing, square, triangular,
needle, round, flat, and files specially made for filing up balance
wheels — in fact all the different kinds required in this industry. The
files are cut by machinery on the increment principle, and their fine
8-inch equaling file requires 424 blows to the inch, which, being
doubled, gives about 180,000 tooth points to the square inch of sur-
face and forms probably the finest file ever cut. The excellent quality
of thciije files are widely and favorably known, showing the surprising
progress made in this manufacture. The making of such small files is
a new industry in this country deserving extensive recognition and
support ^ ,

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SWITZERLAND.

The exhibits from this country were located on Columbian Avenue
and displayed in three pavilions. One was occupied by the Genevese
manufacturers, another by Patek, Philippe & Co., and the third by
the watchmaking centers of Le Locle, Chaux de Fonds, Neuchatel,
St. Smier, La Neuveville, Les Bois, La Ferriere, Les Brenets, Bienne,
Le Sentier, Renan, and Basel.

Watchmaking commenced in Geneva about the year 1587, but it i^s
claimed that there are two other places where first developed, the
mountains of Neuchatel and the Jura Vandois. It has gradually
increased and become a national industry, having an annual sale of
6,000,000 watches produced by 50,000 workmen. Their variety in
size and design amounts to thousands, comprising all gi^ades and from
the smallest gem watch to the most expensively decorated in jewels,
inclosing movements so wonderful and complicated in construction
that only persons with a thorough knowledge of the art have the
capacity to fully appreciate their great merits. Their exquisite
designs in casing, jewel incresting, engraving, and enameling are far
in advance of an}'^ other nation.

While looking over the exhibits we were so impressed with their
magnificence, artistic beauty, and great mechanical skill shown, that
only an attempt can be made in stereotyped expressions to give some
idea of them, for they baffle description, so far does language fail to
convey to the mind a knowledge of the beautiful that can only be
acquired through the sense of vision. Great attention is given to the
accurate performance of their watches, many of them being rated and
tested before being sent out to compete with watches of other makers
at the various trials at the observatories. It is somewhat a novelty to
see a watch selling at a moderate price accompanied by an observatory
certificate, but here we had them in abundance.

In regard to their immense progress in the past fifteen years, it will
be inquired, How has it been accomplished ? Nine watchmaking schools,
supplied with the latest chronometrical and mechanical improvements
under the teaching of their most expeit masters, contribute to the present
reputation of their productions. Probably the first of these is the
school at Geneva, where a complete course of practical and theoretical
instruction extends over five yeare, to which pupils come from all parts
of the world. In connection therewith, a special school has recently
been opened where mechanics are practically taught through a course
of three years. First year, lower division, work without the aid
of machinery; second year, middle division, work with the aid of
machinery; third year, upper division, instruments of great precision.
Theoretical instruction is given simultaneously in chemistry, physics,
technical drawing, and mathematics.

At the observatories in Geneva and Neuchatel the different makers

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can have their watches subjected to trials in heat and cold, in different
positions, and for isochronism, and are given certificates according to
their performance. At the (ieneva Observatory a watch to be tested
in the highest or first class 4ias to undergo a severe ordeal, and no
watch can obtain a certificate unless it faithfully performs in all the
stipulated conditions. About two 3'ears ago this observatory imposed
more severe conditions, and, according to the reports issued by foreign
observatories, none can approach the marvelous results now obtained
at the Geneva chronometer competitions, and recorded annually in
the report of the Geneva Society of Arts. Their horological societies
are very active, always discussing and examining any new improve-
ments in the construction of watches, and receive the aid of their com-
mercial and scientific institutions and periodical publications, all
combining to advance and perfect their knowledge in this art.

Patek, Philippe & Co. : The productions of this firm, as displayed
in all the great expositions, have been of a very high character, always
securing the highest awards, receiving at Paris in 1889 the grand prize
and other honors. At the Geneva Observatory, m 1893, out of 49
awards to different makers, 20 were given to this firm, who also
obtain there every year the first prizes at the yearly timing compet-
itive trials. The use of machinery in making interchangeable and
other parts is carried as far as possible, and the most skilled artists
are secured to fill the various positions of adjusting, escapement mak-
ing, jeweling, engraving, enamel painting, case making, and all the
other departments where great personal ability is required. All this
display has a special, highly artistic character, which could be seen at
a glance. This, combined with the best principles of construction, great
attention to details, high finish, and accurate performaTice, has given
this firm a richly deserved and world-wide reputation. As Mr. G. M.
Rouge, one of the partnera in this house, was a member of the inter-
national board of judges, this display was, according to custom, ''hors
concours," and did not appear in the list of awards. In an elegant
pavilion was displayed nearly 300 watches and movements, embracing
all their calibers from 6 to 20 lines in size. Among them were 4 chrono-
graphs, 16 to 19 lines in size; 8 split seconds, 16 to 19 lines; 4 split
seconds, repeating hours, quarters, and minutes, with perpetual calen-
dars, 16 to 19 lines; 5 repeating hours and every 5 minutes, 14 to 19
lines; 12 repeating hours, quarters, and minutes, 9 to 19 lines. The
9-line repeater is said to be the smallest minute repeater ever made, a
10-line minute repeater being the smallest exhibited at Paris in 1889.
A superbly finished tourbillon, with chronometer escapement and
independent seconds with superimposed train, were remarkable pro-
ductions. An open-face watch, 6 lines in diameter, with lever escape-
ment, was a marvelous chef d'ceuvre, showing the extreme limit in
smallness that has been attained in this class of watches.

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The 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14 line sizes with lever escapements
embraced a large number of highl}^ finished watches, having cases
decoi-ated with paintings on enamel of great artistic merit, diamonds,
rubies, pearls, etc., in such rich and elegant designs that a mere descrip-
tion of them here would fail to convey a correct idea of their great
elegance and exquisite workmanship. The chatelaines belonging to
the watches were also of the same high character in design and work-
tuanship. The 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, and 20 line watches, in great variety
of style and design in movements and cases, could only be fully appre-
ciated after a careful examination of their points of beauty and dura-
bility^. Eight of these watches had first-class certificates from the
Geneva Astronomical Observatory that showed some astonishing per-
formances in keeping time, two of them having gained the firet prize
at the Geneva Observatory competitive trials in 1892. The observa-
tory certificate for watch No. 91219, a 19-line ancre, gave as follows:

Temperature 140.88, vertical pendant up ,

Temperature. 16°. 40, vertical pendant right. .

Temperature, 15°. ?2. vertical pendant left

Temperature, 1^.20, horizontal dial up, cold. . .

Temperature. 12°.70, horizontal dial up ,

Tcijiperature, 33^.14, horizontal dial up, heat.,

Temperature, 120.42, horizontal dial down

Temperature, 12PM, vertical pendant up

Average of
5 days.

+8-.90
+4*. 78
+ 2.92
+ 1.64
+ 2.80
+ 1.84
+ 3.64
+ 3.94

Sum of
errors.

0.4
1.2
0.0
2.4
2.2
1.2
.8
.6

Mean variation of daily rate db0".22, compensation variation for 1°
C. db0'.04, all of which is certainly a wonderful perfonnance. A
17-line watch repeating the hours, quarters, and minutes with pusher
on the pendant, metal bell, gold antique open -face case, chased and
repouss6, double gold case representing the Elopement of Europa,
from a picture by S. Le Clerc, was a remarkable production. A very
curious and interesting exhibit of 17 antique watches from the collec-
tion of Mr. Amerigo Ponti was in the front case. Among them was a
movement in the shape of a cross inclosed in a crystal case. It had a
fusee and chain, but no hairspring or regulator, and was running.
This beautiful piece of mechanism was made by Jean Rousseau, great
grandfather of the famous philosopher, born 1606, died 1684, and is
mentioned in his will of May 13, 1684. Another watch with a balance
and hairspring in a tulip-shaped case, the sides being crystal, by the
same maker, was constructed during the latter part of his life. A
large watch with striking mechanism, "Nuremberg Egg," without
haii^spring, being regulated by means of pins, fusee with a string in
place of a chain, date about 1550, was a great curiosity. A frame
suspended in the pavilion contained 19 gold, 30 silver, and 16 bronze
medals, decorations of the Legion of Honor and from the Pope, that
. received awards for the excellence of their manufacture.
COL EXPO— 02 57

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Paul D. Nardin, Locle: A wat<*h very remarkable in appearance,
that was awarded the grand prize at Paris in 1889, first attracts atten-
tion in this exhibit. It had a double case, the inside one being gold
and the outer one of oxidized silver, containing a very high grade
20-line movement, repeater, split seconds, minute register, with a
first-class certificate from the Neuchatel Observatory. It was too large
to be carried, being 4:^ inches high by 3 inches broad and designed for
a presentation or souvenir watch. The art work on the outside of
the case was bold and grand in design and execution. On one side of
the case were two figures. Fame crowning Labor; on the other side a
representation of the industrial arts, with a bust of Minerva. The side
scrolls were surmounted by tigers' heads, and above these two infant
boys, all executed by chisel work in bas-relief and valued at J2,000.
Two superb marine chronometers elegantly cased, having a daily
variation of db OMl and db 0''.14, respectively, show the remarkable
degree of perfection that has been attained in this important industry
by this house. One of these is intended to be used wnth a pen chrono-
graph, to register seconds by electricity, the chronometer being con-
structed so as to make electrical contacts every .second. In a report
of the Neuchatel Observatory we find that in a trial of 12 chronome-
ters of this kind the mean difference between their general dail}^ rates
and that shown by them when establishing an electric current every
second was only 0".22, and for several of them the difference was
imperceptible. A remarkably successful solution of this problem in
mechanics. An improvement in winding chronometers, by which
they can be wound without turning them over and winding through
the back, is also of importance. Two tourbillon watches, having a
new winding system, were superb specimens of the finest workman-
ship. A collection of about two dozen watches with observatory
certificates, comprising repeaters of all kinds, split seconds with
minute registers, and perpetual calendars, and also plain time watches,
were of the highest class in manufacture, and reflect great honor upon
this house.

A. Golay-Leresche & fils, Geneva: In the front case of tne Geneva
pavilion was a displa}^ of about 300 of their most expensive, compli-
cated, and highlj' finished watches, comprising repeaters of all kinds,
split seconds, chronographs, independent seconds, and their various
combinations; tiny watches as small as 6 lines, in cases of many fanci-
ful designs, decorated all over with precious stones, painted enamels,
and engraving. It would be a diflicult ttisk to enumerate the great
merits of each individual piece and draw conclusions as to their rela-
tive merits, as all seemed so perfect in design, beauty, and mechanical
excellence, sustaining fully the reputation this house has had for the
past fifty years for the excellence of their productions, as attested by -
the many medals they have received from the great expositions. A

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small musical casket with a little watch in front, and decorated with
exquisite workmanship, was a surprising wonder. On touching a
spring its cover would suddenly open and a little singer with the
brilliant plumage of a humming bird would fly up, warble forth its
exquisite song with twittering bills and fluttering wings, as if it were
truly a living bird; then it would quickly disappear, and the cover
automatically close the casket. Value, $1,700. A lily about 3 inches
long, incrusted all over with diamonds, would, when its center was
touched, fall apart and disclose a wee watch. An old silver casket,
having on its sides a timepiece and five enamel paintings of great
merit, representing " Courtship," "Engagement," and "Marriage,"
was a superb piece of artwork, valued at $1,300. Prize medals at
Berne, 1857; London, 1851 and 1862; Melbourne, 1880; Paris, 1855,
1878, and 1889.

E. Wirth, Geneva, made a display of complicated watches of exceed-
ing merit, such as repeaters of all kinds, fly-back split seconds, chro-
nographs, independent seconds, and their various combinations; chro-
nometers with Geneva Observatory certificates, also watches with the
most artistic decorations in diamonds, pearls, rubies, and enamel
paintings on the smallest of fanciful cases. This is the old house of
Doufour & Co., who received the highest awards at Vienna, 1873;
Paris, 1878; Melbourne, 1881; and was^hors concours" at Paris,
1889, one of the firm being vice-president of the jury. They also
received the third prize at the Concours de Reglage in 1892.

L. Bachman, Geneva, successor 4jo Fritz, Piquet & Bachman, made
a very comprehensive exhibit of over 90 watches, man}'^ of them hav-
ing first-class certificates from the Geneva Observatory. Specially
noticeable were a lever watch with 42 jewels, split seconds, fly back,
and minute recorder; a lever watch with 36 jewels, minute repeater,
fly back, and split seconds, that took the prize at Geneva in 1890, and
a 31-jeweled lever, quarter repeater, with perpetual calendar. Then
followed an extensive line of repeaters, quarter and split seconds, fly
backs, astronomical and calendar watches, and very small watches in
flowers, insects, and fanciful cases, decorated with diamonds, rubies,
sapphires, pearls, etc., in the most exquisite designs; also chatelaines
of remarkable workmanship, designed in the style of the watches they
belonged to. Watches of great precision, and the various combina-
tions of repeaters, split seconds, perpetual calendars, etc., are a special
manufacture by this house. The following record taken from an
observatory certificate will show the accurate performance of one of
his watches: Pendant up, 5*.38; pendant right, 5".50; pendant left,
3'. 02; dial up, 5'.24; dial down, 5". 60; pendant up, 5". 02. Silver medal
at Paris, 1876; gold medal, Melbourne, 1880; diploma of honor,
Zurich, 1885; gold medal, Antwerp, 1885.

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Alcide Baume, Le Bois: This exhibit, although small in number,
was great in merit, showing the wonderful degree to which watches
have been perfected in correct timekeeping. A gold *'tourbillon"
chronometer, No. 103018, had a class A certificate from the Royal
Observatory at Kew, England, giving it 91.9 marks out of a maximum
of 100, and the indorsement "especially good." Its performance is
claimed to bo the nearest to perfection ever yet attained by any watch,
it having received the highest award ever granted by this observa-
tory. According to the certificate, its performance under the different
conditions to which it was subjected was as follows: Mean daily rate,
pendant up, 0".8; pendant right, 0*.6; pendant left, 0'.7; dial up, O'A;
dial down, 0'.2; mean variation of daily rate, 0".26; mean change of
rate for l'^ F., 0*.03; difference between extreme gaining and losing
rates, 2". 5; marks awarded for daily variation of rate, 34.8; for change
of rate with change of position, 39.3; for temperature compensation,
17.8; total, 91.9. A watch similar to the above had a class A Kew
certificjate with 87.5 marks and indorsed " especially good." An hour,
quarter, and minute repeater, split second, and minute-recording
chronograph, had a class A certificate with 70.2 marks. A highly
finished movement with a class A certificate had 81 marks. A split
second, minute-recording chronograph and a gold minute repeater
were also of high-class manufacture; also a variety of other movements,
some with class A certificates. Baume & Co. have held the first posi-
tion for complicated watches at the Kew Observatory since 1887, with
a split second, minute-recording chronograph which was awarded 85.1
marks and the indorsement ''especially good." Up to the present
time this has not been surpassed. This house has received medals
awarded for excellence of manufacture at all expositions in which
they participated. The general construction, finish, and performance
of these watches is very creditable and deserves the attention of all
who appreciate superior excellence in timekeeping.

Jules Alfred Jurgensen, Locle: The watches of this exhibit are of
the Jules Jiirgensen, Copenhagen, type of manufacture so well known
for the past fifty years, and now continued by his son at Locle. Ten-
minute repeaters are a new construction by this house; being the first
of this class ever made they attracted considerable attention as some-
thing unique. A twenty-four hour watch called " Cosmopolitan," had
two sets of hands, one set making a revolution in twelve hours and the
other in twenty-four hours. There were 32 watches with observatory
certificates, comprising plain lever, chronometers, repeaters, chrono-
graph with one-fifth second fly backs, split seconds with minute regis-
ter, and seconds with fifths of a second hand on same axis, all showing
that excellence with which this name has so long been associated. We
noticed that the long lever so characteristic of this watch from its
introduction is still retained.

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Zen tier freres, Geneva: This firm made a grand exhibit of compli-
cated watches, such as minute repeaters, fly -back split seconds, chrono-
gi-aphs and their complications, chronometers with certificates from
the Geneva Observatory, chatelaine watches, watches in finger rings,
and other fancifully designed cases, all highly decollated and incrusted
with diamonds, rubies, pearls, and painted enamels. The most atti*act-
ive was a 10-line lever with the dial partly surrounded by a crescent
of diamonds and a crescent of rubies; on the case was a Macaw formed
of diamonds, with ruby eyes, and gold feet and beak. A beautiful
scroll of diamonds and rubies formed the pin, and a chain suspending
the watch had alternate links of diamonds and rubies. A hairpin in
which a small watch movement caused a large diamond star to revolve
was a gorgeous piece of work. They were awarded at Vienna, 1873,
a medal for merit; Paris, 1878, a silver medal; Paris, 1889, a gold
medal; Geneva Astronomical Observatory, 23 medals, 4 of which were
first prizes; National Academy at Paris, 1884, a gold medal, and in
1890 diploma of honor: also at Paris, 1878 and 1889; Melbourne, 1881,
and Zurich, 1883.

Ernest Francillon & Co., St. Imier: With this firm we have another
grand prize at Paris in 1889, also a large number of medals attesting
to the excellence of their productions. They have had for a long time
a world-wide reputation with their "Longines" watches, which have
given such general satisfaction at a moderate price. They use auto-
matic machinery to a large extent in their factory, leaving only the
escapement to be made by hand, making their own cases in gold, sil-
ver, oxidized silver, oxidized steel, and enamels, decollated with pre-
cious stones. They are prominent among the most progressive manu-
facturers of Switzerland, and their products go everywhere. Their
exhibit of 16 and 18 line movements deserves much praise, and 2 large
gold watches bearing in colored enamels the coats of arms of the
Republic of Mexico, and the Argentine Republic, show their skill in
this kind of work.

Eugene Cl^mence-Beurret, Chaux-de-Fonds, made a great display
of exceedingly small watches in bracelets, in the form of swans, pad-
" locks, beetles, butterflies, and globes incrusted with diamonds, rubies,
pearls, and enamels, in the most artistic manner. A large number of
repeaters, split seconds with calendars, chronographs, and their com-
binations, plain time watches of all sizes and excellent manufacture,
with cases decorated in the highest style of the art, altogether mak-
ing a gorgeous and highly meritorious collection.

Maurice Ditisheim, Chaux-de-Fonds: An immense watch about 40
lines in diameter, with an exquisitely painted Limoges enameled dial,
made by Alfred Meyer, was a very novel production. The painting rep-
resented Venus crowning Saturn, the case being made of oxidized steel.
A magnificent display of all kinds of repeaters, some automatically

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striking the hours in passings split seconds, fly backs with calendars
and minute registers, watches from 12 to 20 lines with observatory
certificates, and also watches with automatic mechanical figures. A
large number of the most beautiful gem watches from 6 to 14 lines,
having lever and cylinder escapements and cases of the most unique
designs, profusely and artistically decorated with diamonds, rubies,
sapphires, pearls, and painted enamels, were a great attraction.

Piquet, Gruillaume & Co., Le Sen tier, made a small but very inter-
esting display of 5 of their superb, complicated watches of the highest
grade, such as a 17-line watch with a quarter-seconds recorder, split
seconds and minute recorder, and minute repeater. In their new
system the split seconds is isolated, so that it may not load the mechan-
ism when not in action. They are the sole makers of Piquet's split
and the lightning 4th and 5th split second and minute recorder, for
which they claim great merit. A 10-line split seconds and one-fourth
second was an exquisite piece of work; also other combinations of
repeaters striking automatically the hours in passing, perpetual calen-
dars, split seconds, and recorders.

Bor^ & Courvoisier, Neuchatel: In this exhibit were 65 watches
ranging from 10 to 20 lines in size, 18-line and 10-line movements
being a special manufacture, many of these having certificates from the
observatory at Neuchatel; repeaters automatically striking the houra
in passing, chronographs, calendar, and plain watches, a number of
chatelaine and other tiny watches, with cases beautifully decorat-ed.
A broaze medal from London, 1862; a bronze medal from Philadel-
phia, 1876; a gold medal from Paris, 1878, and a silver medal from
Chaux-de-Fonds, 1881, gave assurance of the high character of their
manufacture.

H. Redard & fils, Geneva: This house, founded in 1844, made a
magnificent display of 50 watches of excellent quality, comprising
repeaters of all kinds, split seconds, fly backs with and without per-
petual calendars, first -class watches with lever escapements, chrono-
graphs with minute recorder, and a large number of small watches in
fanciful cases and bracelets, decorated with diamonds, rubies, sapphires,
pearls, and painted enamels in the most exquisite styles attainable in
the art.

Jacoby & Co., Geneva, exhibited a collection of chronometers, hour,
quarter, and minute repeaters, chronographs, lever watches of the
best quality with first-class observatory^ certificates, 'sweep-second
watches and ladies' watches in great variety in bracelets and fancy
cases, also nonmagnetic watches for general use.

Paul Matthey-Doret, Locle: With all the watches made by this
house certificates of their rates of running are given, the trade-mark
is "• Maisonette." Something new in the way of an intermittent strik-
ing armngement was shown in a repeater, where the quarters striking

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 903

can be switched off. A 13-line repeater with elegant work, a chrono-
graph with one-fourth of a second hand, a repeater automatically
striking the hours in passing, and a number of large and small watches
of excellent construction and finish, were deserving of much praise.

C. Degallier, Geneva: A magnificent collection of chatelaine and
bijou watches, small watches in bracelets, tiny globes, and other fanci-
ful designs, all highly decorated with diamonds, rubies, sapphires,
pearls, and painted enamels in the most excellent workmanship, watches
of the highest quality with first-class observatory certificates, repeat-
ers, split second, fly backs, and other complicated watches, all showing
fiirst-class workmanship.

Marius Lecoultre, Geneva: In this exhibit were highly decorated
watches of great beauty with painted enamels, diamonds, rubies, and
pearls; chatelaine watches in the form of globed and other fanciful
designs, bracelets inclosing the smallest of watch movements; repeaters
of various constructions, split seconds, and a line of first-quality lever
watches. A special caliber of this maker has an independent center-
seconds provided with a double train which can be converted into a
fly-back chronograph. It is called an independent-seconds chrono-
graph and might be used to a great advantage in timing the speed of
horses. All this display fully sustains the reputation of this house
for the past fifty years for excellence of manufacture in productions
of the highest grades.

Louis Kozat, Chaux de Fonds: This house made a display of eight-
day watches, repeaters that strike automatically the hours in passing
and at will, chronographs with minute register, repeaters with chro-
nograph and minute register, and plain watches; also very small
watches, from 8 to 13 lines, with fanciful cases artistically and richl}"^
decorated with diamonds, enamels, and pearls. Having obtained twelve
consecutive Kew Observatory (class A) certificates is a guaranty of
the time-keeping qualities of his productions.

Droz-Jeannot fils, Brenets: In this exhibit were tourbillon watches
with fine chronometer escapements; fine chronometer movements with
first-class certificates from the Neuchatel Observatory; a line of move-
ments to fit American cases. Their movements were well jeweled,
having a jeweled barrel and an arrangement to prevent overwinding; a
number of sweep seconds, and other finely jeweled watches, showing
the excellent quality of their productions. They are the patentees of
a "jeweled stem-winding mechanism," which they showed in several
movements.

Z. Penenoud & fils, Chaux de Fonds: This was a collection of 18
exquisite gem watches, from 8 to 13 lines in size, with cases in different
styles, highly decorated with designs in diamonds, rubies, pearls, and
enamels; also watches very large in size, running eight da3\s, all show-
ing exceedingly fine workmanship and good principles of construction.

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Gindrat-Delachaux, Chaux de Fends, make a specialty of calendar
watches, showing the day of the week, of the month, and phases of the
moon through openings in the dial. Fifty watches, in 16, 17, and 18 line
sizes, showed the various grades characteristic of their man^^facture.

Arthur Graizely, La Ferriere, made an exhibit of 72 eight-day
watches in all styles and sizes. The lower part of the dials were cut
away, showing the movements of the balance. They are a specialty
with this house, and were very attractive.

G. Jeanneret &E.Vrocher, Chaux de Fonds: This was a remarkable
exhibit of complicated watches of all combinations, with observatory
certificates of their performance. A 14-line minute repeater, chiming
every quarter hour, was a gem in horology; a 20-line minute repeater,
with chronograph and perpetual calendar, chimed every quarter hour;
a 20-line minute repeater, with automantons, watches in very small
globes, and a number of very small bijou watches, decorated with
enamels and pearls, all showing extiuordinary skill and talent in this
diflScult kind of work.

P. Prunner-Gabus, Locle, exhibited a 20-line watch with chronome-
ter escapement, and having 53 ruby and 2 sapphire jewels. All the
screws in the bridges and pillow plate, and screws for the jewels,
were capped with rubies. This work gave rather a pretentious appear-
ance to the movement, but showed the extent to which the skill of a
lapidary can go. The first impression was that the whole screw was
made of a ruby, thread and all, but upon a close inspection it could
be seen that the inibies were coverings cemented on the heads of ordi-
nary screws.

Albert Jeanneret & freres, St. Imier: In this display a beautifully
engraved case had on one side the arms of the United States in col-
ored enamel, and an oxidized silver case with gold lions rampant,
bearing between them a shield, were highly artistic pieces of work;
a large number of watches of various grades and constructions, from
the cheapest to the most expensive, from the smallest to the largest,
and a line of lever watches showed good workmanship.

Weill & Co., Chaux de Fonds, showed 37 watches, embracing split
seconds and other complicated mechanisms, some of them having
seven small dials about the size of an ordinary seconds dial painted on
a large dial, so as to show the time at London, Paris, St. Petersburg,
Chicago, Washington, Calcutta, and San Francisco. The work was well
made, and their constructions will give satisfaction to their customers.

Ch. Couleru-Meuri, Chaux de Fonds, made a display of 38 calendar
watches, having dials elaborately ornamented with colored enamels,
the most of them 18 lines, cased in silver and oxidized steel, to be sold
at a low price, also 3 veiy large watches, 36 lines, about 3 inches
in diameter. A very useful watch for the blind was shown. It had but
one hand and a nickel dial, and had 12 projecting pins, one at each

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hour. At a particular hour a corresponding pin would drop and the
hour known by the absence of a pin.

Wuilleumier f reres, Renan, exhibited self-winding watches in great
variety, cased in gold and silver. They were wound up by the act of
walking about fifteen minutes. They were constructed on the well-
known pedometer principle, invented more than a hundred years ago,
but now their manufacture being revived they are quite a novelty.

Fritz Chatelain, Neuchatel, manufactures watch cases that contain
pedometers. They can be carried in the vest pocket, and by means of
his patent regulating wheel record the exact distance, it is claimed,
traveled when walking. They appear to be well made and will approxi-
mate exactness in their performances.

Albert Ditisheim & f reres, St. Imier, made an exhibit of gold and
silver 18-line lever watches with calendar and moon's phases; also 14
and 16 line watches and chronographs, all well made.

Droz & Co., St. Imier, displayed large and small watches, some
with sweep seconds, all good work. They received silver medals at
Paris 1889, Antwerp 1886, Amsterdam 1883, Chaux de Fonds 1881,
Paris 1878.

Fr. Vilingelf uss, Basil, exhibited watchmen time detectors that were
well made and capable of rendering good and efficient service.

F. Borgel, Geneva, had something new in his waterproof cases made
in a single piece without hinges; many of them were made of oxidized
steel inlaid with gold. A number of the smallest watches made, beau-
tifully decorated with diamonds and enamels, in small globes, brace-
lets, and chatelaines were very attractive and showed great skill in this
most delicate department of watchmaking.

J. Ferrero, Geneva: A 7-line watch with its back entirely covered
with a single diamond valued at $1,300 was a very unique production.
It was truly brilliant all over, and attracted general attention by its
wonderful beauty. A large number of exquisitely ornamented oases
in enamels with portraits and landscapes showed artistic work of the
highest grade, and fanciful cases incrusted and decorated with magnifi-
cent designs in diamonds, rubies, pearls, and enamels made a grand
display.

Fred-Julien Sagne, La Neuveville: Conspicuous in this display was
a large lever watch, fully jeweled with very large jewels, the screw
heads being capped with jewels, making it a very showy and expensive
movement. Minute repeaters, split seconds, chronographs, calendars,
and plain watches with observatory certificates were all of good con-
struction and finish.

A. Glaton, Geneva: This was a collection of the very smallest
watches, having cases most elaborately decorated with exquisite designs
in diamonds, rubies, sapphires, pearls, and enamels, showing great
talent and skill in this most difficult kind of work.

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Ch. Dufaux, (leneva, is celebrated for his most exquisiteW made
balance spring'sof <UhA and palladium. Here 48 of them were arranged
in the form of an immense balance spring. All the forms, from the
smallest to the largest, of flat spiml, helical or cylindrical, globular,
and double cone, made with the highest degree of skill and care, were
arranged in elegant designs. Twenty medals attest to the great merit
of his manufacture.

Ulysse Perret, Kenan, had a complete line of mainsprings of all
kinds and sizes displayed in the design of a lyre, his trade-mark. His
springs are made in precise metrical lengths, needing no fitting by a
workman. His invention of a stay clasp spring in one piece does away
with other methods using an additional ))iece. This house claims to
be the only maker in Switzerland employing stc^am power and mechan-
ical processes in making mainsprings. None but skilled labor is
employed, using stock possessing all the required qualities of elastic-
ity, strength, and regularity. All of hih productions are of the firet
class in quality, regularity, and finish. Was awarded a medal at
Paris, 1889.

C. & E. Leisenheimer, Geneva, displayed mainsprings, from the
smallest to the largest, of excellent quality, showing great care and
skillful workmanship in regard to elasticity, strength, and regularity
in thickness and width.

A. Herzog, Geneva, made an elegant display of mainsprings of all
sizes and forms, of the best quality, and highly finished work, ari-anged
in designs of a lyre, and a clock and a compass, dials with letters and
figures formed of many small, tightly coiled springs. This house
was established in 1840, and it is statt^d that out of 48 watches admitted
to the Geneva Observatory trials in 1892, 40 had Herzog springs. He
has been awarded prizes at Paris, London, Philadelphia, Vienna,
Lyons, and Zurich.

C. A. Milliet, Geneva, exhibited mainsprings of all sizes, in elegant
designs, showing the great skill and care used by this maker in all the
details required in making such perfect productions.

Chr. Schweingruber, St. Imier: This display of mainsprings and
hairsprings of all sizes was arranged in beautiful designs, and showed
the degree of perfection arrived at in the quality of his productions.
This house, established in 1866, has a yearly output of 180,000 dozens
of mainsprings, made by 80 workmen.

Boulanger, Maillard & Co., Geneva, made a beautiful display' of
watch dials enameled by the B. V. J. process, variously decorated dials
in underglaze enamels of a superior quality, plain dials, and for chrono-
graphs and calendars, all showing accurate work.

Mot6 & M^roz, Geneva: This display was of dials of the greatest
excellence, showing execution of the highest order in the art. Enam-
eled dials with exquisitely applied mised gold were something splendid.

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They have medals from expositions at Paris, Philadelphia, London,
Vienna, Melbourne, Berne, Zurich, and Besanpon.

J. Wyss fils, Chaux de Fonds, made a grand exhibit of enameled
dials in novel styles and designs, embracing underglaze, ivory, and
transparent dials of all colors, and the finest quality of plain work.
This art appeal's to be about as near perfection as the requirements
of the trade demand. There seems to be a tendency to overdecoration
with colors, which may be attractive to some buyers, but it gives the
impression to people of good taste that the dials cover movements of
inferior quality.

Grobet freres, Vallorbes: In a very large wall case were displayed
in various designs files of all kinds, from 1 inch to 2 feet in length,
of every required shape, and for special purposes. They are the
largest manufacturers of files in Switzerland, were established in 1834,
and their reputation for making files and gravers of the highest excel-
lence is worldwide. ^

Vautier & fils, Geneva: Everyone who has handled files and gravers is
familiar with this stamp. Their exhibit in an upright case embraced
in artistic designs all the known forms of files and gravers from the
smallest to the largest used in watch making, and the large number of
medals awarded to them by the great expositions shows the great merit
of their productions.

J. -Marc Servet, Geneva: A very fine and tastefully arranged dis-
play in an upright case of a complete assortment of files of all shapes
and kinds for watchmakers' use was very attractive, and showed the
excellence of his manufacture, which is attested by a large number of
medals awarded for their merit.

Borloz & Noguet-Borloz, Vallorbes: In a wall case about 50
square feet of surface was covered, in handsome designs, with files of
all shapes, sizes, and fineness of cutting, expressly adapted to all the
wants of clock and watch makers. Something new was shown in small
files for the most delicate use. They were not cut, but their abrasive
surfaces were so prepared as to show a very fine grain, which in some
kinds of work would be ver}'' convenient, as they leave a kind of
finished surface.

L.-E. Junod, Lucens, had a very extensive and interesting exhibit
of jewels for watches and chronometers, hole jewels, cap jewels, jewels
for duplex, chronometer^ and other escapements, all made in the most
perfect manner possible in the art. As many of them were micro-
scopic in character, but few people could appreciate the wonderful skill
displayed in their manufacture.

Wagnon freres, Geneva: Arranged in many elegant designs were
exhibited the most exquisite and delicate watch hands possible to be
made — gold, silver, steel, oxidized and jeweled — and their combina-
tions from the very smallest second hand to the largest used in split

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seconds. The many beautiful forms, accui'ate workmanship, and
artistic skill shown in their constiniction were a source of wonder. Few
people are aware of the great difference in the quality of watch hands.
They stamp the quality of the watch. As soon as an expert looks at
the hands and dial he knows in advance the grade of movement he will
see when the case is opened.

Kichardet, Chaux de Fonds, manufacturer of watch hands of all
descriptions, made a ver}' creditable display of this most delicate
work, beautifully made in form and finish, suitable for all kinds of
watches.

P. Guye & Co., Geneva: Anunged in beautiful designs were balance
springs for watches, of all sizes, from the smallest, which could only
be appreciated by being seen under a microscope, to the largest used.
Little is known of the extremely delicate touch and skill required to
place the smallest of these properly in a watch. Placed on a piece of
white paper, one intended for a six-line watch would look to an ordi-
nary person like a dark speck or stain, and to place one of this size
properly in a watch costs $20,

Bartimi & Co., Bienne, made a large display of exquisitely made
balance springs, from the smallest to the largest sizes in the different
forms used — cylindrical, spiml, globular, etc. In late years there has
been a marvelous improvement in this industry, particularly in the
exquisite finish on all sides given to the springs, which, from their
delicate construction, would seem almost an impossibility.

Tschumi fils, Geneva, made a display of their admirable work in
brushes specially made for watch and clock makers. This branch of
brush making requires particular care and skill, which was shown in
their meritorious wofk.

GERMANY.

From this country there were 44 exhibits in this group. In the
watch-making industry there has been a remarkable improvement.
Their two exhibits showed progress in the high grade of complicated
watches which have only in late years been put upon the market,
showing that a technical education in horological schools is bringing
forth more skillful artisans.

The clock industry also has made progress in more artistically
designed and constructed cases, as well as movements. The products
of the Black Forest district were shown by many makers, and a noted
improvement in their workmanship since their display at Vienna in
1873 was plainl}^ to be seen. In some of the work of their best makers
an approach to the finest class of French manufacture was apparent,
and the efforts in new principles of construction give evidence that
their brains are actively at work in invention. Wall clocks, mantel
clocks, and hall clocks, from the most elaborate and costly in design

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 909

and execution to the cheapest grades, were a veiy fair exhibit of the
state of the art and the character of their products.

Durrstein & Co., Dresden: This exhibit of the characteristic Glas-
huette manufacture comprised plain and complicated watches in cases
of different designs and sizes; one specially grand was marked sold at
5,000 marks (about $1,250). It was a minute repeater, with four small
dials on the large one, self -striking as it passed each hour, split seconds
and fifths of a second, perpetual calendar, moon's phases, two second-
hands on the same axis, one showing fifths of a second and going
around sixty times in a minute, while the other made one revolution
in a minute. The fifths of a secondhand could be stopped, and is a fly-
back. All the ten hands can be set without opening the case. Also
showed self-striking and minute and quarter striking repeaters, chro-
nographs, and well-constructed time watches made after the Glashuette
caliber; watches with projecting pins at the hours made specially for
the blind; cases with designs in colored gold; monograms in silver
and yellow gold; also decorated with diamonds, enamels, paintings,
engravings, and repouss^ work.

A. Lange & S5hne, Glashuette, have made an advance on their usual
manufacture of twenty years ago in producing complicated watches,
such as split seconds, repeaters, etc., all good work, and upon new
principles of construction. The individual parts of their watches
were shown, so that they could be thoroughly examined. An appa-
tus for ascertaining the compensating power of balances in heat and
cold was a very ingenious construction and extremely delicate in its
performance. Their exhibit of plain watches, for which they have had
a wide reputation for many yeai's, had their usual careful workmanship
to insure good time-keeping qualities. A split-seconds and minute
repeater, with calendar and moon's phases, with a certificate from the
Leipzig Observatory, valued at $1,200, was an admirable piece of work.
A quarter repeater, with improved construction in winding work, and
a tourbillion with chronometer escapement, were beautiful and ailistic
constructions; quarter and minute repeaters of excellent workmanship.
A calendar watch wound up by the act of walking, and also wound and
set by the pendant, was a new production; also ladies' watches in differ-
ent styles. Their case contained many medals awarded to them at
the great expositions.

Gustav Speckhardt, Mogeldorf : In the German Government build-
ing was a large clock, 16i feet high, containing 13 large clock move-
ments to givemotion to its different parts, 2 for the time and striking
hours ai\d quarters, 1 for making music, 1 for the clock, and the
others for giving motion to the groups and single figures. The cock
crows morning and evening, an angel with a hammer strikes the
hours, and Death, with a bone, the quarters, followed by a chiming of
bells. A group of figures comes on the stage each hour and play

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music suitable to the scenes to be enacted — the entrance of Christ
into Jerusalem, the Last Supper, the scene at the Mount of Olives,
the St^ourging, Christ before Pilate, the Way to the Cross, the
Crucifixion, and the Resurrection. The case was ornamented with
rich carvings and many figures of persons in the Old and New
Testaments, altogether showing an immense amount of patience and
ingenuity in its construction.

Bavarian Ludwig pavilion: In this pavilion was a large bronze elk
supporting a square tower containing a clock on his back; on the case
at each of its four corners were mermaids, and on the side of the elk
hunting implements. This remarkable work of art was designed by
F. Gedon, of Munich. A table about 5 feet high, having legs carved
with highly artistic designs, supported a richly carved square-cased
clock; each side of the square contained a large dial; one of the dials
had on it smaller dials, showing the month, day of the month, day of
the week, and moon's phases; another dial had seven smaller dials show-
ing the time in seven of the principal cities of the world; another side
was occupied entirely with one dial having two hands to show the time.
The movement was made by R. Korfhage.

Sigmund Riefler, Munich, exhibited an absolutely free pendulum
escapement, with impelling action m the axis of oscillation; a mercurial
compensation pendulum, and an astronomical clock fitted with the
escapement and pendulum. A small turret clpck of beautiful work-
manship in which the escapement could be seen and its action under-
stood was also exhibited. From the advantages that he claims, and a
certificate of its remarkable performance from the Royal Observatory
at Munich, it is deserving of much consideration. The rod of the
pendulum is made of a steel tube with a bore of 16 millimeters; thick-
ness of its walls, 1 millimeter, filled with mercury about two-thirds of
its length; the metal bob, weighing seveml pounds, is lenticular in
shape. The pendulum is kept in motion by an ingenious escapement
that moves the point of suspension at every beat, so that it is claimed
to be an ''absolutely free" pendulum.

At the Vienna Exposition, in the exhibit of Samuel Kralik, of Pesth,
was a regulator with two glass tubes containing mercury for a pen-
dulum. The tubes vibrated upon a knife-edge adjusted about 6 inches
below the top of the mercurial columns. In the exhibit of Guilmet,
of Paris, was a clock that had a female figure standing on the top
of it with an arm extended upward holding suspended by her fingei's
a pendulum; by an imperceptible rotary movement to and fro of the
base on which the figure stood, caused by the escapement, th^ point of
suspension of the pendulum was moved at ever}- beat, and conse-
quently the pendulum continued in vibration, much to the wonder of
the lookers-on. So we had an "absolutely free" pendulum and com-
pensation by mercury in tubes composing the pendulum more than

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WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 911

twenty years ago. How far the interference in invention goes we
can not, from our limited remembrance, say.

Arndt & Marcus, Berlin: Conspicuous was a mantel clock, of onyx
with gilt ornaments and dial of onyx, about 18 inches high, the front
supported by two female terminal statues of gilt bronze and sur-
mounted by an urn of onyx and bronze — an elegant and artistic piece
of work. A porcelain clock, about 3 feet high, elaborate in design
and painted with great skill, having gilt figures and ornaments, was
marked at $250. A clock, about 2 feet high, with red marble base
surmounted by two bronze male and female figures, was a beautiful
work of art, marked at $350.

W. Dieckman, Celle, Hanover, exhibited an eight-day geographical,
astronomical, and chiiiiing clock, with its pedestal about 9 feet high.
Besides the main dial the clock had on the left side of the case 8 dials
and the same number on the right side, showing the time in 16 of
the principal cities of the world. On the side opposite the main dial
was a dial with a perpetual calendar which indicated the day of the
week, the day of the month, the time difference between mean and
solar time, and the phases of the moon. The clock and pedestal were
highly ornamented with 54 sculptured representations and decorations.

J. Graschkus, Berlin: A hall clock, with a wide, four-sided base,
ornamented with gilding and paintings, dial in arabesque work, body
of the clock in graceful and exquisite design, with chain weights, was
in all probability the finest exhibit in hall-clock cases in the Exposition.

C. F. Rocklitz, Berlin: In the tower of the German Government
building was a turret clock by this maker that had some new princi-
ples of construction. The weight of the fourth wheel and pinion gave
impulse to the pendulum upon the gravity principle. The system is
somewhat complicated and can not be well described without illustra-
tions. The hands moved at each interval of fifteen seconds. The
train and weights were heavy enough to control the hands under all
ordinary circumstances, but there are doubts in regard to its being
any improvement over the ordinary double three-legged gravity escape-
ment, which can only be settled after a long trial of its performance.

Emil Krohne, Berlin: An exquisite boudoir clock in red Nuremburg
faience with a white porcelain dial ornamented with gilt bronze figures
and surmounted by an urn was a superb piece of workmanship; also a
clock in a blue Nuremburg faience vase with a gilt urn on top and
supporting figures on each side.

Franz Pecher, Carlsruhe: Three hall clocks with cases elaborately
carved and painted and a trumpeter clock designed by Professor
Goetz, with very handsome wood carvings, were deserving of much
attention.

Otto Schulz: A clock about 2 feet high with a dial on a globe sup-
ported by a base and suiTaounted by a figure of Fame on the wheel of
fortune was a highly artistic production.

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J. C. Schweitzer, Munich: A silver elephant over 3 feet high with
gorgeous trappings, bearing on his back a houdah containing a clock,
on two sides of which were dials. In front of the houdah were figures
of Venus, preceded by a Cupid on the elephant. On the top corners
of the houdah were four griffins, the hands in the form of serpents.
It was a very remarkable and impressive production.

J. Jagemann, Munich: A collection of very small gilt clocks contain-
ing watch movements was very attractive. A square gilded table clock,
with silver dial, bell in cupola, and Venus on a terminal was very
beautiful in design. An old-style clock with inscription, "Experience
comes in time," was also very pretty.

Jahresuhrenfabrik, Triberg, made a display of well-made clocks
with torsion pendulums, in gilt cases and square cases with plate glass
sides covered with glass shades. They resembled a high class of
French work, and were very attractive in appearance. This system
was in considerable use in this country fifty years ago in a cheap form
of ''year clock" that ran a year with once winding, but they soon
ceased to be sold by dealers. The style and finish of the clocks in
this exhibit render them an attractive and desirable ornament for a
mantelpiece.

Junghaus Bros., Schramberg, made a large display of automaton,
alarm, wall clocks and regulators, with wooden cases in great variety.

Fredrich Mauthe, Schwenningen, exhibited 100 designs in alaim
clocks, cuckoo and quail clocks, regulators with weights and also with
springs, and eight-day hall clocks, 200 patterns; special t}'^ in cuckoo
clocks; makes all the requisite carvings on the cases. A magnificent
hall clock with chimes and the case elaborately carved, and many
bracket clocks with carvings of animals, showed good work and artistic
taste. Clocks in cases of English patterns, and alarm clocks on the
American system in 100 different styles, altogether made this display
one of the largest in foreign clocks.

C. Werner, Villingen, had a large collection of eight-day and strik-
ing hall clocks, spring regulators running fourteen days, cuckoo
clocks, alarm and wall clocks in English styles of casing, musical
clock with trumpeter, sold at $300, and in a case the various kind of
movements made after French, English, and German systems. This
is one of the largest factories in Germany, and makes all the parts of
a clock.

F. X. Wildenauer, Munich: Conspicuous in this display was a
Columbus musical hall clock, with elegantly carved figures illustrat-
ing the history of his discovery, the pendulum bob a representation of
the ship Santa Maria from the most authentic source — a very artistic
production, and valued at $1,200. There was also a large collection of
hall clocks with exposed weights and pendulum, and wall clocks in
cases of many different styles, all showing good and very creditable
work.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 918

C. W. Schweyer, Munich, exhibited a very large and handsome wall
clock in a white and gold case highly ornamented with carvings, and
other well-constructed clocks in cases with Bavarian style of carving.
Joh. B. Beha & Son, Eisenbach, made a remarkable exhibit of 8
cuckoo clocks, one with the bird in natural size and natural call, a
cuckoo clock with echo, another striking the hour, with cuckoo and
quail calls, cases painted to represent the Black Forest costumes; also
bracket, wall, and musical clocks — a very interesting display of their
mechanical ingenuity in this line.

Winterhalder & Hofmeier, Neustadt, had a display of hall clocks
with chimes in elaborately carved cases, bracket and mantel clocks in
English and German styles of cases, all exceedingly fine workmanship.
M. Ballin, Munich, exhibited elegant hall clocks with cases artistic-
ally designed and executed with great skill, all showing excellent work.
W. Quehl, Berlin: A mantel clock of Algerian bronze, highly orna-
mented with bronze figures in the style of Louis XVI, and two Louis
XV clocks in black cases with gold ornaments, were exquisite in design
and truly works of art.

Ette & Mischeke made an exhibition of 7 hall clocks with open and
closed cases in different styles and profusely carved in beautiful designs.
Thomas Haller, Schwenningen, exhibited well-made wall and mantel
clocks.

Robert Pleissner, Dresden, made a display of wall clocks and table
clocks after copyrighted designs; had awards at Munich, 1888, and
Dresden, 1891.

Hermann Sofner, Munich, made an exhibit of Rococo and wall clocks.
Wilde Brothers, Villingen, had a collection of wall and table clocks.
L. Furtwangler & Sons exhibited hall clocks, with open and inclosed
weights, in very handsome cases.
Jacob Bradl^ Munich, displayed elegant Rococo clocks.
C. Leyer exhibited a large clock in the form of a beer keg, sur-
mounted by a figure of Bacchus, the dial being on the head of the keg.
Emilian Wehrle, Furtwangen: Very large bracket clocks in elabo-
rately carved cases, with automaton flute players and trumpeters, and
singing birds of various kinds, made a very large and meritorious
display.

Maurer & Hoffer, Eisenbach, exhibited mantel and bracket clocks in
artistically carved cases; also in cases resembling English manufacture;
all very creditable work.

R. Schneckenburger, Muhlheim, made a very large display of
bracket and mantel clocks in well-made cases resembling English
styles, also hall clocks and regulators of good workmanship.

Theod Hahn, Stuttgart, made an exhibit of improved electro-
magnetic watchmen clocks, ifll well made.
COL EXPO — 02 6S

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914 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

Alfred Conti, I^rlin: Central and signal-service clocks and Urania
pillar clerks appeared to be his special manufacture.

Etzold & Poplitz, Leipzig, had principally wall and mantel clocks.

J. N. Eberle & Co., Augsburg: This firm, established in 1836,
employs 300 workmen, and probably made the most extensive display
of watch and clock mainsprings of all kinds, saw blades, and files of all
sizes, and as small as needle files. They had prizes awarded to them
at London, 1862, and Paris, 1867.

Herm Wolfe, Kronstanz, makes a specialty of phosphoresc*ent or
luminous clock dials of glass and pasteboard for night use, as well as
by day.

Charles Schweizer made a display of large and small enameled clock
dials of good workmanship.

August Schwer, Triberg, exhibited small clocks, well made, in cases
of attractive forms and styles.

Fredr. Pfahrer, Triberg, displayed a large number of exceedingly
small wall clocks in fanciful cases.

Lorch, Schmidt & Co., Frankfort, had a large collection of all kinds
of tools for watch and clock makers' use, well made and of excellent
quality.

AUSTRIA.

This country, so celebrated for clock making, made no special dis-
play in this group, but among the various art collections were the
exhibits of eight manufacturers, whose elegant productions were chefs
d'cBUvre in this art.

Victor Stiassny, Vienna: In this collection was a magnificent man-
tel clock 3 feet high in a black Vienna china case, green enameled dial,
and gilt-bronze ornaments — a remaritable production. A grand wall
clock in blue Vienna china case with gilt ornaments was a very elabo-
rate and highly decorated design. Small mantel clocks in exquisitely
designed cases artistically ornamented were superior productions.

J. Kalmdr, Vienna: In this display was a clock in a bronze globe
surmounted by a gilt figure of Mercury, a highly artistic piece of work;
also magnificent mantel clocks in gilt-bronze cases with figures of a
high class in art.

C. Lux, Vienna: In this collection were a niunber of exquisitely
beautiful mantel clocks in gilt-bronze cases ornamented with figures
of great merit.

Robert Pilz, Vienna, had in his display clocks in enamel and bronze
cases ornamented with beautiful paintings on porcelain.

Dziedzinski & Hanusch, Vienna: This superb collection contained
magnificent mantel clocks in cuses entiroly gilt, with highly artistic
figures.

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WORI.d'8 COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 915

J. Zekert, Meisterdorf : A line of exquisite boudoir clocks and clocks
in Bohemian glass and gilt-bronze cases, beautiful in design, made a
collection of great merit.

Prof. Schwartz & G. Lind: A large mantel clock in square gilt-
bronze case with bas-reliefs and figures was grand and highly artistic
in design.

Ed & F. Richter: A magnificent mantel clock 4 feet high, entirely
gilded, and supported with superbly executed artistic figures, was suf-
ficient to give this house a world-wide reputation as masters in this art.

DENMARK.

This country has a world-wide reputation for the finest horological
work. The Jurgensen family, of Copenhagen, of which Urban Jiir-
genaen and Jules Jurgensen were prominent members, constructed
watches that were surpassed by none in their day for elegance of form,
construction, finish, and time-keeping qualities, but no exhibit of
watches was made showing the state of the art there at the present time.

Bertram Larsen, Copenhagen, exhibited a small turret clock with a
Graham escapement, constructed so as to show the time either mechan-
ically or by electricity, or both ways at the same time. Here elec-
tricity was used. The two dials of the turrets at the entrance to the
Danish section showed Chicago and Copenhagen time, respectively.
The commutator was claimed to be an improved construction.

GREAT BRITAIN.

In this section there were but two exhibitors in this group, repre-
senting principally the clock-making industry. It is much to be
regretted that exhibits of their marine chronometers and watches, made
in the renaissance of the art, during the past fifteen years, in England,
were not sent here, as they would have been of exceedingly great
interest to many people in this country. The introduction of Amer-
ican machine-made watches into Great Britain and her colonies, and
their large importation of Swiss watches, have stimulated them to
the exertion of their greatest energies to keep them from losing
entirely this great industry. We should not undervalue their products,
for they have now become immense both in number and quality, and
may make a serious impression in the markets of the world. In the
Revue Chronometrique for November, 1889, it may be found that Mr.
E. Antoine, a juror at Paris in 1889, says, in regard to English watch-
making, '*they equal if they do not excel their predecessors in every
country, and that is the impression caused abroad. " Our makers should
seriously consider the situation, and not go "complacently asleep in
the conviction that they have set up limits" with machine-made
watches, for they may be woefully mistaken.

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916 REPORT OF COMMllTEE ON AWARDS.

Goldsmiths and Silversmiths Company, London: Among the many
grand productions of this company was an " Exposition clock spe-
cially designed and manufactured for the World's Fair in 1893." The
case was about 8 feet high and octagonal in form with elegantly chased
and richly gilded ornaments, the cotton plant and flower being the
principal subjects. The case had eight panels, representing the sports,
swimming, running, yachting, cycling, baseball, trotting, and jump-
ing, with a view of Brooklyn Bridge. E^h panel was surmounted by
a portrait of Washington, Lincoln, Grant, Franklin, Jackson, Har-
rison, and Cleveland, respectively, and a medallion portrait of Queen
Victoria. The clock had four dials, showing English, American,
French, and Spanish time. About 4 feet from the floor, on a platforai
around the clock, were twelve figures, representing players in cricket,
rowing, shooting, polo racing, La Crosse, })oxing, running, tennis,
football, and wrestling, which revolved in procession as the clock
striked each quarter hour. Above at the sides of the dials four col-
umns supported brackets with vases, between each of which were
figures signifying progress in art, science, industry, and engineering.
The American eagle was shown above each dial. At each hour the
American and Fnglish anthems were played, the time being denoted
by a chime of 8 bells, the Westminster chimes on four gongs, and
the hour on a gong. All can be repeated at will, imparting to the
whole work a realism and eflFectiveness they claim has never before
been attained in any similar production. The clock movement and
other mechanism showed the good work characteristic of English
manufacture. An eight-day hall clock in solid mahogany case, being
a copy of old Chippendale clock with Westminster and cathedral
chimes with a gilt silver dial, was a masterpiece in this art. They also
exhibited chatelaine watches highly decorated and gentlemen's watches,
elegantly cased, inclosing movements of excellent make.

J. Smith & Sons, Clerkenwell: Chiming clocks appeared to be a
specialty with this house; hall clocks, with elaborately constructed and
ornamented cases, giving Whittington chimes on eight bells, West-
minster chimes on four gongs, Cambridge chimes on four bells, and
chimes on eight suspended tubes, the hours being struck on a very large
tube. Also pedestal and mantel clocks with chimes, in ebony cases,
with bronze ornaments, and grandfather clocks, all of that standard
construction and excellent manufacture so long known in English
workmanship; prices from $150 to $800. In a glass case was a small
turret clock with gravity escapement.

Marcus Benjamin, Sydney : In the New South Wales pavilion were two
remarkable watches. The inventor and maker, Mr. Benjamin, claims
important improvements by which the mechanism of the center sec-
onds movement is reduced 75 per cent. They were independent, dead
beat, center seconds stop watches, and surprisingl}'^ well made, coming

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 917

from that part of the world. As far as could be seen of their construc-
tion, without taking them apart, the independent train received its
going power from the time train through a small spring, like a balance
spring'that was coiled around, and its inner end fastened to a pinion's
shaft of the time train; around the spring was a very small band with
teeth on its periphery, this little spring, like a Patek mainspring, had
its outer end loose, so that when the independent train was stopped the
little band that gave impulse to it also stopped and the hair spring, in
the little band, with its outer *end loose, was carried around continu-
ously by the time train until the independent train was started, when
the friction of the outer end of the little coiled spring, with the inside
of the little band wheel, would carry the band wheel around and move
the so-called independent train. In reality the time train is expending
continuously, whether the independent train is going or not, some of
its power in wioding up this additional spiral spring. In an experi-
ence of more than fifty years we have seen two other watches con-
structed on this principle for carrying the second hand, so that
probably in this advanced age it will be diflicult to introduce this new
system into commerce.

FRANCE.

In the manufacture of clocks in the highest class, this country sur-
passes all other nations in the vast product that is exported to all the
civilized portions of the world. A wonderful display was made from
the diminutive and beautiful traveling clock to the grand, almost
monumental constructions designed .by their ablest artists. The
immense capital invested in this industry almost surpasses belief , and
the number of people engaged in the business is enormous; one firm
of clock and watch makers at Beaucourt has a capital of $10,000,000,
and the extent of their works is colossal. The good and artistic work
produced at Besan^on has been widely known and appreciated for
many years; in 1883 the number of watches made there was 501,602,
valued at about $5,000,000, but owing to the use of automatic
machinery in watch making at other localities and the old system of
hand work being retained there, the production had fallen off to
366,197 watches in 1888, valued at $3,000,000. They are now more
prosperous, and with their great artistic skill will soon rival other
great producing localities with their great output in number, quality,
and price.

This country has made remarkable progress in watch making, owing
in a measure to the great interest taken in fostering horological
schools, but from the few exhibits made a proper idea could not be
formed of the great extent of their output or the wonderful skill they
possess in all bi-anches of this industry. Their talent in decorative
work and in foiining designs for clocks has here full play, and they

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918 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

exercise it to a surprising extent, as was shown in the great variety
of magnificent examples of their art. In giving a description of many
of these masterpieces words will fail to convey to the mind their
wonderful beauty, only by giving many days of study to their artistic
merits could a proper idea be formed of their surpassing excellence,
for they were really combinations of sculpture and painting on metal,
porcelain, and marble.

B. Haas, freres, made the largest and most complete display of
watches in this section, consisting of minute repeaters with split
seconds, perpetual calendar, and moon's phases, a self-winding minute
repeater with two dials, a repeater that automatically struck the
hours in passing and having split seconds, a minute repeater with two
dials and two trains, one-fifth of a second and second hand on same
axis, on reverse dial a perpetual calendar, moon's phases, and metallic
thermometer; a splendid line of complicated watches of all combina-
tions; chatelaine watches in great variety with highly decorated cases,
some in the forms of beetles, butterflies, etc., ornamented with unique
designs and incrusted with diamonds, pearls, and exquisite paintings
on enamel; a wonderful watch in green enamel case, artistically
decorated with diamonds in exquisite designs, the dial green enamel
with figures in gold, this side also magnificently decorated with
diamonds in artistic designs; the very smallest of watches in a ring,
and one in a rosebud which opened by pressure, disclosing the dial;
a line of cheap watches, from $1 to $10, filled cases with 18-jeweled
movements, nicely finished, costing $6 in France, and full-plate move-
ments in steel cases ornamented with niello work.

Soci^t^ Anofiyme, Besan^on, made an elegant display of minute
repeaters and chatelaine watches artistically decorated with diamonds,
rubies, and enamels, also individual parts of watches and elegantly
made traveling clocks.

Louis Ancoc, fils, Paris, exhibited a tiny watch in a ring, surrounded
with rubies, and three large diamonds on each side, and two extremely
small watches with chatelaines, wonderfully decorated with diamonds
and paintings on enamel.

Drocourt, Paris, displayed highly decorated chatelaine watches, a
very small minute repeater, and a chronograph. This house is also
noted for good quality in traveling clocks partially made at the
factory in St. Nicholas d'Alieremont near Dieppe and finished in Paris.

H. Houdebine, pere et fils, Paris: The following clocks in this
exhibit were remarkable productions. A marble column on a highly
ornamented base supported a dial about 7 inches in diameter; on the
sides two female figures about 18 inches high holding wreaths of
flowers hanging from an urn was exquisite in design. A clock in gilt
bronze and lapis lazuli designed after a clock that belonged to Marie
Antoinette; a serpent points with its tongue to the hour figures on a

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WOKLD^S COLITMBIAN EXPOSITION, Ifm, 919

revolving band and the minutes on a narrow band above, A clock in
silver case with figures of Cupid and a dragon; a Louis XV pastoral
movement in a blue enameled globe with stars surmounted by two
doves and supported by three cherubs; a beautiful Louis XVI clock
was a column of pink marble supporting a movement surrounded by
designs representing the King of the Sun supporting figures of Venus
and Cupid in bronze; a large gilt clock in a shell surmounted by a
bronze Venus in a car drawn by two Cupids was highl}' artistic; a
clock in a chariot drawn by a dragon and driven by a Cupid was
exceedingly beautiful; in marble and bronze Louis XVI style, a
movement supported by a bronze eagle.

A. Beurdeley : A reproduction of a clock made for Louis XV, about
7 feet high, had four legs about 3 feet high like a table, very antique
in design, had center seconds and hands showing the day of the week,
month, moon's phases, and year, case surmounted b}'^ celestial globe
inclosed in a globular glass casing; a hall clock in ebony highly
ornamented with designs in gilt bronze, surmounted b}'^ a group of
bronze horses driven by Apollo in a chariot; large and splendid
mantel clocks in antique and Louis XV styles with cases extremely
beautiful in design, and surmounted with exquisite and highl}' artistic
figures.

Fernand Gervais, Paris: A Louis XVI clock 4 feet high, in gilt
bronze with red marble base; price, $2,200; for the candelabras, $2,600.
Reclining in front of the clock was a female figure, sculptured in
Carrara marble by Carrier Belleuse; the marble cherubs also by the
same artist. A reproduction of a porcelain clock in the form of a
vase, supported by bronze figures, in the Kensington Museum, that
belonged to Marie Antoinette, was about 15 inches high, had gilt
ornaments, and was exquisitely decorated with paintings; the clock
dial was in the body of the vase. A repi'oduction of a clock in the
Trianon that belonged to Marie Antoinette was 3 feet high, a dial in
the body of a harp ornamented with gilt bronze designs. A clock in
a red marble vase about 3 feet high with bronze ornaments, supported
by two beautiful bronze female figures 2 feet high was a very artistic
production; price, $1,000. A clock in a gilt bronze column with a
bronze cherub as an artist holding an exquisitely painted portrait on
enamel, marked $800. A large blue enameled globe contained a clock
supported by two gilt bronze female figures. On a pink marble base
two bronze figures carried a highly ornamented gilt bronze sedan
chair containing a clock.

Emile Colin & Co., Paris: A design by Marioton was a column
about 7 feet high supporting a clock in gilt and enamel work after
the antique; a life-size figure of Diana, gilt, was attached to the col-
umn; on the column about midway of the figure was a gilt Cupid.
This was the most artistic and imposing work of art in this line in the

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920 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

Exposition. Two female figures supporting an urn and clock about 3
feet high was another magnificent and artistic production.

Lamaille & Co.: A splendid hall clock in variegated onyx and
red marble, with gilt ornaments, was a gorgeous construction; price,
$1,200. A very large collection of mantel clocks, from the smallest
to the largest size, in porcelain and gilt cases, and two large wall clocks
were also of superior manufacture.

Millet: Two exquisite clocks, reproductions of Louis XVI styles,
and one in the form of a blue globe, with Cupids; another like it, but
with a gilt bronze figure reclining over the top, were artistic produc-
tions, as also were two very high hall clocks with elaborately orna-
mented cases, after Louis XV and Louis XVI designs.

Desir^ Disclyn made a very interesting and unique exhibit of clocks
in cases of forged iron, after antique designs, showing the great
resources of the artist in art metal work. The impression this exhibit
made was very strange, carrying one back centuries, when such work
showed the artist and master workman in forged iron.

F. & Ch. Pierre: This house had a large line of mantel clocks in
highly ornamented porcelain cases, with lever escapements and bal-
ances, black and bronze cases, with pendulums, and a large number
with Algerian onj'^x cases — all elegant in design and finish. Conspicu-
ous was a clock about 4 feet high, in Algerian onyx, with the Marly
horse tamers in gilt bronze as supporters; dial rim in onyx; in the
center a representation of the landing of Columbus; all surmounted
by a gilt bronze statue of Columbus in a sitting position, with a globe
in his hand; price, $2,000.

Villon, Paris, exhibited a- most exquisite line of traveling clocks,
from the smallest to the largest sizes, all in gilt and crystal cases,
showing a high class of workmanship in the movements. In his fac-
tory at St. Nicholas he claims to make every part of his clocks, from
the little ticktacks and alarms to regulators and chiming clocks, and was
expert to the jury at Paris, 1889.

Passerat, Paris, made a specialty of reproductions. On a pedestal
was a Louis XVI clock, about 4 feet high, designed by the artist
Berain, from one in the reception rooms of the Tuilleries; black case,
inlaid with metal; glass front and sides, highly ornamented with fig-
ures in gilt bronze, surmounted by a figure of Time sitting on a globe;
price $835. A square clock on a pedestal, all 8 feet high, in ebony,
with gilt ornaments, silver and gilt dial with gilt figures in basrelief,
sole reproduction of one presented to the Paris Observatory by Louis
XIV, was designed by Co j' pel and executed by Caflieri; price $1,600.
Three mantel clocks in square c^ses, and a bracket clock, 3 feet high,
in red enamel and gilt bronze were artistic productions. A wall clock
of the Palais de Justice, design by Gennan Pillou, was one of the
finest reproductions of the renaissance period; price $800.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 921

Leblanc-Barbedienne exhibited clocks in beautiful cases of magnifi-
cent Persian designs in gilt and enamel.

Louchet f r^res, Paris, made a display of Louis XVI boudoir clocks
in gilt bronze and porcelain; one with two columns of onyx, gilt
bronze and enamel, supported and surrounded by birds, was a beau-
tiful design. Clocks in exquisitely painted porcelain vases and lyres,
and other designs artistically ornamented with paintings, and supported
by finely executed figures, were too numerous to give a detailed
description, although deserving of special notice.

Barbedienne, Paris: In this great art collection were 3 clocks that
deserve special mention — a beautiful mantel clock in* bronze and enamel
with Persian decorations; a superb gilt-bronze clock, about 30 inches
high, marked $1,200 and a magnifient square-cased Louis XVI
mantel clock.

A. Damm & Colin, Paris, exhibited a hall clock in elegant design,
entirely gilded and highly ornamented, a remarkable piece of work-
manship.

Glazener & Co. made a large exhibit of clocks in porcelain, onyx
and gilt cases, traveling clocks of all sizes, some with exquisitely gilt
dials, regulators, and a large gilt Louis XIV clock on a socle with
candelabras, all choice works of art.

Chariot fibres: A magnificent mantel clock, square in design, with
four columns in blue enamel and gilt, with blue enamel and gilt dial
and gilt figures, the dial sourrounded by four female figures painted
in a highly artistic manner, was a remarkably beautiful production.

Peconnet, Paris, exhibited a line of superbly made watch cases,
grandly decorated with diamonds and enamels.

A. Moynet & Co., Paris: These extensive dealers in watch and clock
material made a large displa}^ of tools and watch material of the best
manufacture.

Grisot Saillard, Besan^on, made a display of superbly made main-
springs of all sizes, having all the good qualities required by the best
class of watches.

SPAIN.

This country had only one exhibitor in this group, but the exhibit
was a surprise in the wonderful skill and perfect work shown in metal
incrustation.

Mrs. Filipa Guisasola, Madrid: In the Spanish section was a remark-
able exhibit of gold incrusting on blue black steel. On watch cases
made of steel was some of the most beautiful work in this art ever
seen; the designs were so beautiful, graceful, and exquisitely delicate
that it would seem to be vandalism to even wear these cases; they
should be kept as art treasures. The designs are first engraved on the
steel in an undercut; the gold is then applied, fills the engraved lines

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922 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

and raised al>ove the surface of the steel, then finished b}^ hand engrav-
ing. As the largest example of this remarkable kind of work, a vase
about 3 feet high, with exquisite designs in gold of 8 different colors,
was valued at ^0,000.

SWEDEN.

In many provinces in this country, especially in Delarme, they dis-
play great mechanical skill. Wall clocks, tower clocks, and station
clocks are more and more manufactured, and even exported to neigh-
boring countries. In 1890 there were 29 timepiece factories, the
largest of which is the Halda Watch Factory, which produces yearly
about 6,000 watches in gold and silver cases.

Halda Watch Manufacturing Company exhibited watches of con-
siderable merit in finish and principles of construction; also individual
parts of watches in different stages of manufacture, all well made, the
jeweling well done, and they make the dials. The cases in gold and
silver were also well made, showing the capacity to become prominent
in this art. Received awards at Paris in 1885, and Gottenborg in
1891.

G. W. Linderoth: A hall clock, elegant in design and finish, was a
very creditable piece of work; also small wall clocks in gilt cases,
resembling those in French clocks, strong and well made. The dis-
play of wall clocks in gilt cases and in porcelain cases beautifully
designed, was particularly remarkable. An eight-day clock in tke
dome of the Swedish Government building was also of good constnn;-
tion and finish.

RUSSIA.

N. N. Makarovsky exhibited a clock for keeping the time of workmen ;
also a dining-room clock, both very creditably made»

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HYGIENE AND SANITATION.

Miss ANNESLEY KEISTEALY. Judge.

923

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HYGIENE AND SANITATION.

By Miss Anneslby Kenealy,

Judge of Awards in the Hygienic Department; Lecturer to the NatioruU Health Society;
Lecturer on Technical Education to the British County OouncilSy etc.

'Tis life, not death for which we pant;
'Tis life whereof our news are scant,
More life and fuller that we want.

It will readily be conceded that of all the exhibits set forth in the
World's Fair at Chicago, there is no department which bears so
directly upon human good and human happiness as its great and
important department of hygiene and sanitation. Vast business inter-
ests are involved in many of the exhibits, and wonderful developments
of steam and electricity are shown; and as the sociology of to-day
demands that commercial enterprise shall go hand in hand with human
need we see much ingenuity displayed in inventions and machines of
a practical and labor-saving type, whereby the burdens of the world
may be lightened and its yokes made easy. Such assist and further
man's progress, but it is hygiene which, by pointing the way, has
shown the lines along which these should travel.

The prosperity of a nation consists not so much in its wealth as in
the health, happiness, and efficiency of its workers. So that any
improvement and development of life conditions may well be regarded
as the storing of a national reserve fund which is incomparably more
valuable, far and wide reaching in its results than a mere surplus of rev-
enue. And it has been found that sanitation and wholesome surround-
ings by their effect upon the physique and productive capacity of the
individuals affected add substantially to the working value of a popula-
tion. The relation between health and wealth is absolute and infallible.

Let me now consider briefly such exhibits in the Chicago World's
Fair as have seemed to me to place themselves in a superexcellent class.
The Pennsylvania State board of health in its plans of improved tene-
ment bouses shows that the artisan need no longer struggle for the
birthright of every human being — the opportunity of a decent habita-
tion; some degree of privacy, fresh air, light, and sunshine— for such
are here proved to be within his reach. In the models shown he has
all these advantages combined with a degree of sightliness and oma-

925

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926 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

mentation that will help to build up some beauty of mind at the same
time that the hygienic conditions of his dwelling will raise his health
standard and add to his happiness as a man and his efficiency as a
worker. A great advance is shown in the construction of these arti-
san dwellings, which are excellent examples of modern sanitation.
With plans such as these to hand, it will soon be counted a national
disgrace that any country should permit its toilers — its "hewers of
wood and drawers of water"— to crowd together in dark, unwhole-
some "rabbit hutches" instead of advancing into the light of day and
taking their just share of the benefits of nineteenth century science.

A moderate rental provides not only the proper number of rooms
whereby the laws of human decency may be observed, but also affords
the luxury of "a flower bed and a playground for the children," A
higher, healthier, and more vitalized life of its future generations will
reward that legislature which enforces the adoption of these or similar
plans on intending landlords.

To supply the needs of a more prosperous class, we have a model
workingman's house built on behalf of the Philadelphia County
Women's Committee, and almost side by side with the cliff dwellers
exhibit we find a workingman's cottage erected by the Improved
Dwelling Company, of New York. What a contrast the two present!
What an evolution in thought and human need is shown.

From far off Japan is sounded a keynote of health's spreading gos-
pel in the form of an excellent model of marine disinfection and
quarantine. Owing to the frequent importation of cholera from
neighboring countries through its seaports, the Japanese Government
has established, since 1879, six quarantine stations for the inspection
of vessels and the disinfection of passengers and cargo from infected
ports. By earlier regulations the inspection rules came into force
only upon receiving information that cholera had broken out in foreign
countries; but, as the report quaintly puts it, ''There have been
instances when the germ of the epidemic found its way into our har-
bors before the rumor that it had broken out reached us." Hence
the surveillance of vessels from "suspected localities" has been made
compulsory. Japan also contributes the rules and history of its Red
Cross Society. This society originated from the necessities of the
position during the Kajeshina insurrection of 1877, at which time some
excellent work was done by its agents in aid of the sick and wounded.
The nature of the work is shown by a comprehensive chart, and like-
wise by a report dealing with the action of the society in times of
peace. Valuable assistance is shown to have been given to sufferers
from shipwreck, earthquakes, and in national disasters accompanied
by suffering or loss of life.

The system of maritime sanitation inaugurated by the Louisiana
State board of health is shown by a very complete model demonstrating

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 927

the methods by which disease is excluded from the State by disinfec-
tion and fumigation at the river quarantine station below New Orleans.
By the excellent methods adopted the complete purification of the
vessels, passengers, and cargo is insured without unnecessary deten-
tion or inconvenience. The report states that the board has thus
succeeded '' in keeping out foreign pestilence and at the same time has
fostered the commerce of its State and section to a gratifying extent."

In the department of public health there is an excellent showing of
the work carried on by the various State health boards in the solution
of vexed problems relating to sanitation and hygiene.

The State board of health of Massachusetts exhibits charts illustra-
tive of valuable and extensive research work relating to diseases and
epidemics, comparative mortality, and the influence of population
upon public health. An act of the legislature passed in 1886 author-
ized this board to examine the domestic water supplies of the State,
to take over complete control of these and the inland water supplies
of Massachusetts, and to conduct experirtients for determining the
best methods of purifying sewage. With this object the Lawrence
experiment station was established — being the first of its kind in the
United States — and this station has made important contributions to
the science of pure water supply and the prevention of water contam-
ination by sewage. An interesting model of the station is shown,
with photographs, charts, sand beds sewages, sections of filter beds,
and other apparatus illustrating its various departments of work.

In the food and dr}"^ adulteration department this board makes a very
interesting subsection showing the means whereby the public is pro-
tected against the sale of harmful and adulterated food products.
The board has also done progressive work in connection with the
regulation of offensive trades, and has carried on investigations bear-
ing on the sale and uses of opium; the control of infectious diseases
and malarial fever; the dealing with intemperance, and many other
kindred branches of hygiene affecting the moral and physical welfare
of peoples.

The Michigan State board of health exhibits some suggestive vital
statistics in the f onri of charts and pamphlets illustrating the prevalence
of diseases in Michigan during different years, the fluctuations in
mortality, and general statistics with regard to the health conditions of
the State. Some very interesting diagrams are shown exhibiting the
influence of meteorological conditions on various forms of disease and
the effect of the velocity of wind on diphtheria epidemics. Very
significant and satisfactory results of the work of the board appear in
the tables of comparison of death rates in Michigan from infectious and
preventible diseases before and since the establishment of the State
board of health.

The Illinois State board of health exhibits tables and diagrams illus-

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928 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

trative of the zymotic disc&scs prevalent in Chicago during the years
1891, 1892, and 1893; it points to the causes and 8ugge8t8 the remedies.
The investigation was begun in the winter of 1891-92 during an epi-
demic of enteric fever in the city of Chicago — an epidemic which
caused considerable anxiety and was productive of much ominous
prophecy regardincf the amount of disease likely to be experienced
during the World's Fair of 1893. There is no doubt but that the
public attention then called to the health conditions of the city, has
prevented many foreigners from visiting the Exhibition. Fortunately
the loudly predicted outbreaks of typhoid and cholera consequent on
the ingress of so many strangers and their inevitable overcrowding
have proved themselves to have been l>aseless. Contrary to all expec-
tation the health of the city has been exceptionally good, and the sani-
tary arrangements and general hygienic standard have been in marked
contrast to the condition of affairs which obtained in Philadelphia during
the Centennial.

The sanitation of the " White City" itselt was an important subject,
and*has been most satisfa<^;torily dealt with. In the artistic setting of
the grounds, in the lagoons with their picturesque gondolas and
gondoliers, we have more than the beautias of old Venice — and we find
them combined with health. In most of the old towns of Europe the
picturesque and the unhealth}?^ are indissolubly combined. Chicago
has shown that art and hygiene may go hand in hand.

The sanitation of the Fair and the provisions made for public health
and comfort are bfeyond all praise. A pure-water supply was insured by
the establishment all over the grounds of sterilized water tanks, from
which the public might drink without suspicion and without harm.
The system of purification by chemical precipitation has been applied
to the sewage of Jackson Park with very encouraging results. At the
same time a series of experiments has been carried out under the direc-
tion of Mr. Allen Hazen, of the Lawrence experiment station, as to the
best chemicals which may be employed as precipitating agents. The
conclusion of these experiments is looked forward to with great interest,
and will, it is thought, be of much value in determining many impor-
tant points with regard to the most efficient and economical method of
sewage treatment.

In the department of agriculture the results of protective supervision
with regard to the diseases of cattle and the prevention of animal epi-
demics are shown by charts and statistics. These give the dates of
entry of pleuro-pneumonia into the various counties and the means
taken to establish quarantine lines, and so to prevent this and the dis-
ease known as "Southern" or "Texas" cattle fever.

In class 829 of group 147 the commissioners of sewers of the city
of London exhibit a model demonstrating an efficient system of street
cleaning and the treatment and disposal of sewage. With this may

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 929

be mentioned a model of the admii-able crematorium at Woking, Eng-
land, for the hygienic disposal of the dead. And notice is deservedly
made of the Engle Sanitary Cremation Company, of Des Moines, Iowa,
for their excellent scheme of garbage cremation as applied to the
destruction of household waste and their method of dealing "with the
excreta, waste, and infected material at medical schools and hospitals
in an entirely sanitary manner, with no escape of disease germs," dis-
posing of the total pi'oduction of garbage, refuse, dead animals, and
miscellaneous waste of cities and towns without nuisance, with no
escape of fumes and in a speedy, economical, and satisfactory way."

The models and photographs of abattoirs and dust cart from the
New York Ladies' Health Protective Association are worthy of atten-
tion, showing, as they do, improvement where improvement was
sorely needed.

The exhibit of the Battle Creek Sanitarium is a very important con-
tribution to sanitary science. It is an almost perfect exhibition of
what a modern sanitarium should be. The models of the buildings
are evidences of the skill that has been bestowed upon the construc-
tion, the heating, and the manifold hygienic needs of such an institu-
tion; while the mode of treatment, the system of exercises, and
methods of physical development show a material advance in the right
direction. A series of popular charts illustrate with a simple but
vigorous eloquence the dangers and results of improper living, unsuit-
able clothing, intemperance, and the many vices of "civilized" condi-
tions. Hygienic clothing, health foods, and many allied exhibits go to
make up a most creditable display, and one which is calculated from
the amount of attention it has attracted to develop a strong public
interest in the vital question of health.

In class 829, group 147, Gennany is much to be commended for her
excellent plans of public buildings constructed on lines essentially
adapted to health and comfort. In her models of sanitaries for chil-
dren, drawings of hospitals and insane asylums, construction, lighting,
heating, and ventilating of the German parliaments, schools, town hall
etc., she reaches the highest standard of h3^gienic architecture. These
designs for hospitals and asylums are models for the world.

It is much to be regretted that but little has been shown in connec-
tion with class 830 of group 147. This section embraces the hygiene
of the workshop and factory, illustrations of diseases and deformities
caused by unwholesome trades and occupations, and methods for
obviating such distresses. More important fields of knowledge and
research can scarcely exist, yet they show here as having been prac-
tically passed over, as indeed have many other valuable departments
of hygiene and sanitation. The absence of the element of commercial
stimulus must necessarily limit the exhibits in a department largely
representative of philanthropic operations.

C50L EXPO — 02 59 ^ ,

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930 KEPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

The necessary expenditure involved in such displays can not easily be
spared by those on whom charity is making exhaustive demands. For
this reason the hospital world is by no means exhaustively represented.

Notable among the hospital exhibits is that of the Johns Hopkins
Hospital at Baltimore, an institution which contributes in a most pro-
gressive spirit to the interest of this section. In the models and
photographs shown it is evident that the construction and methods of
this hospital approach perfection as nearly as is possible, according
to our present light.

The McLean Hospital for the treatment of the insane is also an
excellent type of such an asylum. This was one of the first institu-
tions which established a school for training nurses in work among
the insane — a valijp,ble step in the right direction. The scheme of
treatment laid down is admirable; gj^mnastics, billiards, and various
recreations, indoor and out, are CvStablished with good results, every
effort being made to bring the patients under a refined and homelike
influence, such as must lighten the miseries, if not materially better-
ing the mental condition.

The British nursing section includes a very complete collection of
sick-room furniture, hoj?pital uniforms, invalid appliances, and com-
forts for institution, district, and home use, and is an admirable type
of what such an exhibit should be. The growth and development of
nursing from a crude art into a completed science is very strikingly
shown, while man}^ interesting relics and mementoes of Florence
Nightingale, Sister Dora, and other pioneers of skilled nursing lend a
personal interest to the display, which is one of its most attractive
features. The president of this department, Mrs. Bedford Fenwick,
is much to be congratulated on having contributed to the Fair so
scientific and advanced a presentment of the modern art of nursing.

Note must also be made of Miss Kate Marsden's beneficent scheme
for the establishment of leper colonies in Liberia for the reception and
care of sufferers who at present are practically houseless and homeless.
The models of the proposed buildings aroused much popular attention.
The ambulance system as applied to the Fair grounds, whereby sufferers
from accident, prostration, and faintness, might be immediately remov^ed
and cared for is worthy of the highest praise. The scheme was admi-
rable in conception and was carried out with perfection of detail and
enthusiasm of spirit on the part of the workers.

The establishment of hospital substations in convenient parts of the
grounds for the reception and treatment of patients was shown from
the number of cases dealt with to be a necessary, wise, and humane
provision on the part of the authorities. Some thousands of patients
were admitted and treated in the emergency hospital during the six
months of the Fair. At the homeopathic headquarters, the Illinois
Training School, and the office of the St. John's Ambulance Society of

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 931

England excellent assistance was daily rendered to large numbers of
persons overcome by heat and suflfering from the accidents and ailments
incidental to overcrowding and fatigue.

In conclusion I would add that I regard it as a high privilege to have
been officially associated with the World's Fair, and as a great addition
to that privilege to have been iovited to contribute this history of the
section to which I was attached. My only regret is that the pleasant
office was not intrusted to one who might have done greater justice to
the merits of this department of the greatest Exposition the world can
ever hope to see.

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INSTRUMENTS OF PRECISION OTHER THAN
ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC.

BV

J. H. GhORE, Judge.

933

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INSTRUMENTS OF PRECISION OTHER THAN ELECTRICAL AND

MAGNETIC.

By J. H. Gore, Judge.

Instruments for scientific measurement may be classified as follows:
Instruments for facilitating arithmetical and geometrical calculations,
mechanical measuring appliances, surveying and engineering instru-
ments, meteorological instruments, horological devices, instruments
for measurements of heat, and optical instruments.

INSTRUMENTS FOR CALCULATION.

The past decade has witnessed nothing more than unimportant
changes in the instruments of this class, none of which can be regarded
as offering improvements upon the efficient arithmometers of Thomas
and of Colmar. Grimme, of Braunschweig, exhibited a compact
machine for simple computations, while Blanc showed an apparatus
for logarithmic computations, andKloth, of Osnabruck, had an ingeni-
ous device for the determination of the area of a triangle. It consisted
of a plate of transparent celluloid, upon which was drawn a hyperbolic

curve whose equation was -^=a constant. By placing this plate over

the triangle so that the origin coincided with one vertex and the axis
of X with the base, the reading on the curve corresponding to the alti-
tude gave the area, approximately.

Several planimeters were shown, none presenting marked novelties,
except a cartometer made by Tesdorpf , of Stuttgart, which appears to
combine simplicity and accuracy. With it lines can be traced back-
ward and forward without interruption, the wheels being thrown in
or out of gear according to the direction in which the apparatus is
made to follow the lines. The absolute length results immediately
from the arithmetic mean multiplied by a factor which is constant for
each instrument.

BIECHANICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS.

Included in this class are a series of instruments of recent origin
known as seismometers, for measuring the direction and amount of
earthquake disturbances. The newest type of seismometers, especially
the perfected form of Professor Milne, not only measures but records

936

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936 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

its measurements. Especial attention is paid to seismological investi-
gations in Japan, and, as might Y>e expected, the exhibit of instruments
of this class from Japan was extensive and important, (yhronographs
for recording minute intervals of time were exhibited by several
makers. The only feature noticeably new is the introduction of rapidly
acting electro-magnetic tracers with a view to reduce the errors of
observation.

SaegmuUer, of Washington, showed a compact chronograph which
possessed the ability to change its stroke from seconds to double seconds
at the will of the observer. It was also provided with a gravity gov-
ernor, which insured the desired uniformity of rate.

Professor Hough exhibited a printing chronograph of a form pre-
viously described.

Balances in great variety were shown, each striving to embody the
advantages of precision, stability, and economy of time. Short beams
were quite the rule, and various damping devices employed to bring
about a dead-beat motion, thereby reducing the reading time to the
minimum.

Bunge, of Hamburg, exhibited a form of balance for heavy loads, in
which the pans are skeletons in order to reduce the effects of the cur-
rents of air. He also had a smaller analytical balance, with reading tel-
escope, with arrangement for mechanically charging or discharging the
weight pan, without opening the casing. By means of sliding carriers
having the values of the respective weights marked on them, each
weight may be placed exactlj^ in the center of the pan, which consists
of 17 concentric brackets arranged one above the other; the mechan-
ism is such that no vibration, friction, or accidental dropping of weights
can take take place. By turning a crank forward the frame supporting
the carriers descends, the carrier is liberated and may be withdrawn
from under the weight. The balance is thrown into action by turning
the crank in the opposite direction. As in this case the pointer swings
out only 1 degree per milligram, the tenths of a milligram may be
read off in the telescope directly and the hundredths may be esti-
mated. The rapidity of the oscillations has, therefore, in this balance
been reduced in such a way that it is to that of an equally sensible
short-beam balance in the ratio of 1 : vTo. The pan for the weighing
charge is made of rock crystal. The rider slide is accurately notched
on the dividing engine. The pointer is of a triangular form, to obviate
vibration. Length of beam, 13 centimeters; sensibility, 0.05 milligram.

The United States Coast Survey also showed some balances, which
will be referred to later on.

Cathetometers, or instruments for measuring heights of points
above a fixed plane, were represented by two specimens, one from
the Geneva Company and the other from G. Standinger & Co., of
Giessen. The latter was provided with bronze prism, solid silver

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 937

divided scale 1 meter in length, and an inclinable telescope and level.
The correction of the telescope, due to errors in the prism, is made on
the sliding piece above the focusing point, in this way compensating
the errors of the prism. The prism and eccentric parts are counter-
poised and the whole revolves on a vertical axle.

Hydrostatic instruments were exhibited by the German bureau of
standards, though nothing especially novel was shown, except Siemen's
alcoholometer, which measured and registered the strength of spirits
passing through and at the same time meaj3ured and recorded the
amount of the same. The connections of this apparatus with the still
and the dials being under the absolute control of the revenue officers,
it makes false returns and spurious distillations impossible. In this
connection reference must be made to the extensive and important
publications of this institution.

SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS.

All instruments of this class on exhibition gave evidence of the
^ame tendency. Lightness and stability of parts, a reduction in the
size of circles made possible by improvements in graduating and
reading circles, and an increase in the light-gathering power of the
telescopes are some of the directions along which the improvements
are made. For a time it was hoped that aluminum would be just the
metal to furnish the dual qualities of lightness and rigidity, but a
very little experience sufficed to show that the hope would not be
realized. However, it is playing a somewhat important part in some
of its alloys. Phosphor-bronze was used in many instruments for
wearing surfaces.

The most conspicuous contrast shown was along the line of theodo-
lites, transits, etc., when comparing the general American model
with the German model. The former is more compact, the circle is
nearer the tripod head, and the vertical axis, even when long, extends
downward sometimes below the top of the head.

The most marked improvements shown were: A "Cleps," by Sal-
moii*aghi, of Milan, which was a transit with the horizontal and verti-
cal circles inclosed within a box, and readings made by means of
microscopes; rapid-leveling tripod heads, by Buff & Berger, of Bos-
ton, and SaegmuUor, of Washington; superior drawing instruments
of Alteneder, of Philadelphia; and the cylindrical and cone-shaped
drawing instruments of Riefler, of Munich. The variety and general
excellence of the large displays of Queen & Co., of Philadelphia; W.
& L. E. Gurley, of Tro}^; Manasse, of Chicago; Keuffel & Esser, of
New York; and especially the large, well-arranged, and carefully cat-
alogued collection of instruments brought together and installed by
the German Society of Optics and Mechanics; and a tachygrapho
meter, by Tesdorpf, of Stuttgart. This instrument, intended for

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938 BEPOET OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

speedily workiDg out general and detailed plans, solves automatically,
by purely graphical means, those problems which ordinarily have to
be worked out by calculation. It dispenses with the calculation of
the coordinates of the position of the rods and the horizontal dis-
tances from the center of the instrument to the rod, and also the
absolute elevations above sea level are directly projected without the
assistance of tables or slide rules. Then, by slightly pressing upon
the needle apparatus, the readings are transferred to the paper to any
desired scale.

METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS.

The only marked advance shown by exhibits in this class was in the
direction of improved self-recording devices. This was especially
noticeable in the barometers, thermometers, and barographs of Dar-
ton, of London; Watson, of London; and Fuess, of Steglitz. How-
ever, it must be said that the aspirationspsychrometer of Assmann is
not only new but valuable, in that it enables one to determine at once,
without computation, both the temperature and the moisture of the air.

The Weather Bureau of the United States exhibited at work all of
the instruments used in meteorological investigations and observation.
It also made regular predictions of weather and printed in its own
building the daily weather chart.

The German Meteorological Institute showed a complete set of its
publications and a set of its routine instruments.

HOROLOGICAL DEVICES.

Although horology does not fall strictly within the classes here dis-
cussed, still three exhibits were assigned to us. The first was an
interesting series of historical ship chronometers, including one that
was wrecked at Samoa, one used on the Hall expedition, and one that
Greely carried to the f artherest north. In addition to these were sets of
the parts of chronometers and also a Seth Thomas astronomical clock.
The next was an extensive exhibit of the Self- Winding Clock Com-
pany of New York, showing clocks in which at regular intervals the
clock itself turned an electric current into a motor. This motor run-
ning rapidly for a short period wound up a spring of sufficient tension
to inin the clock for another period. They also exhibited programme
clocks so devised that bells would be rung according to any prear-
ranged schedule, and clocks which rang chimes by being provided with
a cylinder put in motion at the hour and half -hour. Eiach cylinder
was fitted with brushes disposed in such a way that each brush, in
passing a fixed point, turned on the circuit, causing its own electro-
magnet to strike a hammer against a sonorous tube or bell. The other
exhibit of this class was the Riefler mercurial compensating pendulum
and an escapement by the same maker and inventor. The former con-
sists of a steel tube, 16 mm. bore and 1 mm. thickness, tilled with

.. ...., ^oogle

WOBLD's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 939

mercury to about two-thirds its length. It has further a metal bob
\ireighing several kilograms and shaped to cut the air. Below the bob
are disc-shaped weights, attached by screws, for correcting the compen-
sation. By elaborate calculations involving the coefficients of expansion
for steel and mercury and the moments of inertia of the various parts,
the weight of the bulb has been determined wit^ such accuracy that
Director Seeliger felt impelled to conclude his report on the perform-
ance of one of these pendulums with the following words:

From the table of rates extracted from the records of this observatory it appears
that with a variation of temperature up to 30° C, no influence worth mentioning on
the rate of the clock can be perceived. It is therefore probable that the new pendu-
lum answers all requirements in as high a degree as is ever likely to be attained. A
similar perfection has only exceptionally been attained by the ordinary compensa-
tions, and even then only after long series of experiments, and, strictly speaking,
only by accident, while the distinguished success of this pendulum is based on calcu-
lations which may be made in advance with almost absolute accuracy. I therefore
feel convinced that this new pendulum of Mr. Riefler's is a most important and
wel6ome progress.

With reference to the escapement, it may be said that it is adapted
to all kinds of clocks of precision, and from experiment it appears to
secure the greatest possible accuracy. In this esciapement the pendu-
lum swings with perfect freedom, being connected with the clockwork
solely through the pendulum spring from which it receives the
impulse. The impulse is communicated by the wheel work bending
the pendulum spring a little at each oscillation of the pendulum,
which produces a slight tension in the spring. This tension force of
the pendulum spring gives the pendulum the impulse. As this bend-
ing takes place round an axis which is identical with the axis of oscil-
lation of the pendulum, and further occurs every time almost at the
moment in which the pendulum is swinging through the dead point,
we gain not only the perfect freedom of the pendulum, but also the
great advantage that irregularities in the communication of force from
the wheel work and in the resistances to escape can exert no detri-
mental influence on the uniformity of the motion of the clock, which
is not only in accordance with scientific theory, but has been practi-
cally proved by the excellent motion of numerous astronomical,
turret, and other clocks provided with this escapement.

INSTRUMENTS FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF HEAT.

Evidence was everywhere apparent of improvements in thermome-
ters, especially in the selection of a kind of glass which after heating
shows no residual expansion. The establishing of bureaus for testing
thermometers at Kew, Paris, Berlin, and Ilmenan has given an impulse
to thermometry which manufacturers have not been slow to take
advantage of. Here again we find exhibits of Darton, of London, the
Grand Ducal Standardizing Institute at Ilmenan, Ube, of Zerbst-
Anhalt, and Schultze, of Berlin. The substitution of the liquid alloy

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940 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

of potassium and sodium in place of mercury has enabled makers to
construct thermometers reading up to 500^ C. No attempt was made
to exhibit metallic thermometers nor thermo-electric pyrometer. In
this connection mention should be made of the standards of length and
graduating engine of Prof. W. A. Rogei-s, of Colby University. The
latter makes it possible to graduate a circle and to investigate the
errors of gi-aduation, while the comparator gives promise of deter-
mining one length in terms of another to any degree of exactness.

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS.

The wealth of exhibits along this line was very marked, and the
general excellence was of a high grade. American makers showed
. lenses of their own casting and gi'inding, microscopes and telescopes
with novel and original mountings, and opthalmic instruments with
many improvements. European manufacturers have continued in
their general advance, and now progress has ceased to be marked by
geographic boundaries. However, it must be said that a great stim-
ulus has been furnished by Messrs. Zeiss, of Jena, in the introduction
of their ^'apoechromatic" lenses, and the use of a new glass made by
Schott, of Jena. This glass is the outcome of scientific investigations
on the correlation of the optical properties of glass and its chemical
constitution, which formed the starting point of the smelting of glass
in Jena, have at the same time resulted in a considerable extension of
the number of glasses which may be applied for purposes of practical
optics, and opticians have now a series of new types at their command
which vary considerably from the older crowns and flints with respect
to refractive and dispersive power. This extension of the range of
available material led in several provinces of piuctical optics to valua-
ble improvements, which natui'ally originated in Germany. Telescop-
ical optics is that department which hitherto has derived the least
benefit from the new glasses. Partly on account of the difficulties
attending, with some of the new glasses, the production of large disks
sufficiently free from defects, and partly because of the aptitude of
these fusions to yield to atmospheric influences, it has been deemed
wiser to continue to employ the older types of crown and flint glass
for the manufacture of telescopic objectives. In the construction of
photographic lenses, and of the microscope, the greatly extended
range in the refractive and dispersive powers of the glasses has in the
meantime given rise to many practical successes in valuable combina-
tions, which with the older material could not possibly be produced.
In the case of photographic lenses, this success is mainly due to the
fact that with the new glasses achromatic doublets may be (constructed
in which at will the positive or the negative member may be made to
have the higher refractive index, whilst with the older material achro-
matization of a collective lens always assigned the higher refractive

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WOBLD's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 941

index to the negative, in the case of a dispersive lens to the positive
member. The removal of this limitation, which was mainly effected
by the introduction of the Jena baryta glasses, has resulted in a series
of new photographic combinations. In the case of the microscope the
conditions for the utilization of the progress made in glass smelting
were much more favorable; for in this case also such fusions could be
employed which are obtainable only in relatively small quantities, and
furthermore the material is in a much less degree required to resist
external influences. Consequently, even such glasses as the phosphate
and baryta glasses have been largely employed in microscopic lenses,
though, for those two considemtions, entirely out of place in other
combinations. These new glass types have furnished the means for
vast improvements in the chromatic and spherical correction of micro-
scope lenses and in the increase of the magnifying power of the ocular.
The same general improvements were noticeable in the opthalmic
exhibits of Jung, of Heidelberg, Lydow, of Berlin, the Augenklink of
the German Universities, Baush & Lomb, of Rochester, The Geneva
Company, of Chicago, and the Grundlach Company, of Rochester. In
several instances these makers showed microscopes, as did Ross, of Lon-
don. The improvements may be summarized under more accurate
focusing devices by using oblique i*achet screws, improved objectives,
and devices for illumination and polarization.

The projection apparatus has now become a valuable adjunct to all
forms of instruction, and here again the makers have kept pace with
the wants of the users, as can be seen in the exhibits of Queen & Co.,
of Philadelphia, the Mcintosh Company, of Chicago, and McAllister,
of New York.

Because of the great importance of spectrum analysis a large variety
of spectroscopes were exhibited, equipped for a great variety of work,
and in some cases provided with multiple prisms. In this line Schmidt
and Haensch, of Berlin, were large exhibitors.

On account of the great progress made by J. A. Brashear, of Alle-
gheny, Pa., in the manufacture of accurate optical instruments, it may
be well to give a somewhat detailed account of his exhibit and his
methods of manufacture.

Critically accurate prisms were made from the glass which was fur-
nished him by Mantois, of Paris. The constants of the various wave
lengths entering into the problem were detennined with very great
accuracy, and the curves were computed from these constants so as to
eliminate spherical aberration and give the very best possible color
correction to the objective. Fortunately, the density of the glass was
very nearly equal throughout, so that a spherical figure to each surface
was produced by his methods of polishing and "figuring," and, as a
consequence, the objective came out exactly as it was computed; and,
from the tests made by Professors Keeler, director of the Allegheny

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942 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

Observatory, and Leuschner, of Berkley Obsei^vatory, the glass was
pronounced as perfect as could be made from the material at the com-
mand of the optician. It has a clear aperture of 18 inches and a focal
length of 26 feet 4 inches. He also exhibited a 9J-inch objective, an
8i-inch objective, and a O-in^h objective, with a number of smaller
objectives, which have the same general characteristics as the 18-inch,
having all been worked from mathematical computations, and each
glass having been critically tested before being sent to the World's
Fair. In fact, none of these objectives were made to exhibit except
the 18-inch. They have all been purchased, and some were sold before
being sent to the World's Fair. One of the objectives that he exhib-
ited is perhaps worthy of special description, although it has been
described in the American Journal of Science and Art. This objective
was made by Dr. Charles Hastings, and is perhaps the most perfect
specimen of an achromatic objective with two lenses that has ever been
constructed. When Dr. Hastings made a critical study of the various
new f oi-ms of glass made at the Jena optical glass factory he discov-
ered a crown and flint, which, when combined properly, gave a per-
fect color correction. The crown glass was a "potassium silicate
crown," and the flint a " boro-silicate flint." Both the objectives made
from that glass, according to the critical study and curves given by
Dr. Hastings, gave results superior to anything that was ever before
attained in the use of two lenses; but it was found that the crown lens
would not hold its surface permanently, its deliquescent qualities for-
bidding its use, and hence he had reluctantly to give up the making of
these objectives. It was also found very diflScult to secure large disks
of "boro-silicate flint," otherwise an absolutely perfect objective of
large size might be made by combining two such flints with the crown
lens in the center, and, by cementing with castor oil, protect the surfaces
from contact with the moist atmosphere. He also exhibited a number
of plane and parallel surfaces made for the Michelson and Jamin
refractometers. The limiting error in these surfaces is less than one-
twentieth of a wave length of sodium light, or, saj', one-millionth of an
inch. Then come the grating plates, which are corrected either to an
optical plane or a true spherical surface within one-tenth of a wave
length of light. It would not, of course, be just to claim anything in
regard to the ruling, as this is Professor Rowland's part of the work.
Brashear polishes and corrects the surfaces. They arc then sent to
Professor Rowland, who does the ruling, and then they are returned to
and by Brashear distributed to scientiBc men all over the world. The
ruling is, of course, the most perfect that has ever been attempted.
Wanschaff, of Berlin, and Sir Archibald Campbell, of Glasgow, have of
late years made very serious attempts to make these gratings, but
there are none in use for high-class work.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 943

I^rismsform another part of his exhihit, — ^The great difficulty that
has been met with in producing fine prisms is that so many of them
are overcorrected at the edges. His prisms are made perfectly flat up
to the extreme edges, and he leaves no error greater than one-fifth of
a wave length in the prisms. The prisms of the great Lick spectro-
scope, and the great Princeton spectroscope, of the Government spec-
troscope, and the Yerkes star spectroscope, and most all the tele-
spectroscopes of this country and a large number in Europe have been
made by him. He also exhibited a number of silvered glass specula
which are worked to a true parabolic figure.

In the instrument department he exhibited the large Star spectro-
scope for the 40-inch Yerkes equatorial telescope. The spectroscope
is designed and constructed for the purpose of a spectroscopic study
of the stars. It is not designed for a universal instrument, although
it can be utilized for other purposes than stellar spectroscopy. It Ms
fitted with a system of prisms and objectives that make it available
for either visual or spectroscopic work. The construction is such as
to give it great rigidity, and one of the classes of work that it is par-
ticularly designed for is for the measurement of the motion of stars
in the line of sight. It is also fitted with a diffraction grating for
visual observations, and it has every appliance in the way of attach-
ments and accessories for the highest class of modern spectroscopic
work. Every morning part of the instrument is graduated so that
when the constants for temperature are once determined, the settings
for various temperatures can be done with great facility. An inde-
pendent telescope is provided for both the grating spectra and the
prism spectra, which is used to place any star centrally upon the slit.

He also exhibited a ''standard " spectroscope, adapted for all classes
of work; in these instruments we have embodied a great many features
to facilitate spectroscopic work in astronomical research. This spec-
troscope is adapted to be used with telescopes from 10 inches to 20
inches aperture.

He exhibited a smaller telespectroscope of the same general form,
for use with telescopcvs from 6 inches to 10 inches aperture. A large
number of the universal spectroscopes are now in use and give general
satisfaction. All the optical parts are made with the greatest precision.

The prisms and objectives of the smallest spectroscope are made
with the same care that is expended upon the larger and more costly
instruments.

Telescopes were represented by a small equatorial b}'' SaegmuUer of
Washington, which might be regarded as an evidence of his abilities
in this class of work and on a smaller scale showing the improvements
which he introduced into his Denver telescope.

Warner & Swasey, of Cleveland, showed their best work in the
mounting of the Yerkes telescope built for the University of Chicago.

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944 BBPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

In designing a large telescoj)e, the first element to which the engi-
neer naturally gives his attention is the tube; for, while its office is a
veiy simple one, being merely to hold the objective and the eyepiece
in their proper relation to each other and to enable the astronomer
to direct the optical axis to the star, it is an extremely impoilant
factor. The two most essential points in the tube are lightness and
rigidity, the former for ease of motion and the latter to reduce flexure
to a minimum. The material best calculated to give these two quali-
ties seems at the present time to be sheet steel. Some material having
aluminum as a base has been sought for, but thus far none has been
found giving the requisite rigidity. The form of the tube has much
to do with its rigidity, a slight increase in diameter at the center
serving to stiffen it to a great degree, and causing thinner material to
suffice. No form of internal bracing seems so effective as the same
amount of material used in the shell itself. In the tubes of the three
large telescopes named there is, therefore, no bracing whatever, all
the strains, both in tension and compression, being taken by the sheet
steel forming the tube.

The tube for the 40-inch Yerkes telescope is 42 inches in diameter at
the objective end, 52 inches at the center, and 38 inches at the eye
end. The sheet steel forming the tube varies from 7.32 inches in
thickness at the center to 1.8 inches at the ends. The total weight of
the tube is 6 tons. The declination axis carrying the tube is of forged
steel, 12 inches in diameter and 12 feet long, its weight being IJ tons
This runs in segmental babbitt bearings in the declination sleeve, which
weighs 4r tons. The polar axis carrying the whole system is of hard
forged steel, 16 inches in diameter at the upper bearing and 12 inches
at the lower bearing, and weighs 3J tons. Just above its upper
bearing it carries the main driving gear, weighing 1 ton and having
330 teeth, by which the movement of the driving clock is communi-
cated to to the polar axis. The great weight of the bearings of these
axes is almost wholly relieved, and thQ resistance changed from sliding
to rolling friction by means of three bracelets or live rings of steel
rolls. One of these encircles the declination axis near the tube and
one is placed al)ove each bearing on the polar axis. These antifriction
live rings run in steel yokes, and are pressed against the axes by means
of adjustable spring levers.

The live ring of rolls which is on the declination axis near the tul>e
is the center of gravity of the system comprising the tube and the
declination axis with their attiichments, this one series of rolls serving
to take the weight off both besvrings of the declination axis, and so
nearly eliminating friction that, less than 1 pound of direct pressure
on the tube is required for each ton of weight moved. This live ring
is composed of 16-inch rolls, 5 inches long and 3 inches in diameter,
and carries a total weight of 8 tons. The live ring at the upper end

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 945

of the polar axis is composed of 16 rolls, 6 inches long and 4 inches in
diameter. This sustains a weight of nearly 20 tons. The endthrust
of all this great weight, due to the angle at which the axis is placed,
is taken on a double series of forty 1-inch hardened steel balls.

The methods of balancing the movable parts of the Yerkes telescope
have been a special study, with results which seem all that can be
desired.

The heaviest accessory to be used with the telescope is the solar
spectroscope. With this in position, the tube is accurately balanced.
Weights are then placed on the extension of the declination sleeve
until the whole system is in balance. When the solar spectroscope is
to be removed, sufficient supplementary weights are placed at the side
of the eye end of the tube, so the balance is not disturbed.

The equatorial head and its bearings supporting the polar axis and
the entire movable part of the telescope is cast in one piece, its base
conforming to the rectangular shape of the column.

The column is 11 by 5 feet at the base, tapering to 10 by 5 feet at
the head. It is cast in five sections, having internal flanges for securely
bolting it together. In the upper section is placed the driving clock.
A spiral staircase at the south side of the column gives easy access to
the driving clock, and also to the balcony surrounding the head.

The driving clock is governed by a double conical pendulum,
mounted isochronously, and making 60 revolutions per minute.

A driving weight, considerably in excess of the amount required to
drive the telescope, is used with this clock, the surplus of power being
taken by a friction ring placed just above the pendulum. The arms
of the pendulum are so arranged that in operation they always take
their natural and theoretical positions, not being swerved therefrom
by the action of the power on the friction ring above mentioned.
When the clock is undamped from the polar axis all the power
required to move the telescope is instantly transferred to the friction
ring, and the pendulum maintains its theoretical position and normal
rate. An electric motor is provided for automatically winding the
clock.

All clamps and slow motions, both in declination and right ascen-
sion, are operated by handles at the eye end within easy reach of the
observer, while the assistant on the balcony can also set the telescope
in any position and read the circles. In addition, electric motors are
provided for operating all quick and slow motions and clamps.

These various motions and clamps being operated by the astronomer
at the eye end of the tube either by hand or by means of the electric
motors, and also by the assistant on the balcony, are so arranged that
any one method of working them is not interfered with by either of
the others. Each motion is therefore always ready for action and no
conflict is possible.

COL EXPO— 02 60 ^ T

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946 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

Incident to the construction of large telescopes, problemg are pre-
sented in providing domes to cover them, and elevating floors by
means of which their use is made more convenient.

These problems have been ver}' satisfactorily solved, for the domes
of the best construction will revolve by a direct power of two pounds
per ton of weight moved.

Elevating floors of nearly the diameter of the domes are in success-
ful use with the 36-inch Lick telescope and also with the 26-inch
telesc»ope at the new Naval Observatory at Washington. Both these
elevating floors are operated by hydraulic power, the simple movement
of a lever suflBcing to raise or lower them.

EXHIBIT OF THE UNITED STATES C50AST AND GEODETIC SURVEY.

In common with all maritime nations, the United States follows the
wise and beneficent policy of obtaining a full and complete knowledge
of its coast, its nature and form, the character of the sea bottom
near it, the location of reefs, shoals, and other dangers to navigation,
the direction and strength of currents, and the character and amount
of magnetic disturbance. Some idea of the importance to this country
of such investigations and their extent may be formed when it is remem-
bered that the shore line of the United States, as surveyed, includes
30,000 miles, not counting Alaska, which is several times as extensive.

The United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, established as a bureau
under the Secretary of the Treasury, is the organization charged with
the collection, compilation, and publication of this information.

PUBLICATIONS.

Forming part of the exhibit, the 500 different charts which it pub-
lishes present a condensed summary of investigations conducted in the
field by a body of trained experts. These are supplemented by printed
tide tables for all the principal and many minor ports; a monthly edition
of 10,000 copies of a circular known as "' Notices to Mariners," contain-
ing notes of all the changes alpng the coast; Coast Pilots, containing
minute directions for all navigable waters along our coasts; and the
Report of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, which contains, besides the
reports of the Superintendent and his assistants on the conduct of the
work, a series of special reports upon various technical and scientific
operations of the Service.

FIELD OPERATIONS.

The fieldwork of the Survey consists of a number of operations, geo-
detic in their nature. A system of primary triangulation, together with
the determination of geogmphical positions by means of astronomical
methods, furnishes the foundation upon which the whole rests. This

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World's Columbian exposition, 1893. 947

system controls the work upon the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf coasts.
It is being extended into the interior and across the continent, so as to
form a rigid connection between the great systems of either coast, and
at the same time to furnish the various States geographical positions
and distances, determined by the most exact methods on which to base
their surveys.

BANE MEASURES.

The measured base might well be termed the corner stone of this
foundation, since on its accuracy depends the precision of all the dis-
tances determined from the horizontal angles observed at the vertices
of the triangles fonning the system. Several types ©f base apparatus
are exhibited, but attention is especially directed to the Iced Bar
apparatus, both on account of its novelty and the attainment by its
use of a higher degree of accuracy than any hitherto known. The bar
lies in a trough, and when in use is surrounded by crushed ice, thus
getting rid of all temperature corrections, which have always proved
a source of weakness in all base apparatus. The probable error of the
result obtained by this means is less than one five-millionth of the dis-
tance measured.

Another novel type is the Duplex apparatus. In each of the two
tubes of this apparatus there are two bars of nearly equal length, one
of steel and one of brass. They are so arranged that the measure-
ment may be conducted with and expressed in terms of either compor
nent. The difference between the measured lengths as expressed by
the two components affords a measure of the average temperature of
either component during the measure.

TRIANGDLATION AND ASTRONOMY.

The various instruments used in conducting the primary triangula-
tions, both for the measure of horizontal angles and for astronomical
work are exhibited, among which are two types of instruments for the
determination of latitude by the Talcott method, a method which owes
its development to the Survey. There is also shown the arrangement
of a field station for the determination of longitude by telegraph, or
the "American method," so called on account of its being first con-
ceived and practiced by the Survey.

TOPOGRAPHY.

The topographical work of the Survey is illustrated by the display
of relief models, original field sheets, and the instruments used in their
production; notably the plane table, which has been constantly
improved since the first introduction into the Survey, and which has
been found to be most effective in nearly all classes of work.

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948 REPORT OF COMMITTKE ON AWARDS.

HYDROGRAPHY.

The hydrographic work of the Survey is dinpla^^ed aboard the
steamer Blakt\ which is completely fitted for all kinds of hydro-
graphic operations, and is on exhibition at the water front of the
Exposition. One of the features aboard the Blake is the Sigsbee
machine for deep-sea soundings, with which depths have been recorded
of over 4,500 fathoms. Also the novel device by means of which she
anchored while investigating the currents of the Gulf Stream, in a
depth of over 2 miles.

TIDES AND CURRENTS.

On account of the importance of a knowledge of the tide^s and cur-
rente along our coast the Survey has given' much attention to their
study. Some of the methods pursued and resulte obtained are indi-
cated by the cxhibite, among which is the tidal model, which shows by
means of a miniature representation of the actual process how the
tides are automatically recorded; a full-sized self -registering gauge;
tide-predicting machine; volumes of tide tables for a thousand ports
and stations, and several types of current meters for automatically
registering the velocity and direction of the currents.

MAQNKTICS.

It has been necessary for the Survey to determine the magnetic
elemente at many widely distributed points throughout our territory
in order to furnish mariners, civil engineers, and surveyors reliable
information on this subject. The portion of the exhibit devoted to
terrestrial magnetism includes instruments for the determination of its
component forces, such as the declinometer, the magnetometer, and
the dip circle; two globes 1 meter in diameter on which are show
the magnetic curves, and numerous tables and charte indicating the
variation of the needle for many localities.

Gravity.— The measurement of the force of gravity by means of the
pendulum is not only of scientific and practical interest in ite relation
to the figure of the earth, but is also of importance in connection
with the adjustment of a system of primary triangulation. At pres-
ent, owing to the local deflection of the plumb line, discrepancies occur
between the astronomical and geodetic deteraiinations of pointe on the
earth's surface. With more data from this source it is confidently
expected that certain formulas will be derived, which when applied
will reconcile the apparent differences between these two methods.
In 1890 a complete departure was made in the Survey regarding the
form of instrument and the method of observation. A small pendu-
lum, one-fourth the length of the previous one, was constructed as
designed by Dr. Mendenhall, and an elegant method, also suggested
by him, permits the work being done with numeroua advantages over

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WOBLD's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 949

the older methods. The support is entirely free from flexure, the
swinging is done in a closed chamber protected from currents of air and
rapid change of temperature, the observations are easily made, the
pendulums are very portable, and the accuracy attained is far superior
to any hitherto reached. Unfortunately, owing to the exigencies of
field work, the only portion of this novel apparatus which could be
spared for the exhibit was the pendulum. Photographs which accom-
pany it, however, may give some idea of the receiver, the flash-light
device, and the general arrangement of the apparatus when in operation.
Hypsometry. — The necessity of the Survey for a more precise method
of leveling in connection with the other geodetic work has resulted in a
special form of instrument, one of which is exhibited.

MODBL OP UNITED RTATES AND ALASKA.

In order to show in a graphic manner the nature and scope of somig
of the operations of the Survey, and at the same time to present to
those interested in the geography of our country a clearer idea of its
true proportions, a model was constructed of the United States and
Alaska, as if they were cut out from a sphere about 42 feet in diameter.
The various dimensions of the physical features shown on its surface
are thus diminished to one-millionth their natural size. This model is
in relief, but contrary to the usual custom in making relief maps the
vertical scale adopted is the same as that for horizontal distances. It
is believed that it will serve to correct some erroneous impressions
entertained by those whose knowledge of the earth's surface has been
derived from customary sources, where owing to the exaggeration of
the vertical scale an exalted notion is obtained of the height and mass
of mountain chains utterly out of proportion to the expanse of terri-
tory in which they are situated. It will serve also to emphasize the
symmetry of the curve of the earth's surface — a curve of such magni-
tude that mountains and valleys merely roughen the smoothness of its
line.

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ARTISTIC IRONWORK.

L. O. LAUREATJ.

961

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ARTISTIC IRONWORK.

By L. G. Laurkau.

The exhibit in these two classes was large and varied. There were
regrettable gaps, as, for instance, in the British department, where
examples of the clever handicmft of English art iron workers were
entirely lacking; but, on the whole, the exhibit was very satisfactory
both as to the number of pieces and the high class of workmanship
displayed. One fact was made conspicuous, viz, that America needs
no longer to look to Europe for her supplies of art ironwork. Despite
the much to be regretted abstention of several esteemed workers, the
fact that since the Centennial Exhibition of 1876 the United States
have made a giant's leap in this direction is made evident by the pro-
ductions of the few who answered the call of the Columbian Exposition
managers.

Iron was known in the remotest antiquity, since it has been found in
the pyramid of Cheops, where it was used as dowel pins to hold stones
together. Such a pin of iron was found under Cleopatra's needle now
in Central Park; it was of a steelv' nature, containing 0.52 per cent
carbon, but remarkably pure otherwise. The Romans used iron in
their monuments as pins and clamps, while the Gauls, long before the
Roman invasion, made ornaments and weapons of it. They may be
said to be the first art workers in iron in the West. But the modes of
manufacture were such that no great mass could be produced, for if
we except the great iron pillars of Kutub, India, * we find no heavy
work in iron until we reach a comparatively recent date. Very sim-
ple window guards, consisting of one or two bars hammered into crudely
ornamental shapes, are first met. A few of these specimens older than
the tenth century are still extant, but it is not until a century later
that what may really be called an artistic piece of ironwork is found.
VioUet-le-Duc states that the oldest ornamental iron grille is now in
a church at Puy en Velay, France. It is a simple but strong arrange-
ment of scroll work, made of square hammered bars, finished on the

'This pillar is 23 feet 8 inches high, 16.4 inches diameter at the base and a little
more than 12 inches at the top. It has a molded base and capital and weighs over
6 tons. Fergusson says it dates from the end of the fourth century A. D. Later
observers have assigned to it a greater antiquity. It is impossible to understand how
such a mass was produced with the means at hand.

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954 REPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

surface with marks of a blunt-nosed tool. From this time on the art
of working iron into ornamental figures for railings and other purposes
progressed rapidly until in the middle of the thirteenth century it
reached a stage of development which may have been equaled but
never surpassed. The workers of that time handled iron in a straight-
forward manner which puts to shame some of our latter-da}^ workmen,
whose effort seems to be to conceal the nature of the material they
are treating by adopting fanciful and overloaded forms quite out of
keeping with the rugged rigidity of iron. The mediaeval workman is
not a deceiver; he does not condescend to a mere imitation of nature,
he conventionalizes his leaves, his flowers; he uses them sparingl}^
only as terminals for his strong branch work, and when his task is done
the result has the boldness, the crispness of an artist's sketch. In
fact, in mediaeval times such details of ornamentation were artists'
sketches. The design sprung in the head of the man who executed
it. He Mas not a mere workman who fumblingly tried to follow a
draftsman's full- sized drawing or a clay model; each curve of the
scroll, each leaf, each flower was the expression of a personal feeling.
This, probabl}^ is an explanation of the fact that while the sight of
some great modern impei'sonal work — if I may be allowed to call it
so — leaves us indifferent and gives us simply an impression of size,
we stand delighted before a mere hinge of the thirteenth century.
We possess fine specimens belonging to this period. The railings in
Westminster Abbey and in the Church of St. Denis and the great
hinges of Notre Dame of Paris are conspicuous examples.

The art of working iron into fanciful shapes for public and private
uses seems to have spread mpidly throughout Europe, and from the
twelfth century on the craft becomes an important one. None of
the works are ponderous; iron is not yet obtained in large masses,
but it is utilized for many purposes; window guards, altar and choir
railings, well fixtures, signs, weather vanes, hinges, bolts, locks, etc.,
are found everywhere, and as time goes by the production becomes
greater and greater. The same spirit of loyalty to the material is
observable in the designs up to the middle of the seventeenth century.
New devices are introduced, such as heads of fanciful animals, but the
leaf and flower ornamentation remains conventional. To that flour-
ishing period belongs the railing of Maximilian's tomb, at Innsbruck.
The National Bavarian Museum is rich in models of that age, and so
are the Cluny and Kensington mus(»ums. Scroll work remains the
main feature of the general design, but it is noticeable that the sim-
plicity, to rigid straightforwardness of the earlier period is no longer
strictly adhered to. The material is twisted into more diflBcult shapes,
sometimes presenting enormous difficulties in execution. Yet the
convention rules in iron work long after the Renaissance had swept
aside the older styles in Europe. Franco, Germany, England, Italy

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 955

abound in very fine work of the nixteenth and seventeenth centuries
which still breathes the old spirit. At the end of the seventeenth
century the workman, no longer a designer as well, urged on by the
requirements of a more florid style, becomes too clever, and the archi-
tect makes a wrong use of this cleverness by causing him to imitate
nature. Leaves and flowers are deconventionalized, works of greater
dimension, made easier by improved methods of making iron, are
undertaken where mass and details do not always sustain proper rela-
tions, and iron is put to illegitimate uses, inasmuch as it is made to
take the place of the more plastic metals, and wood, even.

It is not meant here to condemn all artistic iron work made after
the latter end of the seventeenth century, for the period has given us
wonderful examples which can not \)e praised too highly. The grille
in the Galerie d'ApoUon in the Louvre, the door of the Belvedere at
Vienna, the B^rain railing in the church of St. Gervais in Paris, the
railing of Place Stanislaus in Nancy, the beautiful smaller iron fittings
of the period, and many other pieces stand to refute the ultra medi-
sevalists. It is true, however, that the Renaissance, and especially its
developments*in the eighteenth century, has opened the door for mere
imitation iron work, and has also given birth to a lifeless convention-
alism which gradually led to the degredation of the art, from which it
has been jedeemed only through the most strenuous efforts of the best
artists and architects in Europe and America.

Some of the examples found in the Columbian Exposition lead one
to fear that the eighteenth century has too great a part in inspiring
the modern worker. Much of the work is florid to a degree. This is
a pitfall from which we will do well to keep away. The door hinges
of Notre Dame and the altar mil of St. Ulrich at Augsburg are safer
guides than the grille from Wiirzburg in the National Bavarian Mu-
seum. Iron made into nosegays of delicate flowers is like Hercules at
the spinning wheel — out of place.

Germany's display was the most important in point of number of
individual exhibits and size of pieces exhibited. The workmanship is
generally good, and in some cases exceptional I3" so. The designs seem
to be dominated by the eighteenth century spirit. The influence of
the style developed under Louis XIV and his successors is visible in
all the major works, while in some of the smaller ones we rejoice to
find the inspiration coming from more indigenous sources.

The most conspicuous example in the Gemian section was the great
gate to the German court, by Armbriister Brothers, of Frankfort-on-the-
Main. The design was intricate and florid, though probably not more
so than might be expected in the piece made for exhibition purposes.
The flower and leaf work are strong and executed in the right spirit,
the whole l)eing done with hammer and chisel, not a particle of cast
and dye work being used in the construction of these gates. There

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956 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

was a certain ruggedness in the general workmanship which might
have been toned down without injury to the result, but, on the whole,
the production was highly commendable.

In addition to these gates, Armbruster Brothers exhibited a large
number of specimens of their work, showing high-class workmanship
at the forge in the treatment of the most intricate flower and leaf
work. Two large brackets, unpainted, just as they came out of the
hand of the smith, are conspicuous. Also, a very florid balcony i-ailing
(gilded all over, alas!), and many minor pieces such as small biucketa,
candelabras, mirror frames, wreaths, etc\, all evidences of good and
honest workmanship.

Franz Brechenmacher, of Frankfort-on-the-Main, had at the entrance
of the German section of the mines building a very good, large park
gate, highly ornamental in design, the flower and leaf work executed
in the strong, somewhat rugged manner which characterizes all the
German larger pieces in the Exposition. The genei'al effect was fine.

Edward Puis, of Berlin, brought a gate placed at the entrance of
the Bavarian south room, and the railings and gates to the south log-
gias in the main court of the German section. In general design
there was an attempt to break away from accepted models. The orna-
mentation was profuse, and especially in the loggia railings, but,
although the introduction of bronze leaf work may not have produced
as happy an effect as was expected, the general appearance was very
satisfactory. The workmanship was good, and some specially diflScult
assembled pieces, like the .balusters, showed great skill.

F. Biihler & Son, of Offenburg, executed the gates to the north
loggias to the German court from an eighteenth century design fur-
nished by the Baden Art School. Stout leaf work, diflicult in execu-
tion, was the principal feature. We again find a certain ruggedness
in this work, but the same firm shows a screen of a similar design, in
the Baden Niche outside the court, where the leaves in the frame are
much more highly finished.

Max. Marcus, of Berlin, had a high-grade exhibit of smaller art
ironwork. In an ornamental case made of iron and plate glass made
by him he exhibited several highly finished small objects, such as a
clock, some candelabra and candlesticks, an ostrich egg mounted and
ornamented in seventeenth century style, etc. The work is almost as
fine as that of the silversmith, the surfaces being smoothed and emery-
finished after the hammer has done its work. The same exhibitor had
several brackets and lamps, as well as a pair of andirons of very good
designs and finish. The collection as a whole deserves high praise.

R. Kirsch, of Munich, had a varied exhibit of lamp-posts, lamps,
lanterns, chandeliers for gas and electricity, etc. The designs were
satisfactory and the execution good A chimney garniture of clock
and candelabra showed high finish. A highly ornamental bell pull with

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 957

capital leaf and flower ornament was also noticeable. Probably the
best piece in the exhibit was the ornamentation of the fire front of the
same chimney, conceived in true medisBval spirit.

Among the remaining smaller exhibits several pieces were worthy
of mention. A very good seventeenth century door knocker by F.
Kmcklauer, of Munich; a renaissance casket by Fred Kayser, of
Leipsic; some good flowers by G. Stumpf, of Munich; a repouss^
iron portrait with florid iron frame, by Peter Liebig, of Munich, which
just missed being entirely satisfactory by the evidence of hurried
work; two lamp-posts, by Carl KOckert, of Dessau, too florid in
design but of good workmanship.

Two manufacturers of ornamental ironwork, Peter Koelbl & Son
and Robeii; Sc*hmidt & Co., both of Munich, exhibit a large variety of
smaller articles, such as candlesticks, lamps, and lamp brackets, lantierns,
household ornaments, etc. These exhibitors are styled manufacturers,
because their wares are more strictly commercial than artistic and are
made in large quantities to supply a cheap article. Despite the low
price the manufactures are of very fair quality.

Another branch of manufacture in the class of ornamental ironwork
ciills our attention. Mannstaedt & Co., of Kalk, had a large exhibit
of rolled ornamental and plain iron moldings for door and window
jambs, window sashes, hand rails, posts, etc. They also exhibited a
variety of ornamental drop forgings and stamped ornaments to be used
in the cuiTent manufacture of fancy I'ailings.

Val. Hammeran, of Frankfort-on-the-Main, had a similar exhibit,
the manufacture in this case being confined to ornamental elements
for all sorts of fancy ironwork. The greater part of these elements
were stamped, but art forgings, ready to incorporate into any work,
were also shown. Among these were fantastic heads drawn out of the
solid bar and some flowers and branches worth}'^ of the highest praise.
They certainly were executed by a man who understood the nature of
the material and knew how to avoid the pitfall of lifeless imitation.
They may justly be classed among the very best in the Exposition.

Austria sent several characteristic exhibits. As in other depart-
ments of modern ornamentation in that country, there is ih ironwork
an evident endeavor to find new designs. The result is not alwajs
entirely satisfactory, but the effort should be dul}^ recognized. As to
workmanship, it is generally smoother than that found in German
examples.

Albert Milde, of Vienna, exhibited a large number of objects
finished in a very careful and smooth manner. There were examples
of railings^ lamps and posts, candelabra, etc., and a very good mirror
frame of intricate design. Two repouss^ heads were more successful
than such things usually are when done in iron, which seems to have
its shoiixjomings in the representation of the human figure and face.

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958 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

Liidwig Wilhelm, of Vienna, had an exhibit of iron railings of fair
designs, where stamped elements were used to good advantage. His
candelabm were commendable, more so than some ronde-bosse iron
panels representing boys at play. A large beaten copper ^'Apprentice
at his vise " showed careful work.

August Schwartz, of Vienna, exhibited a large assortment of small
artistic work such as candlesticks, brackets, c^ndelabi-a, etc. The
entire exhibit was highly polished and finely finished. The polished
iron mantel clock was noticeable.

Alexander Nehr, of Vienna, exhibited two ornamented full armors
in renaissance style, and various objects, among which were a very
fanciful mirror fmme and a chimney mantel with hood. All these
pieces were very highly polished.

Italy sent several exhibitors whose productions were somewhat
lacking in strength. In genei'al, the designs were florid and the exe-
cution lacked distinctive character. Some exhibitors confined them-
selves to the manufacture of lanterns, others to mirror frames. In
nearly all cases the iron treated was thin, and the ornaments seemed
as if beaten out of thin sheet iron. There were redeeming exceptions
to the general rule.

Prospero Castello, of Turin, exhibitexi a panel of stair railing with
newel post of florid design done in a very neat and smooth manner.
It was a well-finished piece of work, although the leaves appeared a
little weak by reason of the thinness of the metal.

(t. Guaita & Sons, of Turin, had a large exhibit of wrought-iron
ornament for Interiors, such as fancy stands for wash basins, lamps,
chandeliers, etc. The designs were of a rather bizarre character, and
the workmanship slightly rugged.

Benedetto Zaiafii & Sons, of Siena, showed some lamp stands, can-
delabras, wreaths, etc., very florid, but a little weak in execution.

France had only two exhibitors, if we exclude Ferdinand Marrou,
of Rouen, whose exquisite mediaeval fire screen was exhibited in the
Fine Art Palace. These exhibits, though very different in character,
showed excellent treatment of the material in hand, and, both in design
and workmanship, were thoroughly commendable.

Disch'n, of Paris, had an excellent assortment of ornamental iron-
work, mainly for interior decoration. With the exception of a pair
of large flowery andirons, probably made to show what could be done
in that style, the designs are conceived in the right spirit; they are
graceful but slightly rigid, as befits the nature of iron. The file is
never or seldom used on the surfaces, and they seem to be finished
with emery after the hammer has done its work so as to expose the
grain of the metal. The workmanship throughout is very good. It
is difficult to name any special piece in this exhibit, so uniform are
they in merit. Among those to which attention may be called was a

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 959

chimney garniture consisting of clock and candelabras, a large lamp
stand, a large hammered iron renaissance gas and electric chandelier,
several hall lamps, especially a large Louis XIII piece, etc. In pure
forge work the massive andirons from Viollet-le-Duc designs show
how much robust charm may be imparted to a piece of iron properly
treated. A forged bunch of grapes and vine leaves was equal to Val
Hammeran's art forgings mentioned above.

L. Maison, of Les Riceys, exhibits a panel of stair rail and the abut-
ment, or newel, for the same. This work was, unfortunately, mis-
placed in the gallery of the Transpoilation Building. The effect is
obtained by a combination of polished and cast brass. The main
body of the railing, frame, and scroll work were made of highly
polished iron, while the leaf and flower work, used sparingly, was of
polished brass. The design was simple, but robust, both the iron and
brass members retaining as much strength as the purpovses of the
structure would allow without making it too heavy. The workman-
ship was excellent. Such details as the assembling of the members
and tiie gradual decrease of the convoluted branching toward the flower
were executed with surprising care. It was a perfect piece of work.

Russia had but one exhibitor, L. Renner, of St. Petersburg, who
sent few specimens of his work. They consisted of hammered rosettes,
lantern brackets, leaf work, etc., and showed a good knowledge of
the art.

Spain had a few exhibits of art iron work. Generally the exhibitors
seemed to have spent much ingenuity in imitating flowers and leaves.

Gonzales & Sons, of Barcelona, had an iron table of a rather fan-
tastic design but good workmanship. The top was of iron with low-
relief repouss^ medallions finely executed. The same firm had a very
good pair of candelabras of sober design and strong execution.

Manual Ballarin, of Barcelona, had a stand with vase and flowers.
The workmanship was good, though the effect was weakened by an
evident effort to copy nature too closely.

Denmark had but one exhibit, that of F. Doberck & Son, of Copen-
hagen. It consisted of two very florid, though tasteful, standing can-
delabras, finished in a fine manner.

The United States made a remarkably good display, though regret-
ably small in point of numbers. The exhibits showed unmistakably
that the great advance in architecture in the United States during the
last twenty-five years has had a marked effect upon this branch of art
industry, which is practically a new one, as anyone who remembers the
iTiling cast-iron deformities of a quarter of a century ago will readil}^
admit. But this infant industry did not crawl long before it walked.
With a felicitous readiness of adaptation, the most marked feature of
the American mind, our art iron workers have quickly assimilated the
lessons the old world had to teach, and under the guidance of a few

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960 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

strong leaders— Richardson, for instance, whose designs for ironwork
are marvels of strength and taste — have reached a stage of develop-
ment which makes them the peers of their most advanced European
competitoi*s.

The Winslow Brothers, of Chicago, though cramped for room, made
a display worth}' of great praise. Both in design and workmanship
the works exposed were such as to show study and care, the result
being highly satisfactory. The main piece in this exhibit was a large
double park gate. The design was florid, but an eflfort had evidently
been made to fit it to the material, so that the effect produced was in
no way weak. The flower work was strong though smoothly executed,
and all details of a practical nature, such as welds, and the assembling of
parts, were done with a care which showed that with this firm the rules
are that no part of the work shall be neglected. An excellent intricate
bracket of forged leaf and flower work, and some detached forged
flowers strongly executed were also on exhibition. A large number of
samples of grilles, stair i*ailings, etc., were also exhibited. They show
the same care and workmanship and a great variety of very good
designs. All the artistic ironwork exhibited was coated with black
magnetic oxide by the Bower- Barff process. This coating pi-eserved
the iron from rusting and imparts to it a deep black color with a sub-
dued polished effect, much pleasanter to the eye than the mixture of
asphaltum and lampblack sometimes used for painting art ironwork.
In addition to ironwork proper, the same firm exhibited a variety- of
articles obtained by the galvanoplastic process of electro-deposition.
This is an important process, for not only can small reproductions be
made, such as bas-reliefs, etc., but also more important pieces to be
used in large architectural decoration and construction. A handsome
chimney piece made in this manner wajs shown, as well as samples of
newel posts and stair railings. An application of the process of electro-
deposition on wood was shown in the shape of spindles and bars for
elevator inclosures. A thick coat of copper was deposited upon the
turned wood spindle, giving to it the appearance of brass and adding
materially to its strength. A large screen of coai-se lace, coated with
copper by electro-deposition, was also on exhibition. A section of
ornamental railings of cast aluminum was among the exhibits.

Bayer & Sherbner, of New York, exhibited several pieces of well-
made ironwork. A pair of monumental andirons were noticeable for
the strength of the design and careful workmanship. A very fine fire-
screen, with florid iron frame and beaten copper center, showed good
handling of complicated leaf form.

This firm also exhibited a very ingenious system of folding iron gate
for elevators and store entrances.

Paul Seidl, of Chicago, had an exhibition of smaller art iron arti-
cles. There were candlesticks and candelabras, wall brackets, lanterns,

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 961

etc., showing clever and good work. A large and very florid cross
was also exhibited. The designs were generally quite florid, and diffi-
culties of execution were created which, if left out, might have
improved the result. In all the examples .the work was conscien-
tiously done. The same exhibitor had a very well-executed piece of
repouss6 iron work in the shape of an ornamental coat of arms.

F. Hainsworth & Son, of Chicago, exhibited some plain scroll grille
work, and E. T. Barnum, of Detroit, had a variety of very neatly
executed examples of gratings and i*ailings for banks, offices, and
other interior work. They were made in plain scroll patterns, plated
hoop iron, twisted bars, and other plain devices.
COL EXPO — 02 -61

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IVORY AND WOOD CARVINGS, ETC.

ALBERT H. DAINTY.

963

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IVORY AND WOOD CARVINGS, ETC.

By Albert H. Dainty.

IVORY CARVINGS.

The perpetuation of this prehistoric and veiy ancient art, as exem-
plified by the displays in this Exposition, should be most gratifying
to those who love art for art itself, and most interesting and instruc-
tive to those who naturally love the beautiful. The exhibits in ivory
carving exceeded in number and general excellence those shown at
the International Exposition held at Philadelphia in 1876, and the
Universal Exposition held at Paris in 1889. Upon reviewing in
detail the exhibits, out of courtesy to great age and reputation, I nat-
ui-ally write first of the Chinese and Japanese collections. Owing,
perhaps, to the unofficial recognition of the Exposition by the Chi-
nese Government, the display made by this country was somewhat
limited, and not, as a whole, up to the standard of what, as a nation,
China could have shown. The collection which was exhibited was in
the name of Chun Quan Kee, an enterprising Canton merchant. The
most excellent piece which he submitted was a tusk, deeply and
richly carved, representing different periods of Chinese dynasty. The
tusk was gracefully poised, and rested upon a base of ornately carved
wood. This, with the remainder of the collection, consisting of flower
boats, jewel caskets, vases, chessmen, etc., showed that in technique
this race has lost none of its reputation in ivory carving, for which it
has so long been noted.

With the Japanese, however, officially and enthusiastically recog-
nizing our Exposition, the result was quite different, both in ivory
and wood carving — not in the great number, but in the artistic excel-
lence of the pieces submitted. As in her fine-arts display, Japan
only allowed the best to be sent. Notably among these there were
shown in the fine-arts building "The Goddess of Mercy," by Mitsuaki
Ishiwaka, a statue most exquisitely modeled and most delicately carved;
and "A Great Japanese Thinker," carved in rosewood, in his hands
an ivory skull, wonderfully expressive and finely cut. The rosewood'
in this piece was carved by Ashai Eizo Okiska, the skull by Gyakzan
Asahi. Japan also added one tribute by a woman, Mrs. Yaye Kikuma,
^^An Image of a Child," holding in its arms a rooster and looking

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966 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

upon a hen upon the ground. This piece was artistic in its composi-
tion and well carved. It was exhibited in the woman's building. In
the manufactures and liberal arts building there were many pieces
exhibited b}^ different artists of Tokyo, Osaka, and ICanagawa, all
showing progression in this art — if that were possible — and again
confirming the fact that Japanese ivory carvings are yet preeminent
for originality of design and delicacy of cutting.

India, through native Bombay merchants, exhibited ivory figures
and boxes more commercial than artistic in value.

Ceylon sent a collection of elephant tusks supported upon carved
ebony bases; carved ivory elephants in miniature; an ivory jewel casket
ornamented with pure gold and precious stones, beautifully carved
in conventional oriental forms; an ancient ''Almyrah," or cabinet,
restored, which was most unique in construction and ornamentation;
also smaller pieces of minor interest.

Siam, in her first offering to an American Exposition, presented an
excellent display of native ivory tusks and a small but unique collec-
tion of carvings, the piece de resistance being a tusk deepl}'^ carved
with repeated reproductions of Budba, diminishing in size as the tusk
grew smaller.

Austria only exhibited small and commercial pieces in ivory carving.

Fi-ance, whose interest seems to be bronze for metal chiseling and
wood for a more yielding substance, sent but one piece of ivory carv-
ing. This was an ancient piece, subject, " Venus," artist unknown.
It was a most artistic model, well executed. This piece was exhibited
in the French section, woman's building.

Great Britain was solely represented by the Countess of Tankerville
with an exhibit of well-executed fan handles and plaques for cardcases.
These were exhibited in the woman's building.

Germany, however, should be given the fullest credit for the ivory
carvings displayed by her exhibitors. The fixed purpose of her young
Emperor William to excel must have inspired her artists in this direc-
tion. As a result they sent to us not only the greatest number but the
most beautiful of all modern pieces. It would seem that Anton Diessl,
of Munich, had nearly reached the zenith attained by artists of
the sixteenth century by his " Christ upon the Cross," so full of
expression; his "Statue of the Meleagrus," so artistically modeled
and carved; his '' Bacchus and Cupid Tankard," and a " Mirror
Frame," cut in rococo ornamentation, both exquisite in composition
and ornamentation, and his most faithful ''Reproduction of a Quill,"
so thinly carved as to be almost transparent, and showing a delicacy
of cutting that amazed even the Japanese experts who viewed it.

The elaborate and artistic exhibit of Moritz Keller & Co., of Berlin,
included two ornate pieces, one a sled, after the splendid renaissance
sled of King Ludwig II, of Bavaria; the other, a reproduction of the
ship Ste. Marguerite, the original of which was carved for the Queen

world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 967

of Italy. This was in rococo ornamentation, the subject being sym-
bolical of the different stages of life.

The single exhibit of ivory carving by the United States was by the
Tiffany Glass and Decorating Company, of New York, while Messre.
Tiffany & Co., of New York, jewelers, exhibited small ivory tusks
mounted with silver supports and ornaments. The Brunswick-Balke-
Collender Company, of Chicago, exhibited a most unique and interest-
ing collection of large ivory tusks.

fkruador exhibited ivory work done by her penitentiary prisoners;
also ivory eggs in openwork.

No other countries displayed ivory carving, and no additional exhibits
were needed to emphasize the statement made by one of the best Euro-
pean judges, that "The World's Columbian Exposition contained the
most elaborate and finest display of ivory carvings ever exhibited at
any international exposition, and not to be eclipsed except by the
museum collections of Europe."

It is fair to presume that in the art of ivory carving, owing to the
absence of I'eference collections in museums and the higher cost of
labor, America will never be able to obtain any great prominence,
although out of her great wealth her citizens and museums may secure
valuable collections of this art.

Ma}' we not infer from the marked and progressive advancement in
the price of ivory, its greater demand for commercial use, and the
rapid extinction of the ivory-bearing animals that in the future the art
of ivory carving will be comparatively lost, only to remain in the
creations of the past?

WOOD CARVINGS.

Rising to the height of 40 feet in front of the houses of the Fort
Rupert Indians, skirting the shore of the south pond, there stood rudely
carved totem poles. Between these and the statuettes H inches high,
nestling safely in a glass case in the Columbia State building, there
was a range of wood carvings attracted to the World's Columbian
Exposition that m variet}'^ has never been sui'passed, and maj^ never
be again, showing the progression in this art.

In the ethnological building there were exhibited miniature repro-
ductions of Haidas houses, with carved and painted totem poles in front
of each, man}' implements of war and useful articles made by the
American Indians and ornamented by characteristic carvings. From
the South Sea Islands, battle shields and instruments of war; also use-
ful utensils, showing carving done with stone implements and crudely
sculptured images. From the Solomon Islands, grotesquely carved sun
gods. From Old Mexico, taken from the churches, there were shown
religious i-elievo panels and deepl}'^ carved columns in the ornamenta-
tion of the sixteenth century; also the reproduction of an ancient
temple showintr architectui'al sculpture carved in wood. From Brazil

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968 REPORT OF OOMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

carved cedar angelic images, with hinged openings in the back, in
which it is supposed the priests secreted themselves while they spoke
to their superstitious worshipers.

Upon the Midway Flaisance there were exhibited curios in wood,
with more or less carving upon them, from Dahome}', the North
American Indians, East India, the Soudan, Algiers, Turkey, and Java;
also an interesting collection of bogwood carvings from Ireland in
Celtic designs.

• Reviewing the exhibits of more artistic and modern wood carving,
I have to report that New South Wales sent nothing in sculpture
except as applied to the ornament of f urnitui'e. These examples were
few, the best designs being adapted from their own flora, and well
executed.

The Chinese exhibited a few pieces of carved sandalwood and a
small collection of blackwood furniture and screens, moderately orna-
mented and well canned in characteristic designs.

Japan, as in ivory, contributed only the ''survival of the fittest,"
in the fine arts building showing "The Wrestler," a typical representa-
tive of this ancient Japanese pastime, and a '^ Military Procession in
the Olden Time," carved in a high-relief panel, both by the artist
Kissai Yamada. The posing^ grouping, and carving in these pieces
showed a superlative result. .Japan also displayed in the manufac-
tures and liberal arts building about fifty examples by many artists,
mostly of a high order, special mention being made of ''The Attack
of a Prince," by Toyo Aikawa, a deeply carved panel 10 by 14 inches,
showing the forest, the roadway, and the attack, with frightened birds
flying away through the trees. This piece required four years' time
to complete and was most delicate in its composition and in its carv-
ing. Also "A Skull with Snake," by M. Idzumi; screen representing
a hermit, by K. Nosui; carved and painted "Japanese Women," by
F. &T. Nakatani; "Buddha in Miniature," by G. Hompo; but most
remarkable of all, «lapan showed in the liberal arts a large panel with
carved eagle, done at the Tokyo School for the Blind.

Turkey in her state pavilion showed a revival of this art in work
done upon a bookcase by the students of the Imperial Ottoman Arse-
nal, Constantinople, and in the same building the province of Syria
displayed a few simple commercial pieces.

Egypt, in the name of the Technical School of Cairo, showed in the
liberal arts carved panels and architectural details, evidencing a revi-
val of this art in this most ancient city.

Ceylon in her state building, supplemented by the " courts of honor"
she erected in each of the three buildings, viz, manufactures, agri-
cultural, and woman^s, may be said to have made an exhaustive dis-
play of what Ceylon can do in wood carving. Her state building,
viewed from the exterior, revealed a highly carved stairway and bal-
ustiude overshadowed by scrolls, foilage, and "gnomes," richly carved.

world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 969

and flanked on either side by ornately carved window architraves and
panels with symbolical reproductions. The interior presented a wealth .
of pillars and panels in various beautiful woods of Ceylon carved in
conventional forms of the lotus and plantain. In the centi'al " court of
honor" carved ebony elephants kept watchful guard under their glass
cages, while a forest of tusks, artistically placed and rising from carved
ebony bases, gave an oriental dignity and charm which the visitor
will long remember. The description of the Ceylon courts, published
by H. C. Cottle, government printer, Ceylon, Colombo, which was
sold at the various exhibits of Ceylon, is referred to for a fuller
description of these carvings.

From India, the parent of Renaissance art, there was sent by an
American artist, Mr. Lockwood de Forest, a carved teak- wood house
representing the pure ancient decorative forms, beautifully executed.
This house, with its furniture, proved to be one of the atti'active
exhibits in the manfactures building. There were also shown in this
building, by native Indian merchants, furniture in teak, jewel caskets,
and various ornaments in sandalwood, all executed in the high stand-
ard of this country.

Russia in the fine-arts building contributed by Adamson two wood
sculptures — one, "The Helpless," an artistic composition delicately
treated, the other, "The Dying Hyacinthe," exquisitely cut and fin-
ished. In the manufactures building the carving by Lovigton and
De Kamilly, as applied to furniture, is worthy of special mention.
There was also displayed in the liberal arts, in the name of the
School of the Imperial Society for the Promotion of Art and the Cen-
tral School of Baron Stieglif , wood carvings on panels, boxes, screens,
and furniture, in artistic designs, showing meritorious technical skill.
Norway, though not competing for awards, exhibited in drinking
horns, tankards, and boxes most artistic examples, clean and crisply
cut, in well-defined Norse designs, the work of Lars T. Kinservik and
Magnus M. Dagestad being preeminently well done.

Sweden, in the display of Swedish art industry, by Miss Gioebel,
of Stockholm, exhibited characteristic carvings in tankards, boxes,
furniture, etc., artistic in design and most clearly defined in cutting.
In the exhibit of the Swedish Industrial Art Society, of Stockholm,
the great value of this society's influence was demonstrated in the
carving submitted. The highest praise should be given for the sculp-
ture of Christian Eriksson, as giving a quite new artistic effect,
obtained by appliance of realistic sculpture for ornamental purposes,
and the excellent carvings by L. O. Lofmark and C. O. eTohanson; all
of these were in the Swedish state building- In the fine-arts building
"A Statue of the Artist's Grandmother," by And. L. Zorn, was a
most touching and beautiful example of wood sculpture.

Denmark sent a few pieces of distinctive wood carving by A.
Ingemann Olsen, consisting of leaf of burdock with flowers, a4id for,

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970 REPORT OF OOKMITTEK ON AWARDS.

a box, and a palette with foliage, all exceedingly well carved in high
relief from solid wood. In the furniture exhibited there were many
excellent carving:^, notably panels shown on two wardrobes, the
larger representing scenes in the history of King Ahasuerus and
Queen Esther, the smaller representing the flight into Egypt of
Joseph and Mary; also ornamental carvings by the Baroness Ursula
Dahlerupe applied to a cradle made for Baby Ruth, the daughter of
President Cleveland. This was displayed in the woman's building.

Switzerland — to Americans the name represents wood carvings, or
what we call Swiss carvings. These were exhibited in great profusion,
mostly in characteristic subjects, as groups of horses, cattle, and
chamois, also eagles and clocks; a few notable departures from these
being a chastely carved example of Italian Renaissance cabinet by
Ernest Roggero; a panel representing a vase of flowers, most deli-
cateh^ carved in high relief by Jakob Abplanalp; also an ambitious
sculptured group, ''The Meeting of the Poachers and the Game
Keepers," by Chr. Zumbrumm. The Society for the Industry of
Sculpture also exhibited many meritorious pieces, among them a
jewel cabinet carved in marguerites, a group of horses, group of
cattle, and dog with puppies, all showing high technical skill, and, in
some instances, artistic ability worthy of higher attainments in
sculpture.

Italy, prolific in sculpture and carving as an applied art, through
Besarel, showed a great number of statues and furniture, modeled
and carved with the high excellence for which this artist is noted.
Andrea Bacetti revealed the genius of the true artist by the absence
of all reproductions in his compositions as represented in his chimney
piece and in his library, the front panel of which, carved in florid renais-
sance, is the largest single piece ever done in Italy. His great tech-
nical skill is also shown in a panel of grapes and vines curved in high
relief, while his bas-reliefs gave proof of the originality, distinction,
and finesse of the master's chisel. There were also exhibits of carv-
ings shown in the figures and furniture in fifteenth and sixteenth cen-
tury designs, by Antonio Zanetti, Francesco Toso, and Mora Brothera.
Italy also displaj-ed in the liberal arts a collection of great merit
showing technical work done in the Institute of Arts of Palermo.

Bulgaria's, Spain's, and Austria's exhibits in wood carvings were
unimportant in number and execution.

Germany, however, with the spirit that won for her so much merit
in this Exposition, sent us masterpieces in wood carving. In the
fine arts building, by Prof. E. Herter, of Berlin, there was shown
''Movses Destroying the Tables of the Law." In the German State
building there was shown by Heinrich Behr the " Lord's Supper" in
bas-relief carved from linden wood, remarkable for character model-
ing, strong expression, and meritorious carving, In the manufactures
building Germany was represented in wood carving by many artists —

world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 971

a marvelously carved altar by L. Vogt, amorettes by Carl Fischer,
an Italian renaissance panel by William EJippel, splendid German
renaissance designs by Profs. H. Goetz and Rud. Mayer, executed by
A. Gherig; delicately carved jewel caskets by H. Maybai^h and L.
Parr, and rococo frames by F. Radspieler & Co. , supplemented by the
finished collection of technical examples of wood carving submitted
by the School for the Education of Artisans of the Grand Dukedom
of Baden at Karlsruhe, shown in the liberal arts. All of these, in con-
nection with the many examples of wood carving seen in the display
of furniture, demonstrate that this nation, with her industrial educa-
tion, is fast attaining perfection in the art of wood carving.

Though not competing for award, France, aside from an interesting
technical exhibit in the liberal arts by the St. Nicholas Trade School
o* Paris, exhibited a few wood carvings as applied to furniture. These
examples, however, represented the essence, as it were, of this art,
and upon a close analysis emphasize the fact that for perfection of
drawing and delicacy of clean, finished wood carving France has no
superior, while few wood carvers outside of France can even approxi-
mate the artistic and finished technique displayed in Quignon's Louis
XVI bookcase, his pear-wood table of the same period, or his walnut
cabinet in the style of Louis XV.

England was represented in the manufactures building in wood
carving by Harry Hems & Sons in church furniture and figures. A
notable piece exhibited was " Christ upon the Cross," a most artistic
rendition and exceedingly well carved. In the liberal arts England
showed carved panels done at the Primary School of London for Deaf-
Mutes, also carved panels from the St. Joseph School, Manchester,
England. There were many other (»arvings, mostly reproductions of
the Elizabethan and Renaissance schools, done by Johnstone, Norman
& Co. in the furnishing of Victoria House, Her Majesty's headquarters;
also in the facsimile reproduction of Lord Salisbury's banquetmg hall,
displaj'ed in the manufactures building by Messrs. Hampton & Sons.
There were also shown in the British section, woman's building, many
examples of carvings in furniture, panels, etc.

Canada submitted few carvings in wood. The most ambitious piece
was by Casper Ostler, of Hamilton College, shown in the liberal arts,
a panel about 3 by 5 feet, in one piece, ''The Landing of Columlius,"
in bas-relief.

Ecuador sent a carved representation of a human skull, by Migriel
Velez, Cuenca, so treated with color and fungus growth as to almost
lead one, even after a critical examination, to pronounce it genuine.

Colombia, in the name of Martinez, exhibited in her State building
12 statuettes 1^ inches high. These, considering the conditions under
which the}' were done, were among the most remarkable wood call-
ings shown in the entire exhibition. Each figure represented a tj^pical
native, costumed according to his or her avocation. The modeling andr

972 RKPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

carving were done by the (laughter, Amelia Martinez, a native peasant
girl, 17 years of age-, who, without education or art surroundings and
with no instrument but an ordinarj' knife, carved these statuettes so
finely, modeled them so correctly, and gave to each so much expression
that, under a magnifying glass, one's surprise and appreciation for them
were intensified.

Guatemala exhibited, through Juan Ganuza, ''ThePa^ssion of Christ."
an exceptional rendition of this subject.

The Argentine Republic, Costa Rica, and old Mexico only exhibited
wood carvings of minor interest.

By the United States there were displayed in the liberal arts tech-
nical examples of wood carving b}^ the following schools: Waltham,
Miiss., public schools; New York Teachers' College; Rensselaer P0I3'-
technic High School, New York; fiaron de Hirsch Fund Trade School,
New York City; Pratt Institute, New York: Christian Brothers
Academy, Albany, N. Y.; New Jersey State Normal; New Jei-sey
School for the Deaf; Pennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial
Art; Catholic High School, Philadelphia; J. Liberty Tadd's School
for Teachers, Philadelphia; St. Francis Industrial School, Eddington,
Pa. ; Mount Aloysius, Cresson, Pa. ; Ohio Normal School; Toledo, Ohio,
Manual Training School; St. Joseph Orphan Home, Columbus, Ohio;
Michigan School for the Deaf; Pardue University, Indiana; Epheta
School for the Deaf, Chicago; St. Louis Manual Training School;
Minnesota public schools, collective exhibit; Minnesota Training
School for the Feeble Minded; Minnesota School for the Deaf; Colo-
rado public schools, collective exhibit, and North Dakota schools.

Those deserving of mention for the best results ac<*omplished were:
New York Teachers' College, Pennsylvania Museum and School of
Industrial Arts, Rensselaer Polytechnic High School, Pratt Institute,
St. Joseph's Orphan Home, Columbus, Ohio; Catholic High School,
Philadelphia; Epheta School for the Deaf, Chicago.

There w^ere shown in the manufactures building by Sypher & Co.,
of New York City, reproductions of ancient furniture with ornate
carvings, and a woods culptured panel shown by Rud. Lund, Knox-
ville, Tenn., sul)ject, ''World's Fair Greek Structure." This was a
very ambitious piece, but poor in execution. There were also some
examples of applied carving to interior decorations, furniture, billiard
tables, and pianos; all, however, below the standard of excellence
attained in European countries.

Without the women, the United States would have been poorly
represented in this art. In the woman's building there were dis-
played many examples of wood carving, mostly in panels, and as
applied to furniture. The influence of the Cincinnati School of
Design, which made its first efforts and exhibition (mostly by women)
at the Philadelphia Exposition, was to be seen in the different pieces

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 978

submitted from all parts of the country, many of which showed
marked advancement in drawing and technique. Each State con-
tributed, through some one of its native women artists, original and
characteristic carved panels. These were placed above the wainscot
in the recorder's room, and proved to be most interesting and artistic
as a decorative feature. In the Cincinnati room there were displayed
many of the pieces of furniture formerly exhibited at Philadelphia,
together with recent productions j showing progress in design and execu-
tion. In the California room, woman's building, a set of furniture,
with carved decorations adapted from the cactus, was displayed. The
adaptation was artistic and the carving excellent. The Young Woman's
Christian Association of Boston displayed carved chairs and settle in
strong Viking design. There were many meritorious individual pieces
exhibted — the work of Mrs. M. L. Bentley, Mrs. John Lowell, and
Miss S. Blom being worthy of special mention.

In the assembly room occupied by the board of lady managers the
" Virginia Dare" desk was displayed and used by the presiding officer,
Mrs. Potter Palmer. This desk will be prized for the historic senti-
ment surrounding it, and also for its recent association. It is orna-
mented by carved panels of white holly from Koanoke Island, North
Carolina, where, in 1587, Virginia Dare, the first white child of
English-speaking parents, was born and baptized. The carved panels
were executed by a young girl without instruction in this art. On the
right front panel is carved the coat of arms of Sir Walter Raleigh; on
the left is the pinnace bearing colonists to Roanoke Island; the central
front panel represents the coast of the island, the figure of the doe
being symbolic of Virginia Dare, whom the Indians, in admimtion of
her sex and complexion, called " The White Doe," and who, an Indian
legend relates, was transformed into a white doe and haunted the island.
The end panels represent the Scuppernong grape, found on the island
and native to the soil. The desk is a tribute to the memory of Vir-
ginia Dare from the women of North Carolina, and was appropriately
placed in the room where the first official board of women organized
under act of Congress met. An ornately carved chair in rich red-
wood, furnished by the new State of North Dakota, served as a beau-
tiful contrast and fit companion to this desk.

There were also exhibited in the Illinois State building carvings by
the Elgin School for Carvings, and in the Maryland State building,
two panels, subjects, '*Asia"and ''Africa," carved by W. Teubler.
- In Variety, the wood carvings distributed throughout the World's
Columbian Exposition exceeded by far in number and interest those
of all previous expositions. Following up the progress evolved
between the Sun God of the Solomon Islands and Besarel's statues, I
was impressed particularly by the artistic, finished advancement to he
attained through technical education, the best results always being

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974 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

reached when such education is mo^t thorough, as in France and Ger-
many. The United States, in this respect, is yet mediocre; our tech-
nical and free art schools are few; our boys are practically shut out
by the laws of trade unions from exploiting .any native or primarily
instructed talent, and our people, generally, are not critical of details,
and therefore accept pressed and machine-carved imitations, or indif-
ferently done hand work. We have the opportunity, however, to not
only reach a European standard but to excel in this art. Why, then,
with native ability and great wealth to aid technical and art schools,
should we not create our own art and carve it out in the highest pos-
sible state of perfection ?

INCISED BAMBOO WORK.

Only two countries exhibited in this work — China and Japan. The
number of pieces were few and the subjects and execution unimportant.

CARVINOS IN MISCELLANEOUS MATERIALS.

The United States exhibited pictures carved in cork, the head of a
Maori chief carved in gum copal, a reproduction of Bartholdi's Statue
of Lil>erty carved in salt; also carvings in meerschaum, horn, tortoise
shell, petrified wood from Arizona, and pipestone from Minnesota.

Vienna made a collective exhibit of meerschaum and pearl shell
carvings by the amber turners of Vienna. Italy showed exquisite
carvings in tortoise shell. Ceylon displayed carvings in cocoanut
shells. New South Wales exhibited carvings in emu eggs. Brazil
showed etched and carved gourds, and Trinidad and Guiana showed
carvings in calabashes and gourds, those from Trinidad being done
bv a blind native.

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MACHINE-MADE LACES AND CURTAINS.

FRITZ C^RAEBER.

975

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MACHINE-MADE LACES AND CURTAINS.

By Fritz Grabbbb.

The great Exposition of 1893 is remarkable not only for the various
industries represented, but also for the complete or partial absence
of many important branches of manufacture which in former exhibi-
tions belonged to the leading features. Such important centers of
manufacture as Manchester, Birmingham, Elberfeld, Barmen, Mul-
hausen, etc., are without adequate representation, and unfortunately
some of the towns producing the articles which form the subject of
this report are not exhibiting in a way that is in keeping with their
importance. I refer principally to Nottingham, the home of machine-
made lace with its hundreds of Lever's and curtain machines, which has
sent only one curtain exhibit; and to St. Grail, which would be absent
entirely if it was not for one pair of curtains displayed in a bidden
place. It is difBcult to explain the indifference of these markets in
regard to the Fair. Certainly the principal reasons are the high
tariff and fear of showing too much of their patterns and novelties to
their new competitors in the United States.

The only displays of machine-made lace which call for sj)ecial atten-
tion are those of Calais and Cande in the French section, and of Plauen
in the German section. Outside of these two exhibits there is not
much machine-made lace shown. Of all other European countries only
Spain presents some embroidery laces. Austria, Italy, Russia, and
Norway, which have a lace industry of their own, are not represented.
Their goods, no doubt, are being made for the home markets only, and
can not be exported.

In the United States the making of lace by machinery is still too
new an industry, and this fact may account for there being only two
exhibitors, although there are many more manufacturers.

Taking now the individual exhibits in the same rotation as the
official catalogue the United States exhibits are the first that must be
mentioned:

Jennings lace works, Brooklyn, N. Y., show a great variety of lace
made on Lever's machines both in silk and cotton. They also exhibit
fancy nets. The display is a very fine one, and shows that this firm is
already very far advanced in the making of lace goods.

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978 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

The same can not be said of the other American exhibit — that of
Wilkes-Barr^, New York. This house shows curtains made on English
lace-curtain machines of diflferent gauges (6 to 12 points), mostly single-
tie goods, also some bar nets and double actions, but no Swiss work.
There are several large stores with pictures, which can not be called
a suc<;ess even if all allowance is made for the difficulty in producing
this kind of work on lace machines; also the making of the goods
does not seem to be watched as carefully as it ought to be. Seveml
defects are to be seen which have not been mended.

The French exhibits are arranged in collective groups. Calais is
represented by the Chambre SyndicAle des Fabricants de Tulles et
Dentelles Mechaniques. This display is a beautiful one and contains
specimens of all the articles a lace machine can make, specially fine
and finest goods. The silk laces comprise magnificent Spanish laces,
Chantilly laces, some in very large widths. Blondes, Guipures, etc.
Frequent use is made of figures which are often very natural.

In cotton laces there are splendid assortments of Valenciennes,
Maltese, Duchesse, Bretonnes, Point de Gare, Brabants, and others.

Outside of the exhibit of the Chambre syndicate is that of Davenierft
& Co., Limited, Calais, which also is very important and contains some
of the finast Chantilly and Spanish laces and flounces that can be made.
The Calais exhibits show plainly that the old high standard is well and
easily maintained.

Candry is known as a place where lower grades of lace at cheap
prices are made, and the exhibit at the Fair confirms this circumstance.
Eleven manufacturers show their goods in a uniform display, and
although there is a great variety of black blonde laces. Guipure laces,
ecru cotton laces, etc., in good patterns and well-made qualities, yet
it can easily be noticed that the goods are of quite a diflferent stamp
than those shown by Calais.

In the French section there is further an exhibit from Reichenbach
& Co., a St. Gall house, which shows some fine flounces and laces made
on embroidery machines.

From France we come to Germany. As Elberfeld-Barmen is not
exhibiting, there are only Saxon laces. The}^ however, are shown in
a great variety by Plauen firms. They form part of the well-known
collective exhibit of textiles from Saxony, and from the beginning of
the Fair have commanded general attention.

The Plauen manufacturers excel not only in the articles they show
but also in the way the display inside the show cases is made. The
goods are not shown in the usual store-window decollation style, but
are put up in a more artistic way, each case representing some other
idea.

The lace industry of Plauen is a comparatively new one. At the
time of the Centennial Exhibition it did not exist yet. The goods are
not made on Lever's (bobbin) machines, as in England and France, but

world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 979

on the embroidery machines. There have been embroidery machines
at work at Plauen for over thirty years, but they did not make any-
thing but flat embroideries. Laces on net were first introduced in
1881, and Guipure laces (Luftspitzen), done on the machine on thin
wool cloth, which afterwards is eaten away by the finish, were brought
out a few years later. The importance of Plauen as an international
reenter of the lace trade does not date further back than the above year.
A great help in developing the making of lace at Plauen was the
introduction of the shuttle embroidery machine, which is partially
worked by power, while the old hand machine requires hard work by
arms and feet. The shuttle machine turns off enormous quantities of
lace, while the hand machine is still used where finer and more costly
goods are wanted.

The progress made in the short time that lace work has been intro-
duced is very marked, and the goods shown by Wm. Weindler & Co.,
F. A. Mammen & Co., Wm. Berkling, (/. R. Eichhorn, Klenun &
Steger, Robert Neubauer Nachf., TrOger & Co., and G. A. elahn are
magnificent, and it is difficult to say which of these firms has really
made the finest display.

F. A. Mammen & Co. and Weindler & Co. have among their other
articles some remarkable vride black silk flounces; Berkling and Eich-
horn excel in cotton goods, the repeats of some of the laces being
extraordinarily large, which increases the difficulties of the making
considerably.

Some Plauen houses make it a specialty to imitate old real laces, and
point a la rose, Duchesse, Venetians, etc., are made so well that only
an expert can see they are imitations. Robert Neubauer Nachf.,
Elemm & Steger, and others cultivate this branch.

By the side of the lace work, the original industry of Plauen, the
embroidering on cambric, calico, and other close fabrics is still going
on, and there are three fine exhibits in this branch — Schrage & Roes-
sing, who show the embroideries worked already into children's
dresses, etc., Gebr. Schindler and Louis Apitrsch, who show the regu-
lar flat white embroidery.

Besides laces, Plauen displays his other staple article, curtains, both
in the Nottingham lace style and the Tambour make.

The curtains in Nottingham style are shown by Grardinen fabrik
Plauen, a joint stock company, which makes goods in all gauges from
5 to 14 points. Some patterns for stores have very long repeats.
They also show Swiss goods and Swiss of combination makes. The
goods are well made throughout, and the patterns are first-class pro-
ductioHS.

The making of these curtains is also a new industry, and was started
in 1879-1880. It pushed out the old Broche curtain made on common
looms.

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980 REPORT OF OOMMITTKK ON AWARDS.

Curtains made by Tambour machines, partly in colors, are in the
display of Fritz Bergmann, Plauen. His colored goods are unique at
the Fair, there being no other house showing such goods. The pat-
terns are very fine and all done by first-class designers.

Quite another class of machine embroideries are the trimmings of
Eibenstock. This town makes a collective exhibit, and although a
great deal of the goods is handmade, there is quite a nice assortment
of machine-made silk trimmings in nice fancy colors. The make of
the goods is superior. Six Eibenstock firms make this collective
exhibit.

Great Britain, as mentioned before, has only one exhibit of lace
curtains, which is all there is to remind us that there is such an impor-
tant place as Nottingham. The exhibitors are Messrs. S. Peach &
Sons, and show specimens of a number of different styles that can be
made on curtain machines, including some curtains in silk. The
exhibit is a fine one, generally speaking; but it is a pity that the old
way of embroidering curtains seems to have been revived.

Spain is represented by one exhibit, that of Torella Hermauos,
Barcelona. The goods are made on the shuttle embroidery machine.
Those made on cotton are only low in quality, while the silk handker-
chiefs in colors are very fine. For Spain this work is a new industry,
and special credit is due for it accordingly.

Switzerland had better not made any display at all, instead of send-
just one pair of embroidered curtains of the Guipure or '' Sporchtel"
kind. It is exhibited by Pb. Emden, St. Gall, and, as far as it goes,
is a very nice, well-made specimen.

Making a r^sum^ of all the goods shown in this style, a great ad-
vancement in the production of lace goods is evident. While seven-
teen years ago (Philadelphia fair) there were practically only two cen-
ters where machine-made lace was made, viz, Nottingham and Calais,
we have now lace industries in a number of countries, Germany having
come out very prominently, while the United States have laid a good
foundation. They will no doubt build up a trade by and by, although
in this branch, unlike other industries, the protective tariff will not
help much to foster it. A lace industry can only be developed by com-
petent work people who have been brought up to it by degrees.

Machine-made lace has still a great future and will be used more and
more in proportion to the well being of the masses.

Let us hope that peace and prosperity will continue to lift up the
standard of life in all countries, so that the consumption of this beau-
tiful article will grow constantly and supply work for thousands of
industrious hands, both male and female.

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LAMPS.

AV ALTER S. LENOX.

981

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LAMPS.

By W. S. Lknox.

According to the ancient legends Prometheus was the first illumi-
nator. He stole fire from the abode of the gods and brought it to
earth, and for this gift to man was thrown out of heaven by the
angered deities. So runs the fable — a theme for poets and painters
for many thousand years. But the matter-of-fact scientist tells us
that primeval man went to bed at sunset, and, as he lived on herbs
and fruits, a fire for cooking was unnecessary. Yet, in the mute and
swallow-like homes of the ClifE Dwellers, in the oldest of Egyptian
tombs, among the most ancient remains of early Greece and Rome,
embalmed in the histoiy and legend alike of the Hindoo and Chinese,
and even in the Book of Books itself, we are constantly confronted
with a lamp. So faulty and vague are the evidences that it is impos-
sible to note the line of departure, that point where man ceased to
use a pine torch, or whatever barbarous contrivance he may have
invented, and evolved the lamp. But of this we may be sure — it is
one of the most ancient methods of artificial light known to man.
The lamp in some form or other continually appears and reappears in
all the countless changes of history and story through many centu-
ries, and no article of ancient manufacture is more common. They
are found in every variety of form and size, in clay and metal, of the
cheapest as well as of the most costly description. Their invention is
ascribed to the Egyptians, by whom the external form received more
attention than its usefulness as a light giver. Some of those taken
from ancient tombs and buried cities are marvels of exquisite work-
manship, and it is a curious historical fact that there was very little
change in their evolution from the most ancient times until a period
as recent as a century and a half ago. Artistic taste had been shown
in design, but all improvement stopped at form and decoration.

In 1782 Argand invented a burner with a circular wick, and after
this forms and modifications of his invention have been numerous.
Oil lamps have been supplemented by gas, natural and artificial. The
first practical attempt at gas lighting was made in 1792 in England:
adopted in Paris in 1802, and in the United States in 1806, at Newport,

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984 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

R. I., and within the last decade Eklison and Swan, at the head of many
experimenters in the subtle fluid, have revolutionized our lighting sys-
tem by the practical application of electricity for all lighting and
heating purposes.

The lamp exhibit of the World's Columbian Exposition contains
examples of invention and progress in all. We would like to have seen
a more extended and representative display, but the collection as it
stands is a meritorious one in many respects, and we feel convinced
that the exhibits in this group will be beneficial as educators in the
application of scientific principles and decorative art; and whatever in
the realm of utility or beauty makes our homes more attractive and
interesting assists in social, moral, and national progress. England,
France, Belgium, Russia, Germany, Austria, Sweden, Spain, Italy,
and the Argentine Republic have brought us specimens of their work-
manship, and our own manufacturers are well represented. There
could be no competitive comparison, as each exhibit belongs to a class
of its own. There is a great deal from abroad that is instructive and
valuable, and the demand for refined and luxurious forms has been
met by artistic and scientific effort; a high grade of workmanship is
everywhere apparent, numerous patent appliances and appurtenances
show an effort toward future improvement, and each class suggests an
individual line of development.

Our own country stands well to the front in all grades of manu-
facture, and the extraordinary inventive activity by which we are
chaiucterized is evident in good results.

Included in the group are lamps for burning petroleum of various
gi-ades, together with burners, chimneys, and shades. Upon many of
these the most artistic taste has been lavished in superior designing,
modeling, and decoration. Superior materials have been employed in
articles for domestic use; the most precious and costly have been com-
bined to produce beautiful and effective decorations. Lanterns, coach
lamps, street and special lights and lanterns are shown in examples of
honest construction and durable use. Illuminating gas, natural and
artificial, has had its principle of economical' utility and comfort
demonstrated, together with burners, fixtures, and chandeliers remark-
able for invention and beauty. Electroliers and the electric lamps
surprise and delight the multitude at many points.

It has been pleasing to behold the general excellence of the exhibits
and the good taste displayed in their arrangement as to originality,
convenience, and beauty. Strict values and a high standard have been
maintained thi'oughout.

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LIQUORS.

985

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BEER: HISTORY AND ADVANCEMENT OF THE ART OF BREWING.

By EuQENE F. Wbigxl.

ANTIQUITY OF BEEB.

Beer in our generation has almost become one of the necessities of
life, and it is certainly true that among civilized nations the use of
malt beverages is at present generally prevalent. Looking down the
long vista of the past we can hardly find a period in the existence of
man when beer in some form was not drunk by the nations of the
earth making claim to most enlightenment. The ancient Egyptians
regaled themselves with a brew made from barley, which, although
the flavoring quality of hops was not known at that time, seemed to
possess so many praiseworthy qualities that it gradually worked its
way into farthest Europe. Eventually Germany became the strong-
hold of beer, and under the scepter of King Gambrinus it is now justly
recognized as the national beverage of the German people. From
that country and England the art of brewing was tmnsplanted to
America, and its product has found such favor with the people of the
United States that we now rank as the third largest beer-producing
country of the world.

ITS BENEFICENT INFLUENCE.

The beneficent influence and civilizing effects of beer are every-
where apparent. Whatever tends to better man's condition on earth
and adds to his physical comfort is worthy of encouragement. This
beer certainly does. Being so cheap as to be within the reach of all
and having mildly stimulating qualities, it is the superior of whisky
and other strong alcoholic drinks in possessing also highly nutritive
qualities, which make it essentially the beverage of the laboring and
middle classes. But it is also gradually getting to be appreciated for
its tonic and strengthening effects, whether in the form of beer, ale,
porter, stout, or malt extracts, by the gentler sex throughout the
world. That it is slowly but surely crowding that archdemon,
whisky, to the wall is amply proven by the official statistics of the
last decades, which show that the per capita consumption of whisky
is greatly on the decrease while the consumption of beer, which is
much healthier and more nutritious, is correspondingly increasing.

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988 REPORT OF OOMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

As good beer generally contains only from 3 to 6 per cent of alcohol
a practical temperance movement has in this manner been inaugurated,
which will bear fruit in a great lessening of cases of alcoholism.
Thus the brewer of good, wholesome beer becomes as much a benefactor
of mankind as he that causeth two blades of grass to grow where but
one grew before.

HISTORY OF BREWING.

In ancient times brewing, like the baking of bread, was one of the
domestic functions, every family brewing ita own beer. The brewing
industry, as such, is of a comparatively recent origin. About six hun-
dred years ago it began to develop largely all over the European con-
tinent and in Great Britain. About that time the Catholic monks
began to establish breweries within their monasteries, and for quite a
while they monopolized the brewing business in parts of Germany.

In Vienna, which ranks among the firet cities in regard to the quan-
tity as well as the quality of beer produced, the first brewery was
erected in 1384. At about the same time Catholic monks built a large
brewery at Dobrano, near Pilsen, Bohemia, which brewery is still in
operation. During the fifteenth century large breweries were estab-
lished in Great Britain, where that industry has grown enormously up
to the present date.

BREWING INDUSTRY IN AMERICA.

In America brewing dates back almost as far as the introduction of
European civilization. The exact date of the beginning of brewing
as a distinct calling can not be ascertained, but we know that as early
as during the first part of the seventeenth century public breweries
were erected, and that the colonial governments encouraged the new
industry with all the means in their power.

Van Twiller, governor of the New Netherlands from 1633-1638,
built a brewery on the West India Company's farm, which extended
north from what is now Wall street to Hudson street, in the present
city of New York. In 1638 Roger Williams, of Rhode Island, fol-
lowed his example, and at about the same time the General Court of
Massachusetts Bay passed a law conceding the monopoly of brewing
to one Captan Sedgwick. In 1644 Mynheer Jacobus, a Dutch brewer
and the first mayor of New Amsterdam, as the present city of New
York was then called, established a brewery and a beer garden at what
is now about the corner of Pearl street and Old Slip.

It is a fact worthy of note that in the early colonial days the brew-
ing business was entirely in charge of the very best elements of the
population. The brewers of those times were mostly men who held
high public offices and were greatly respected in their communities.

Among the first brewers in this country who carried on brewing on

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a larger scale, and the most famous of all, was William Penn, the
founder of Pennsylvania. Although a Quaker and a very pious man,
he strongly favored the moderate use of beer. He established a brew-
ery at Pennsburg, Bucks County, Pa., in the latter part of the seven-
teenth century. There are many others, too numerous to mention,
who in those davs held high ]K>sitions and yet did not deem it beneath
them to devote themselves to the brewing of beer, which soon became
the favorite beverage of the colonists, thus making the business a very
lucrative one. Under these circumstances it was but natural that the
colonial authorities finally came to look to beer as a source of revenue
for the colonies. From the year 1638 the brewing trade expanded to
such an extent that a few years later an excise tax upon its product
yielded a considerable revenue. From this time brewing forme<l the
subject of frequent legislation in New Netherland and the New Eng-
land colonies. The lawmakers not only regulated and taxed the
manufacture and sale of beer, but they also prescribed minutely its
quality and price, the time when and the circumstances under which
it could be sold, the duties of the tapster, and the course of conduct
of the drinker.

It was not only for the revenue, however, that governors and other
public officers encouraged the extension of the brewing industry, but
also for the fact that the use of malt liquor proved to be an important
factor in the intei*est of true temperance. This was especial 1^^ obvious
in Pennsylvania, with its large German population, which, preferring
wine and beer to spirituous liquors, had an excellent reputation as to
sobriety. This experience led Fitzsimmons, a member of the First
Congpress, to suggest the idea that the production of malt liquors should
be encouraged by national legislation.

But in the second century of the colonies' existence brewing declined
very rapidly, even in those localities in which it, in the beginning,
flourished under the most favorable auspices. The trade with the
West Indies, which brought cheap rum in exchange for lumber and
other products; the marvelous development of domestic distilling, fur-
thered by exceptional legislative encouragements; the ever-increasing
demands made upon the brewers by the public exchequer — all those
and other things conspired to reduce brewing to a pitiable state, even
in New York and Pennsylvania. The decline of brewing continued
up to the time of the revolution, notwithstanding the fact that the
lawmakers then improved every available opportunity to hold out
inducements to brewers. Hence, brewing relapsed into the primitive
state in which it had been at the beginning of its colonial career.

In 1810 the per-capita consumption of beer amounted to only 4.98
quarts, while the consumption of ardent spirits amounted to 18.08 per
capita. There were 129 bi'ewers, producing a total amount of 5,754,737
gallons of beer. Seven-eighths of the total production originated in

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but 3 States, viz, Pennsylvania, New York, and Massachusetts, with
an aggregate population of 2,469,885 inhabitants. There were in all
10 beer-producing States at that time; but the amounts produced,
except in the 3 States named, were inconsiderable.

After the year 1810 the brewing industry developed somewhat more
mpidly in Pennsylvania and New York on account of the great influx
of immigrants from countries in which beer is dmnk; while in the
other States it either remained stationary or progressed veiy slowly,
constantly struggling against great difficulties and impediments.

Between 1810 and 1850 the number of breweries increased to 431
with a total output of 23,267,730 gallons, of which 18,825,096 alone
were produced in the States of Penns3'^lvania and New York, leaving a
total production for all the other States combined of 4,442,634 gallons.

Up to about 1842 the greater portion of the malt liquors produced in
this countiy consisted of ale and porter. It was not until then that
lager beer was introduced as a product of American industr}'. In 1842
a German named Wagner, shortly after his arrival in America, estab-
lished a lager beer brewery in a small building situated in the suburbs
of Philadelphia. Two years later another German, Friedrich Lauer,
of Reading, Pa., commenced to brew lager beer. He is practically
regarded as the originator of the modern American brewing trade.

It was not until after 1850, however, that lager beer began to gain
popular favor in this country. At that time German immigration
assumed unprecedented proportions, owing to political convulsions in
the old country. No wonder that under these circumstances there
was a rapid growth of the brewing industry. While the popula-
tion of the United States increase^ only from 25,191,876 in 1850 to
31,445,321 in 1860, the number of breweries increased from 451 to
1,269, and the value of malt liquors produced, from $5,728,568 in 1850
to $21,310,933 in 1860.

The only impediment that pi'evented a more rapid growth of the
brewing industry was the cheapness of whisky. Thus far American
whisky was not only protected by high custom duties, but also free
from any internal-revenue taxes, thus enabling distillers to sell their
products very cheaply. The brewing trade, on the other hand, was
heavily taxed. The war of secession brought the desired relief. The
necessit}'^ of extraordinary means to increase the revenues of the Gov-
ernment led to the levying a tax on whisky, thus making it a less
formidable competitor of malt liquors.

After the war all industries of this country began to flourish, and
the brewing industr}'' was not the last to profit b}'^ the new state of
things. In the year 1870 the annual production of malt liquors
increased to 6,081,521 barrels; in 1880 the production amounted to
10,270,353 barrels; in 1890 the production amounted to 27,561,944
barrels, and there can hardly be any doubt but that at the end of the

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991

pi*esent decade an annual production of over 50,000,000 barrels will
be reached.

The following table, compiled from the United States Census reports,
gives some interesting facts in this connection. From it we find that
the quantity of malt liquors manufactured increased Ht> per cent in
this country from 1870 to 1880, while from 1880 to 181>0 it shows the
enormous increase of 168 per cent. The quantity in barrels is derived
from internal-i*evenue reports, and is, therefore, quite reliable. A
great concentmtion of the brewing industry is indicated by the reduc-
tion in the number of establishments and the immense increase in the
capital invested. This apparently disprojwrtionate increase in capital
may, however, be somewhat accounted for by the fact that the last
census inquir\' into this matter was much more searching than
heretofore. It will be seen that the seven States of New York,
Pennsylvania, Missouri, Ohio, Wisconsin, Illinois, and New Jersey
manufactured 78 per cent of the total production of malt liquors in
the United States.

Malt liqwjrs.
[Prom United States Census reporL«J. By totals for the United States.]

Year.

1870.
1880..
1890.

Number

of
establish- Capital.

ments
reported.!

1,9?2 $48,779,435
2,191 I 91,208.224
1,248 1232,471,290

I

Number
of em-
ployees.

f28,177,684 I 12,443
{16,836,500 I 26,220
64,003,347 ' 34,800

Wages
paid.

«6,75S,602
12,198,053
28, 382, 544

NumlxTof

barrels (not Total value
exceeding of

31 galls.) products,
produced.

6,081,521 $55,706,643
10,270.353 101.058,385
27,561,944 i 182,731,622

BY TOTALS FOR 7 LEADING STATES IN THE INDUSTRY.

New York:

1870

1880

1890

Peiinaylvania:

1870

1880

1890

Missouri:

1870

1880

1890

Ohio:

1870

1880

1890

Wiscon.sin:

1870

1880

1890

Illinois:

1870

1880

New Jersev:

1870

1880

1890

281
325
232

$12,425,322
27,580,502
67,759,552

246
291
168

6,966,236
12,073,068
26,106,365

87
64
30

4,631.050
4,942,700
16,689,575

199
163
106

5,337,272
8,178,545
21,491.924

176
208
107

2, 108, 150
7.25:^,205
16,803,32:?

148
HI
88

4,884.900
6,098,835
21,294,107

46
49
34

2,942,300
3,260,800
10,184,510

$9,194,243
19,823,853
18, 776, 129 \

3, 56;?. 986
5,765.837
6,461.082

2,377,028
2,852,236
6,563,536

2,711,270
5,110,587
5,272,894

935,046
3,536,438 I
4,829,390 I

2,023,366
3,261,272
4,627.634

1,660,113
2,564,748
3,592,491

2,942
8,093
8,285

I

1,583 '
2,452 I
3,562 I

788 '
1.502
3,117 I
I
1,305 I
2,706 ,
3.494

835 I
1.680 I
3,165

$2,067,908
3,912,798
8,035,187

773,267
1,200,289 I
2,831,943

597,978 I

699.616 I

2,441,616 I

748,540 '
1,184,825 '
2,828,501
I
268,808 ,
823,124
1,864.579

1,992,959
4,599.099
8.572,223

788,034
1,348,207
2,762,362

249, 112

756,527

1,883,614

570.922
1,215,168
2,393.124

189,664

85:?, 806

2,067,961

997 481,026 432,278

1,648 I 754,510 805, 605

2,943 I 2,056,829 2,281,249

628 ! 329,139 I 432,089

1,121 498,741 , 641,344

1,395 I 1,408,932 1.526,590

$15,818,863
35, ;?y2, ()77
53,429,685

7,066,400
10,124,:M8
18,358,734

6,519,548
5,048,077
16,954,137

5, 75:?, 666
9,125,014
15,899,629

1,790,273
6, :?12, 173
14.193,a57

4,154.224
5. 798, 109
13,664,(M6

:?.219,484
4,532,733
10,018,393

There are now in this country several ))rewing establishments each
of which produces over a million barrels a year. That is more than the

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production of the whole country in the year 1850 amounted to. The
growth of the brewing industry in the United States during the last
forty -thi*ee years can not be more clearly demonstrated than by this
comparison.

This country is now the third in rank among all beer-producing
countries in regard to the quantity produced. It also has the largest
lager beer brewing establishments in the world, far outstripping the
famous breweries of Germany and Austria.

As already stated, the large German immigration after the Revolu-
tion of 1848 gave a strong impetus to the brewing trade. The Germans
who came to this country to seek a living were mostly beer drinkers,
and the demand for that mild beverage soon became so great that the
speedy erection of additional breweries proved to be a manifest want.
With this increased demand it became a necessity to introduce more
scientific methods into the brewing business. To-day we can justly
speak of the ^^art of brewing." Some of the most famous scientists,
especially chemists, have lent their services to the brewing industry,
in order to enable the brewers to eliminate from their product every-
thing that may prove injurious to health. Among the apparatus in a
modern brewery we find some of the most ingeniously devised machines
and appliances. A modern brewer who wants to keep pace with the
progress of his trade must have a considerably better education than
the brewer of twenty -five years ago. The primitive methods of brew-
ing that had been employed until within a quarter of a century have
been done away with. A brewer who wants to make his product
according to the refined taste of the public must have not only a
thorough theoretical but also a practical knowledge of brewing from
its very start and during all its stages as well as of the method of
keeping the finished product.

This demand has led to the establishment ot ^' brewers' academies,"
where young men are thoroughly fitted out for all the responsible
positions in breweries. No doubt the scientific progress of the brew-
ing industry in this country is largely due to these excellent institutions.

ICE MACHINES AND REFRIGERATINO PLANTS.

The progress and push of the last half of the nineteenth century, so
conspicuous in other branches of industry, has also infused itself into
the art of brewing and preserving beer. An exhaustive description
of all the machinery and appliances used in a modern brewery can not
be given here. One invention, however, deserves to be especially
mentioned, as without it the brewing industry could never have expe-
rienced such a rapid growth as it has during the last two decades. It
is the invention of ice and refrigerating machines. The first experi-
ments in this line were made in 1872, but it was only after a number
of years that they were so perfected that they could be used profitably.

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Up to that time brewing had been practically confined to the winter
season, and the building of immense underground vaulta, sometimes
quarried out of the solid rock, wherein to keep the beer at a proper
temperature, f onned a considerable item of the first cost of a brewery.
For this reason, too, the establishment of breweries in southern cli-
mates, where ice could not be readily obtained, was out of the question.
With the introduction of the ice and cold-air machines all this has
been revolutionized; every modern brewery is now enabled to keep
on brewing all the year round, and even in tropical countries beer is
now made which is not to be despised. At the Columbian Exposition,
besides beers from such southern countries as Italy, Japan, Australia,
and Mexico, there were some fifty samples on exhibition from South
America, some of which gave evidence of merit, but, unfortunately,
owing to the lack of attention on the part of the representatives of the
exhibitors, they had not been kept at a proper temperature and were
in no condition to be judged. The samples were chiefly in bottles and
had been placed on display in the agricultural building in an upright
position, subject to all the changes of temperature, up to the end of
October.

THE PROCESS OF MALTING AND BREWING.

Although the general process of making beer is pretty much the
same all over the world, yet there is a vital difference in the method
of mashing as practiced in England and America and that of Germany,
France, and Austria. Here and in England the infusion method is
generally in vogue, while in the other countries mentioned resort is
had to what is called the decoction method. With us beer is an infu-
sion of malt boiled with hops, fermented by yeast, and then stored
until it is ripe for consumption. One not having seen a brewery and
not having kept a watchful eye on the many operations used to pro-
duce malt and finally beer may imagine that the making of beer is
quite an easy task. But it is not.

The most important material for the production of beer has always
been malt, especially barley malt. It is impossible to make beer
directly out of barley, and the same has to be subjected to a process
known as malting, which process consists of three operations: First,
keeping the barley in water for about seventy-two hours (steeping
process), then spreading the barley on floors in couches, while the
barley kernels are allowed to germinate, which process requires from
five to seven days (germinating process); then drying the malt and
removing the germs (kiln-drying procass.) The quality of the beer, of
course, depends largely on the quality of the malt. In former years
most every brewer conducted also a malt house, where he prepared the
amount of malt necessary for use in his brewery. Nowadays only few
brewers make their own malt, but buy it from manufacturers of malt,
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994 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

of which there are quite a number in the United States, among them
some who produce more than 1,000,000 bushels per annum.

To make beer out of malt it is necessary to mix the malt with water
of a certain degree of heat. This process is called the mashing proc-
ess, and has for its purpose the changing of about 70 per cent of the
insoluble substances of the malt into soluble ones. The soluHe sub-
stances thus produced consist mainly of malt sugar, which is fer-
mented during the subsequent operation. In order to conduct the
mashing process well it is necessary that every particle of malt be
thoroughly mixed with water, and before the malt is thus mashed it
has to be crushed.

When the brewing of beer was but an infant industry, and the
demand for this beverage only limited, the mashing was done in small
wooden vessels with the aid of paddles, the motive power being the
hands. The capacity of such wooden tubs was naturally not large.
Now the mashing is done in large tanks having a capacity of from
three to four hundred barrels and the motive power is steam.

After the infusion is completed, the water having dissolved all the
desirable substances, the solution called wort is drawn from the
insoluble matter, called grains, and the wort is put into another tank,
where it is boiled and hops are added. The method formerly used for
boiling this wort consisted mostly of heating the same in copper ves-
sels by coal fire, but few of these old appliances are found nowadays.
All the modern breweries use copper kettles in which the wort is
heated by steam. After the beer wort has been boiled sufficiently it
must be reduced to a certain degree of temperature before it is put
into the fermenting tubs. Formerly this cooling was done by leaving
the beer wort in shallow wooden vessels for many hours. At the
present time the wort is cooled as rapidly as possible by having the
same run over the coils of a cooling apparatus in which cold water
and other refrigerating means are used to shorten the time for cool-
ing. In the old breweries but small tubs were used wherein the beer
wort was kept during the stages of fermentation. The process of fer-
mentation is a decomposition of the malt sugar caused by yeast which
is added to the beer wort. Practical experience has shown that the
fermentation must be conducted at a certain temperature not exceed-
ing a maximum of about 50^ F. The brewer was compelled to
employ every means to keep the fermenting wort or beer in places
where the temperature did not rise above a certain limit. Generally,
underground cellars had to be made for this purpose. It was expen-
sive to build such cellers, and in summer it was often impossible to
keep the temperature down to the desired degree even when utmost
care had been taken in constructing and insulating them. Plenty of ice
had to be used, and in spite of every precaution the success looked for
was quite frequently not achieved, simply on account of the brewer's

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 995

inability to keep his collars cold enough. The same misfortune was
experienced with those cellars where the beer had to be stored and
finished for the market. It is no wonder, then, that in former times
the brewers often despaired, because notwithstanding their most dili-
gent efforts and the choice of the best materials, the resulting beers
were of poor quality, it having been impossible to control the temper-
ature. In our time it is quite different. After having successfully
demonstrated that beer could be fermented and stored in ice and cold-
storage houses above the surface by keeping the temperature within a
desired limit by means of ice and circulating cold air, the next and
most important improvment was made by the invention and erection
of cold-air machines which are run day and night in the breweries and
keep all the ice-houses and vaults at a very low temperature. This
last improvement has enabled brewers to put on the market beers of
unsurpassed quality, because it affords the means of exercising rigid
control. The fermentation can now be controlled, and even when
taking place in tubs twent}^ times as large as those which were used
formerly, everything is regulated with an accuracy that is astonishing.

The continuous growth of the brewing industr}^ especially the lager-
beer brewing in this country, naturally gave an impulse to many
inventors as improvers as far as mechanical appliances are concerned,
steam and electricity supplying the mechanical means which formerly
were not thought of. Hand mashing has been superseded by powerful
mixing apparatuses, driven by steam or electricity. Every mechanical
operation is carried on by other than manual labor, if possible. This
is also the case in the preparation of malt, where hand work is more
and more dispensed with.

Ifesides barley, other cereals are frequently used in the manufac-
ture of beer, such as rice, corn, rye, etc., chiefly on account of their
greater cheapness. In this country especially the use of Indian corn,
or maize, is now becoming quite prevalent, but the old-time beer
drinker will be slow to put the seal of approval on any beer not made
out of hops and barley malt.

BOTTLING BEER FOR EXPORT.

Science has greatly enhanced the development of beer brewing by
demonstrating that all operations used in brewing are subject to natu-
ral laws and many improvements are due to scientific researches. One
of the greatest achievements in this regard were the results obtained
by a careful study of those conditions and circumstances which prevent
the spoiling of beer. Science has in this matter given practical advice
how to treat beer of which long-keeping qualities are expected. The
result was that the brewer has been enabled to bottle his beer, and after
a process of sterilization send it to all parts of the globe where such
products were not previously known. In order to give the beer a more

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996 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

stable character it is usually treated by Pasteur's method of steriliz-
ing the germs. These germs are fatal to the stability and brilliancy
of beer and it is therefore necessary to get rid of or devitalize them.
They may be to a large extent suppressed by giving the beer a greater
percentage of alcohol, but this is not desirable. Almost generally the
process of pasteurization is now employed, under which the bottles
already filled with beer and having been carefully corked and wired
are stood upright in water, the temperature of which is gradually
raised to about 140^ F., and so kept for some forty minutes. By this
process the germs are so entirely destroyed that their reappearance is
impossible.

The beer-bottling industry has attained its greatest development in
the United States, from which country bottled beer is now shipped to
all parts of the world. The American bottled beer is especially
renowned for its brilliancy, pleasant taste, and long-keeping qualities.

In conclusion we should bear in mind that the phenomenal develop-
ment of the brewing industry has also given a strong impetus to the
culture of hops and raising of barley, thus coming to the aid of the
agriculturist. It has, besides, caused large glass factories for the
manufacture of bottles and glasses to spring up in various parts of
our country, and has in many other ways expanded the employment
of labor.

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WHISKIES, ETC.

Bv GuiDO Marx.

Many difficulties combine to prevent giving to the extensive col-
lection of exhibits such proper justice as its importance would demand,
and I am induced to make the attempt only by the conviction that
whatever might be dictated by a sufficient understanding of the sub-
ject would be of general interest. Furthermore such information
would tend to a better comprehension of a group of products which
is of such high economic value to all countries, and which in addition
supplies the Federal as well as the local governments of the United
States not less than most foreign Governments with financial resources
amounting to thousands of millions of dollars every year.

Practical business acquaintance extending over an ordinary lifetime,
repeated and extensive traveling on both sides of the Atlantic, and
official connections with former expositions enable me, perhaps, to
give the subject that treatment and attention to which it is entitled in
view of the fact that every nation represented at the World's Fair
had sent some exhibits in this line. And it may well be said that most
of them were more proud of their contributions to this particular
branch of it than of any of their other productions.

One of the principal difficulties in giving a comprehensive review
of this part of the Exposition consists in the fact that owing to its
extent I was only one of ten gentlemen intrusted with the examina-
tions in this particular group, and that differences in personal taste
had to be accepted largely in the determinations of merits. Another
reason making it almost impossible to give a more complete review of
the attainments in the science of distilling consisted in the classifica-
tion of the Exposition separating agriculture and its produce from
those of horticulture, assigning to this the products of distillation
from grapes and other fruits, which consequently were contained
mostly in a separate building and submitted to a totally different set
of judges. This arrangfement took from the consideration of our
board the entire subject of brandies and left it very much like the
well-known play of Hamlet with the title rdle omitted. Still there
were plenty of exhibits within the confines of the assignments to
occupy our attention and exercise our palates for several weeks during
the hottest part of the season.

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998 REPORT OP COMMITTKE ON AWARDS.

Group 11, Department of Agriculture, according to the classifica-
tion adopted, consisted of the following classes: Class 6i^^ high wines —
whisky and its manufacture; class 67, rum and other distilled spirits,
as saki, samshoo, etc.; class 68, alcohol, pure spirits; class 69, cor-
dials and liquors; class 70, bitters and mixed alcoholic beverages;
class 71, cider and vinegar.

To give an idea of the extent of the Columbian Exposition in com-
parison with the Centennial in Philadelphia in 1876, of which I had
also the honor of being one of the judges, I might mention that while
in the latter all spirituous liijuors, including wine, beer, cider, and
vinegar, formed but one group and were all examined by one body of
judges and reported on in geneml by me, the World's Fair gave
enough to do to keep at least three s(»ts of judges in hot water more
than in good spirits for consideral)le time.

To the fuller consideration and examination of the articles com-
prised in this group, the following gentlemen, who had been appointed
as judges in agriculture, were specially assigned: Count Adelmann,
of Sigmaringen, Germany; Mr. Bannister, London, England; Rudolph
Beyfuss, Vienna, Austria; J. Stoddard Johnson, Kentucky; Dr. Lich-
tenfeld, Berlin, Germany; Guido Marx, Toledo, Ohio; C. A. Preston,
Haiti; A. A. Rehbinder, Russia; Tawam, Japan; Wilkens, Nether-
lands.

At the first meeting of the judges of the group on August 21,
Guido Marx, of Toledo, the writer of this, was elected president, and
Mr. Rudolf Beyfuss, of Vienna, secretiirv. After Mr. Beyfuss had
discharged his share of the work, Mr. A. A. Rehbinder, of Russia,
was appointed in his stead, and following him Mr. J. Stoddard eTohn-
son, of Kentucky. For the guidance of the judges a set of rules were
adopted, with the approval of the executive committee on awards.

To insure as near an approach to conformity on the points of merit
required in judging the several exhibits the following scales were
adopted and blanks furnished for the record of the scores. The
standard of excellency was to be 100 points; these were to be dis-
tributed as follows: For alcohol and pure spirits, whiskies, brandies,
etc.: For chemical purity, 25; for perfect distillation, 25; for aroma,
bouquet flavor and taste, 25; for general characteristics or appearance
and condition, 25. In liquors, cordials, })itters, vinegar, and cider the
25 points counted for chemical purity were to be allowed for abs(»nce
of alien matter.

CHEMICAL UKPORT FOR I'UKITY.

In order to insure the highest reliabilit}^ to the examination of the
chemical constituents of the alcoholic beverages. Prof. H. W. Wiley,
the expert chemist of the Department of Agriculture, was requested
by the executive committee on awards to make the chemical analysis

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WORLD^S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 999

bf such samples as would be submitted to his test by the judges. His
report as far as pertinent will be inserted below. It was resolved that
no exhibit showing less than a total of 90 points of merit should be
reported for an award. In American rye whiskies, to insure the
highest value to the awards to be granted, this standard of excellency
was advanced to 95 points, although this resolution was modified in
its application later on by the executive bureau. Referring to such
cases where an individual or firm exhibited a variety of articles and
where several might be deemed worthy of award, it was resolved that
but one award should be granted and said award should cover the col-
lective exhibit. For reasons unknown to the writer this rule was,
after his departure, not strictly adhered to. The original official clas-
sification having been such a peculiar one and many of the exhibits
being of such a character which made their considemtion under any
of these specific heads rather impracticable the writer of this prefers
in the following to adopt such a subdivision as commercial usage has
established.

In accordance with this, alcohol takes the lead, being the principal
ingredient of all liquors deriving their character from its substance,
no matter whether same is present in its pure condition, in greater or
less proportion, or whether it appears under various admixtures. Be
it used either as pure alcohol for the purposes of science, for applica-
tion in arts and manufactures or in its reductions as a beverage, the
question of quality is the principal one. Alcohol can be produced
from any substance containing sugar or saccharine matter, and which-
ever plant yields the most of this and relatively at the least cost will
be the one to furnish the chief suppl}' in any country. With its appli-
cation upon the health of the consumer when used as a beverage, or
its effect from a medicinal point of view, we have here nothing to do.
This is a question upon which, as proverbially expressed, doctors dis-
agree and probably will differ as long as there is a drop of it left. All
we have to report upon is the quality and condition of that which is
offered to the public for consumption.

In the United States the main source from which alcohol is derived
is through the distillation of maize or Indian corn. By a combination
of circumstances and a large amount of capital its principal production
is at present practically in the hands of one company, the so-called
trust. It is very much to be regretted that the management of this
extensive corporation, including all the principal distilleries of alcohol
and pure spirits in the country, did not show public spirit enough to
have their industry similarly represented as that other well-known
corporation, the Standard Oil Company, did in giving such an excel-
lent exhibit, embodying their modes of refining petroleum.

The distillation of alcohol has made considerable progress in every
civilized country. The description of the processes and the apparatus

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1000 BEPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

by which it is carried on would fill a volume for itself. One patented
process for purifying liquors or spirits coming from Massachusetts
was granted an award.

Of the enormous quantities distilled in the United States only one
sample was exhibited, but this was interesting enough by having been
produced from the root of the cassava plant, raised in Florida. The
alcohol was of excellent quality in every respect. Other American
countries — Brazil, the Argentine Republic, Cuba, Guatemala, Vene-
zuela, and Uruguay — were numerically much better represented than
our own, the good appearance and perfect neutrality of their alcohol
showing considerable advance in the science of distilling high-proof
spirits. Of all European countries, Russia and Spain alone showed up
in the alcohol column. The material of the former was undoubtedly
rye, and the latter spirits of wine or sugar cane, although not stated
so specifically.

PURE SPIRITS.

What has been said regarding the lack of exhibits in the line of
alcohol must be repeated in connection with pure or neutral spirits,
the production of which in the United States is of considerable magni-
tude. Its exhibition was entirely neglected. The best representation
we had in this line came from Russia. We had occasion to report for
awards the names of eleven firms in all parts of the Empire for the
excellent quality of the ''Vodka," the Russian name for what are called
pure or neutral spirits in America. In this country their manufac-
ture is mostly carried on in the same distilleries where alcohol is pro-
duced, by redistillation of the high wines, and by reduction with dis-
tilled water to the required strength.

WHISKY.

This is the principal distilled beverage of the people in the United
States. It is subdivided according to the material which constitutes
its main ingredients. These are maize or Indian corn, rye, barley, and
wheat. In most cases several of these ingredients are used together
in varying proportions to produce such changes in quality, price and
aroma as are demanded by the trade. The cheapest of all our whiskies
are produced by the reduction and rectification or redistillation of
alcohol or spirits. These have been substituted for the high wines
formerly used for that puipose, because they can be obtained from the
distilleries at almost the same figures and of such purity generally that
they require little additional rectification. It can be asserted also
with full confidence, and by personal acquaintance with most of the
goods offered to the trade, that no adulteration is practiced by any
responsible concern. The simple substitution of the names of the
materials or grains used in distilling or compounding can hardly be
called such where several are mixed indiscriminately. This is also the

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reason why as far as chemical purity is concerned, the cheaper grades
of whisky in the United States are as wholesome as the more expen-
sive. The component of most grains, seeds, and potato called fusel
oil, which gives many alcoholic beverages that disagreeable rasping
taste, has been eliminated in these by rectification and redistillation to
a greater degree, yes, even entirely, while the presence of some of it has
to be relied upon for the formation of flavor or aroma in straight
whiskies. As far as the present state of science affirms, the volatile
oik furnishing the aroma, boquet, or flavor of higher grade whiskies
are produced by a saponification or oxidation of the fusel oil under
the influence of time and heat. From this follows also that the so-
called straight whiskies, being those ^ that have not been rectified or
redistilled, are not as pure in this respect, and not as fit for consump-
tion as those usually called compounded or blended. Straight goods,
unless they have been carefully distilled and have been kept a suffi-
cient length of time under proper condition, are in no way preferable
to conscientiously compounded blends.

The straight whiskies, as to their quality, rely for the development
of aroma, in the first place, upon the careful selection and composition
of their material and its distillation and redistillation, and then upon
sufficient time and atmospheric influence to mature the qualities which
distinguish them from the other grades. To hasten this maturing, the
warehouses in which the whiskies are placed are often heated arti-
ficially. It is of great importance to the jobbing trade that the uni-
formity, qualit}^ and proper bouquet can be relied upon to develop
from new whisky, because large quantities are sold and paid for from
two to five years before they are withdrawn for actual use. The
other grades depend for their chief chai-acteristics and preference
upon a well-distilled and carefully rectified spirit as a basis, to be flavored
and compounded, according to the requirements and tastes of the cus-
tomers, with such material as will suit them the best, generally with
sufficient old and highly flavored whisky to give the proper taste. These
goods can, therefore, be sold at much cheaper rates and still be just as
pure, and sometimes more so, than the former, which require consider-
able outlay of capital and occasion much loss by evaporation, interest
on investment, and expense of storage for longer periods.

The question as to relative merits of stmight and compounded or
blended liquors is much better understood in Great Britain, where
the Government has but lately instituted a commission to report on the
subject according to its importance. In the United States blending
has not been countenanced, for the mistaken reason that it has been
considered of greater value to the Government to be able to identify
spirits in all its passages from the still to the tumbler of the consumer
in order to detect any peculation by its own officei*s m collecting the
revenue on the spirits.

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Before the war of secession the questions of proof were seldom
raised and liquors of less than proof strength were considerably sold
over the bar. Since then, however, governmental regulations have
necessitated marking and branding the packages, and consequently
liquors of full and higher proof had to be and were supplied. The
direct result of which was that the consumers became used to drinking
much stronger liquor, thereby causing more intoxication, because the
dealers had not the privilege nor facilities of suiting its strength to
their own and the customers' advantage. It took some expensive liti-
gation before the internal-revenue authorities would allow even the
admixture of saccharine matter, which is in many cases of decided
benefit. This resistance to compounding favored in many ways the
use of the two-stamped goods— that is, those that came directly from the
Government warehouses to the retailer. It was pretended that such
goods were purer and more palatable than those which had passed
through the hands of the rectifier or compounder. This erroneous
view was largely fostered by the competition of a number of small
distilleries, especially in Kentucky, and of many larger ones who made
greater quantities of whisky than could be placed by the jobbing
houses, and who, consequently, sought the retail trade to assist in dis-
posing of their holdings. The impossibility of selling these before the
time came when the taxes thereon would have to be paid caused a
continuous demand for the extension of the bonded period far beyond
what, under proper conditions, would have been required.

The period at which a well-distilled sour-mash whisky reaches its
maturity is from five to six years. If it is not ripe and fully developed
by^ that time, no amount of further storing will make it any better.
The sweet-mash whiskies reach that condition of perfection even in
less time, two to three years being sufficient to develop their best
qualities. Notwithstanding this, large quantities of these whiskies
are withdrawn annuall}'^ before maturit}^ by those anxious to realize on
their investments as soon as they can find a market for them. In
addition to this, certain quantities are made on what are claimed as
quick processes, but which are in reality mostly only spirits made
suitable for immediate consumption or for use within one yeB.r.

But of all aging processes we have found none more reliable than
time, assisted by a warm temperature. Various other modes have
been introduced, some to apply electricity, others to keep the packages
in motion, but none of these were exhibited nor appear to be success-
ful. The only way practiced by leading houses to give new whiskies
the flavor and taste of older is by the addition of a sufficient quantity
of the latter to gain the desired end — that is, by judicious blending.

In order to overcome the fiery taste of new liquors an addition of
sweet wines, fruit sirup, or other plain sirups is practiced, which
answer fully the puipose and are entirely innocuous. The use of
glycerin and glucose has not found much application. More con-

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1003

sumed for this purpose is an article called prune juice, which has
formerly all been imported but is now also prepared in this country.
We had a sample of it submitted and found it worthy of an award.
Inasmuch as for the prices usually obtained high grade old whiskies
can not be supplied, and as it is admitted that the essential object
sought is a well-distilled base with a good flavor, there can be no
objection to proper compounding or blending. In many ways it obvi-
ates a loss which is incurred bj' holding all whiskies a full length of
time. The loss by evaporation is not less than 10 per cent per year,
which would amount to from 40 to 50 per cent in five years. (The
allowance is 7i gallons per barrel for three years under the Carlisle bill.)
The interest on the investment amounts to at least 6 per cent per year
more, to which the charges for storage and insurance have to be added,
all of which can be saved by a preference of properly blended over
sti'aight goods, which latter are too often not sufliciently matured.
Besides, there are other reasons more fully alluded to in the letter
given below. These views of the judges were fully sustained by the
examination of the blended whiskies exhibited by some of the leading
houses, which were awarded their just share of premiums, in compari-
son with the samples of straight goods exhibited by the most prom-
inent distilleries.

In connection with this part of the subject I desire to introduce a
letter b>' Mr. August Wolpert, a gentleman of long experience in
handling whiskies, in the sale thereof, as well as in compounding and
selling. He writes:

Mr. GuiDo Marx,

Judge of AwardSj Columbian Exposition.
Sir: From the preliminary report of the judges of the World's Columbian Expo-
sition, I am glad to see that justice has been done and indorsement given to -a very
important article of manufacture and commerce in our domestic whiskies, viz, to the
80-calle<l blended goods; that is, whiskies compounded by resxxjnsible and reliable
dealers from gO(Ki old brands, whether rye, com, or malt. The judges have concluded
that a carefully blended or compounded whisky, which according to law requires
but one stamp on the package into which it is placed, is fully as good or better than
many of the so-called two or double-stamped goods. A good blend can not be made
from p(K>r whLskies. The distiller knows only too well that if his whiskies are given
say five or six years' age, the proof of the same will increase to such an extent that if
the whisky gets into the hands of the retailer and by him is set out to his customers
over the bar, he, the customer, would pronounce the same fiery, hot, rank, and new,
simply l)ecause the whisky during the five or six years of aging has gained 5 to 12
jier cent in proof of strength. So a whisky, after being distilled and then weighed
by the rnite<i States gauger, showing 101 per c«nt proof would, after the expiration
of five or six years, weigh from 106 to 112 per cent, according to the temperature of
the warehoust* in which the same was kept. Whisky at 104, or still more at 110, is
too strong altogether to be put into the stomach of a human being. Its effects can
not help but be terrible, no matter how good and pure the whisky may be other-
wise. One stamp or blended whiskies will easily overcome this, for the simple rea-
8on that most all reputable and first-class wholesale liquor dealers have ready for use
pure distilled water with which they reduce their high-proof whiskies to such a

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1004 BEPOBT OF OOMBCITTBE ON AWARDS.

strength as to make the same taste pleasant and smooth. This can be properly done
only by the wholesaler, firstly, because the retailer is legally not allowed to redace
his whisky in the original package, and, secondly, because most of them are never in
possession of distilled water, which is the only water to be used in reducing high-
proof goods, and they would therefore make a failure by using hard and ordinary
water for that purpose. Hard water or any other water except distilled water will
never mix well with whisky. It always leaves the whisky cloudy and never gives it
that brilliancy which distilled water does. Many compounders also use in addition
to distilled water pure rock candy sirup, and also some fine fruit juices. The latter,
especially when pure, will only add to make the whisky taste more palatable and
smooth, and when compounded with some good old whisky will only help to improve
the taste. This compounding should be done in large quantities only and not three
or four gallons at the time. Whiskies after being compounded in barrels are gener-
ally given another six months' aging, so as to give the different ingredients a chance
to fully unite with each other, after which the whisky will be ready for use.

It is just as my correspondent says — blending is a science in itself, and
can not be successfully done without sufficient knowledge and the proper
means of carrying it on correctly. If good blends are better than
raw, straight whiskies, then they can be made so only by use of finest
neutral spirits, the best flavored whiskies well matured, and carefully
distilled water. They vrill also be relatively cheaper and more jMila-
table than straight goods, which have been left from two to eight years,
occasioning unnecessary loss and outlaj'^ for a large part of the prod-
uct. In the East this practice has been recognized for a longer period,
but in the West the delusion is still kept up by interested parties that
whiskies bearing two stamps are preferable, no matter what their
qualities otherwise might be. With more than ordinary pride the
distillers and compounders of the United States can point to the report
given herewith of Prof. H. W. Wiley, the Government chemist, of
the analysis made of the whiskies and other liquors submitted to his
examination. They contained samples taken from the exhibits of all
the distilleries represented, and were collected without the knowledge
on the part of any of the interested parties that such exact investiga-
tions would take place. Its result proved, however, that the sti-aight
as well as the blended whiskies sold by the leading houses were per-
fectly free from any deleterious or alien substance, and pure and fully
up to the standard required. This contradicts the oft-repeated rant,
asserting and preaching that pure liquors could not be had, and that all
were more or less adulterated and drugged. No other department of
industry supplying public wants in the line of food and drink, wear-
ing apparel, or for any other purpose can show a better record for
purity and genuineness of material in use. The annexed report of
Professor Wiley will prove this:

Jacbmon Park,
Chicago, III., August 19, X89S.

Sir: I beg to report the following examination of alcohols, whiskies, and bran-
dies. The distinguishing marks are those given me by the judges. In regard to the
whiskies and brandies I will say that they were found without deleterious sub-
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WORLD 8 COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1005

stances, bat in some cases there apptors to have been added to them burnt sugar for
the purpose of coloring. This is particularly the case with Nos. 19435 and 2238. In
regard to the other samples our examination shows that they are pure and fully up
to the examination required.

I am, respectfully, H. W. Wiley.

Hon. John Boyd Thatcher,

Administraiwn Building, Jackson Park, City.

ResuUa of the chemical examination of samples of alcoholic liquors for the Bureau of
Awards, Woria^s Columbian Exposition,

Bureau of
awards No.

Specifier
gravity.

Tempera-
ture,
specific
gravity
taken.

Alcohol.

Dry ex-

tract

(gramfl

Volume.

Weight.

• l^r).

Percent.

Percetd,

95.5

93.17

0.0

96.8

94.41

0.0

95.2

92.74

0.0

96.7

93.46

0.0

41.6

84.80

1.91

40.6

83.93

1.11

43.8

36.34

.62

40

83.39

.42

41.7

84.90

.70

56.4

48.63

1.82

55.6

47.84

6.50

59.1

51.26

1.17

51.8

44.20

1.90

49.6

42.13

1.87

59.2

51.48

2.05

58,6

46.91

2.48

48.6

41.19

1.75

98

89.71

0.0

54.8

47.06

1.48

60.4

42.66

1.16

51.9

46.10

1.60

59.8

51.68

7.17

62.5

54.67

1.66

68

55.18

1.88

Kind of liquor.

21.155-1.
25,163...
25,171...
26,173...
21,156-2.
25.160...

0.8026

25.6
26

.9460
Bottle

24
>roken.

Sample insufficient
in amount.

Alcohol.

Alcohol, N. Vorogonshion.

Alcohol, Marinsky Distilling Co.

Alcohol, S. Christiakoff.

Brandy, P. Snainof.

Brandy, BoUman & Co., St. Peters-

Vorogonshion Novoeil.

burg,
idy, N.

Brant

19,414.

19,417.

19420.

l»iS6.

25464.

25470..

Brandy, Marinsky Distillery, Li-

petsh.
Brandy, S. ChristiakofF.
Whisky, J. H. O'Hara.
Whisky, Moore & Sinnott
Whisky, A. Ouckenheimer & Bro.

Do.
Whisky, Dallemand & Co.
Whisky, Ulman Goldsborough

Do.
Whisky, Hiram Walker & Co.
Cassava alcohol, DIsston, Okeecho-
bee Drainage Go.
Whisky, Large Distilling Co.

Do.
Whisky, Old Times Distilling Co.
Whisky, Bemheim Bros.
Whisky, The Hannis Distilling Co.

Do.

The favorite kinds of whisky in the United States are rye whisky,
Bourbon whisky, and malt whisky.

BYE WHISKY.

Rye is generally used in connection with some barley malt to pro-
duce the most highly flavored of American whiskies. It requires
about five years to gain its full maturity. Some of it is produced in
the States of Kentucky and Maryland, but the chief supply comes
from Pennsylvania. Nine of the principal distilleries in these States
exhibited full lines of their vintages, some of these as old as ten years,
proving thereby their uniformity in quality and the improvements
gained each year. We had the pleasure of awarding premiums to
eight of the firms exhibiting straight and several blended goods in
this line. Of foreign countries Russia and Germany sent some rye
whisky in the American style which merited approval.

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1006 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

BOURBON WHISKY

derives its name from Bourbon County, Ky., in which State at pres-
ent it forms in nmny counties one of the most important indiLstries.
The basis of the whisky is the hard or flint corn or maize peculiar to
that State, with such admixture of rye and barley malt, called small
grain, as experience has shown to be most advantageous in each case.
It is also claimed that the water of the springs from the calcareous
formation of the State has something to do with the excellence of its
product. Be that as it may, of the large number of flourishing dis-
tilleries in that State and in the neighboring one of Tennessee, where
also some good "Bourbon" is made, but six showed up with exhibits
at the World's Fair. These were not nearly the most extensive ones,
but secured what they deserved, viz, four of the prizes. If a sufli-
cient attempt had been made to give the State its proper representa-
tion it would have made a far better showing.

MALT WHISKY.

Malt whisky is distilled in the United States only in a very limited
quantity, and that is principally used for flavoring and advertising
purposes. But one distillery submitted a full line of samples, which,
however, was very satisfactory. Our supply of whisky of this kind
comes mostly from Great Britain — that is, England, Scotland, and
Ireland — and Canada, which introduced enough fine samples to carry
off ten awards. Liquors in the style of whisky, and called so probably
in honor of our national beverage, but derived from divers materials,
most likely the juice of sugar cane, were exhibited by Uruguay and
Cuba.

RUM.

Rum, which used to be so popular in the United States that it is
said that for every missionary sent out from the city of Boston to civil-
ize Africa 10,000 gallons of it were sent along on the same ship, was
entirely neglected as far as its representation at the Columbian Expo-
sition was concerned. We did not meet a single sample of the New
England rum which has spread the fame of this section probably far-
ther than any of its Yankee notions. Most every other country on
the globe hastened to make up for this lack of patriotism in our own,
even to distant New South Wales. Their efforts were recognized by
awards for three samples submitted by Mexico, distilled from the
juice of sugar cane, one from Costa Rica, four from British Guiana,
thirteen from Brazil, and one from Paraguay. The West India Islands
maintained their old superiority in the distillation of rum by obtain-
ing eleven awards for Jamaica, four for Haiti, and one for Cuba. The
mother country, Spain, secured three, and even Germany one.

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BRANDY.

By the exclusion from this group of brandies distilled from grapes
and other fruit, by their assignment to viticudture and exhibition in
hoi-ticultui-al hall, we were relieved of the examination of the largest
part of what are commercially considered some of the foremost of
alcoholic liquors.

France having withdrawn from competition all the goods which she
exhibited caused a large blank space to be left in any report which
might be written about this class — a space which can not be filled or
supplanted by any other country, although to our knowledge, from
business acquaintance with the subject, some of our own States,
especially California and Ohio, have succeeded in producing highly
creditable brandies.

The accident of installation left some brandies among the exhibits
in agricultui-al hall, and we assumed proper charge of the waifs
belonging to our family. Among these were some especially splendid
brandies distilled from cherries and other small fruit from Baden,
Germany, which obtained twenty awards. We also found occasion to
premiate German cognac and a substitute for same. Italy presented
to us several of her "aquavitae uso cognac," which compared well
with the best of these.

Mexico introduced the brandies called mezcal, made from the juice
of the agave or century plant, and obtained seven awards for the same;
also one each for brandies distilled from mesquite or the sweet bean
and from '' Guaste comate."

Guatemala and Costa Rica received recognition for spirits of uva
or grapes; likewise Haiti for such from plums. Among the large
exhibit of Brazil were many fine distillations from the f ruiti^ peculiar
to that country. Habana, in her rich Cuban collections, also included
brandies.

GIN.

This liquor, from which preeminently medicinal qualities are claimed,
was not as numerously represented as its commercial importance would
have suggested. Our largest supply was formerly imported from the
Netherlands and England, where a few prominent distillers did not
neglect the occasion to keep the American public informed that they
are still in existence. Their attention was fitly rewarded. Cuba and
some South American States — Uruguay and Costa Rica — showed their
acquaintance with the use of juniper oil by presenting HoUandesa and
Ginebra of rather indifferent quality. Conspicuously by its entire
absence, however, was the American industry in this branch, notwith-.
standing the fact that it has succeeded, by improvements in the distil-
lation of domestic spirits with juniper berries, in replacing in tne

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favor of the public much of the imported gin. Consequently we can
give no account of an advance where those who should have been in
the line of march themselves failed to materialize. «

ARRACK.

The interesting exhibit of the Sultanate of Johore, from the Malayan
Peninsula, gave us the first opportunity to examine side by side the
spirits bearing this name made from rice sweetened, and plain, called
nasi at home, and those won from the juice of the date palm, called
"khorma." But neither presented itself to our perception as advan-
tageously as the arrack, exhibited by a Rotterdam firm, which was
more suitable to Western taste. Its origin was not indicated.

CORDIALS AND LIQUEURS.

Under this head are contained all sweetened liquors, no matter of
what alcoholic proof. Those of the greatest strength are frequently
designated as ratafias, while such as contain a large proportion of
saccharine matter are called cremes. A superabundance of sugar is
sometimes added to produce crystallization for ornament. The num-
ber and variety of cordials is endless, as every part of innumerable
plants and trees, from the root and bark to the leaves, flower, seed,
and fruit, is made use of for their composition and flavoring. Some
are of standard kinds, and well known the world over, favorites in
countries far removed from each other. To these belong anisette and
kummel; the latter, made of caraway seeds, is, according to strength,
either plain or double, "doppel;" the Russian name of the latter is
allash, the former ekau. Other well known sources of flavor are pep-
permint, ginger, cloves, cinnamon, vanilla, and the ordinary fruits —
grapes, blackberries, raspberries, gooseberries, currants, quinces,
plums, apricots, pears, limes, and oranges. The liquor made from the
bitter orange named cuiracao is imitated everywhere. Cacao, choco-
late, also green and roasted coffee, furnished excellent aromas for other
fine applications. Many of these are produced by a redistillation of
the ordinary spirits of the country with the substances preferred,
others by maceration, and the rest by the so-called cold process — i. e.,
the infusion of the necessary essential oils into the spirits and sugar.
Denmark, Russia, and Italy have attained the greatest perfection in
the use of cherries.

Other cordials, the composition of which is kept a trade secret gen-
erally, derive their name either from the place or vicinity where they
were first made or are principally manufactured or where they are
supposed to come from. For instance Chartreuse or Benedictine,
about which the French advertisers tell quite interesting stories. A
number of these are well known by private brands, such as Neapoli-

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WOBLd's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1009

tan, San Bernardo, Khedive, Elixir, Piria, "The Aqua" of Grondola,
the Elixir Ef esina of Taranto, and others. Then we have those kinds
which are peculiar to certain countries. Among these we cite the
Swedish punches. These are mostly fine spirits of rye, flavored with
plenty of East India arrack and sweetened to such a degree that they
make a highly palatable drink without further reduction. This is not
to be confused with the essence or extract of punch, which is a compo-
sition of rum or arrack, and other spirits with lemon and sugar, which,
by the addition of hot water, is much consumed in Germany and to
which the great poet Schiller has dedicated two handsome, inspiring
poems.

Some liquors may be considered as the natural products of certain
countries, and inasmuch as fashion is an element in the compounding
of beverages as well as in other walks of life, industry is as active in
this branch as in any other to avail itself of every fresh opportunity
to introduce novelties. In this connection, therefore, it appears
interesting to name in the list of cordials such recent additions as have
been presented by the various countries. And this is peculiarly
appropriate in those cases where the distillers and compounders have
availed themselves of their native resources instead of imitating old
'imported or hackneyed formulas and brands. In this category the
United States presented as comparatively new and meritorious only
rock and rj^e, egg cognac, and blackberry cordials. The first named
is a composition of rye whisky with rock candy. Egg cognac is an
imitation of a French liqueur lately introduced, being a mixture of
brandy, the yellow of eggs or some oily substitute, and sugar. It
was found quite palatable. The blackberry cordials appeared to
answer their purpose, whether prepared according to the Pharmacopoeia
or not.

Costa Rica treated us to liqueurs called mararone, mistala, and
yerbabuena, which latter very much resembles mint.

Guatemala introduced nance, the redistillation of a white, cherry-
like fruit, mamey canela, or cinnamon jjina (pineapples), palma, cafe,
and tecum. The novelty from Colombia was anisette of cocoanut.

Paraguay sui*prised and puzzled us with tafias of capricato, ananas,
quarirami, banana, yerba nate, and moka.

Russia made us acquainted with liqueur from sorbus, or mountain
ash, that would hardly "take" with the American taste; with some
made of black currants, that might suit better, and sweet cherry
brandy, which was hardly inferior to the Italian sugo de'ciliegie nere
selvatiche. Pommice, or treber, and plums also furnish good material
in the north. From the south the small but celebrated principality of
Monaco offered us, among other delicate liqueurs, coffee with calisaya
and the specialty of Alpine de Monte Carlo.
COL EXPO — 02 64

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The Ottoman Empire renewed our old acquaintance with its superb
sage, mint, and Melissa liqueurs.

From the antipodes, in New South Wales, we received Wamtah
liqueur, eucalypti, mimosa, native rose, and sarsaparilla, of which
several deserve to be known more widely.

BITTERS AND MIXED ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES.

Regarding these much might be repeated that we have already said
in the introduction to the previous class. The same desire for change
which prompts people to sweeten their means of existence impels them
also to the opposite, viz, to render the same somewhat more or less
bitter. We find, therefore, bitters largely as condiments to alcoholic
beverages all over the globe.

Many of the substances employed are well known and applied every-
where. The more bitter a root or bark the more healthy it is con-
sidered and the more welcome. Many of these belong properly to the
medicinal treasures; others are simply popular or used only locally.
Novelties in this line we found comparatively few.

In the collections from the United States we can mention only cel-
ery; in those from Brazil imitations of Boonekamp pla^^ed a consid-
erable part. Besides these a Molho mineiro was introduced, quite pep-
pery and sour, and a bitters from the Casco de Caravy a amara. Of
most others the condiments were not stated nor apparent.

In the collections from Uruguay we found of merit a number of
reproductions of vermouth, but this beverage, being a white wine made
bitter by infusion of the herb giving it its name, did not properly come
under our jurisdiction.

The same was the case with the vermouth from Italy, the country to
which this liquor originally belongs. In consequence of this they were
withdrawn by the representative of that State for examination in the
department of viticulture. An exception was made by the submis-
sion of a vermouth manufactured in New York which deserved an
award at our hands. Other and stronger bitters from sunny Ital}'^ came
under our observation, however. Their "Ferment" appears to be a
favorite; it is more in the character of an extract, a very small quan-
tity of it going a great way. In Genepe we found the herbs of the
Alps well pronounced, so also in Amara del TricoUa and Amara Abruz-
zese, the specifics of the sections. Alkermes was more distinguished
by the carmine color of the insect from which its name is derived than
by any other peculiarity.

A collection of bitters in the exhibit of the Sultan of lohore, in which
the Sultana Pohit was especially named, gave us no light on the
materials composing it. Among those from New South Wales the
appliance of hops might be considered as novel in their consideration.
Medicated liquors were introduced in a limited number from Canada^

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1011

Illinois, and Italy, but to judge of their merits we would rather see
them referred to the chemical or medicinal authorities. Their alcoholic
parts appeared sufficiently **all right."

SAKE.

This Japanese beverage was included in the original official classifi-
cation with rum and other distilled spirits, but it does not belong
there. It is not a distilled spirit, but a fermented one. If it were
distilled it would belong there the same as ari'ack, which is partly
derived from the same material, viz, rice. As we had it explained, it
forms a class for itself, that of rice wine. It contains but 13 per cent
of alcohol — not more than many Catawba wines and not as much as
ordinary sherry, to which it comes nearest in taste. Its main require-
ments are a handsome color — of a straw yellow — proper taste or
aroma, and clearness or transparency. It is frequently used diluted
by warm water. There is also a sweet kind manufactured, which is
called mirim, that would suit the American taste quite well. We
could not undei*stand whether the sweetness was produced by addition
of sugar or by interruption of fermentation.

FRUIT WINES AND CIDER.

The former were not generally entered to come under our observa-
tion, but of those that were, the pineapple champagne exhibited by
Jos6 Elena Madiedo, of Habana, deserves the most favorable men-
tion. It was the finest beverage of this kind that we ever had the
good fortune to taste.

Several samples of cider from Spain, one of which was sparkling,
were found meritorious. Others came from the Canadian northwest,
from Victoria in British (Columbia, but they did not arrive in the best
condition.

In favor of the so-called orange cider from Florida and California,,
which was mainly manufactured in Chicago and mostly sold on the
World's Fair grounds, we find an award entered in our lists.

FRUIT SIRUPS.

Fruit sirups were also but partially submitted to our group. Those
which we had to take cognizance of came from Scotland and New
South Wales, in Australia. They consisted of lime, lemon, and rasp-
berry juices, and were of an exceptionally good character.

By special request of the representative of the Kingdom of Siam we
examined the selection of pickles in that Government's collection,
which were exhibited by Lady Bhaskarawongse, Marian, madan, and
mango were the fruits pickled. They'were exceedingly pungent, of
high aroma, and well preserved.

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Ceylon brought to our notice a peculiar kit of instruments used in
extracting toddy, the sap of the flower of the palm tree.

VINEGAR.

This substance of universal use, and produced from any material
that can undergo an acetic fermentation, was present in numerous
samples, prepared in old-fashioned ways and by new processes from
cider, pomace, and juices of grapes. It was introduced from the
States of New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Michigan; from Italy,
Spain, Argentina, and Australia. Vermont showed what could be
gained by the fermentation of maple sirup.

Sugar cane and its derivatives came in for a large share of attention
from Brazil. Success in its production by direct fermentation from
barley malt was claimed by Pennsylvania, New York, Argentina,
Sweden, and New South Wales. Spirits of grain formed the basis of
the five samples of vinegar from Japan, of which two were rewarded
by premiums. The i-aspberry vinegar exhibited from Scotland also
deserves mention in this connection.

GEOGRAPHICAL RECAPITULATION.

As far as the incomplete material which has been put at my disposi-
tion enables me to say, 46 countries and States were represented in
group 11; in all, 311 awards were granted to the exhibitors in the
same. This number represented probably from 400 to 500 exhibitors
and a total of nearly 5,000 exhibits which had to be examined. Some
collections contained as high as 50 different specimens, and an average
of 10 to each exhibitor is probably pretty low.

It must be mentioned that, in comparison with the Centennial Expo-
sition, the Columbian showed a considerable advance in the science of
distilling, especially in the States of America to the south of us. The
style of bottling and putting up, the taste displayed in the glassware
selected to show off the goods to best advantage, was also far superior
to what we have seen formerly. Russia, Japan, and two houses from
Cincinnati excelled especiallj'^ in this respect. As long as some of
these goods are bought mainly for decorative purposes, it is quite
essential that suflicient attention should be paid to their outward
appearance.

AMERICA.

Beginning with our own continent from north to south, we found in
group 11 the Dominion of Canada represented by the exhibition of
cider, whisky, and medicated wine; the United States by twenty-four
exhibitors— among these Vermont sent in vinegar; New York, blended
whisky, schnapps, vermuth, and vinegar; Pennsylvania, straight and
blended rye whisky and vinegar; Ohio, liqueurs and cordials, bottled

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goods, and prune juice; Michigan, vinegar; Illinois, blended and
medicated whisky, cider, and vinegar; Kentucky was represented by
Bourbon whisky, Maryland by straight and blended whisky, Florida
by alcohol from the cassava plant, and Massachusetts by a process for
purifying liquors or spirits.

Mexico sent us a large selection of liquors, derived from various
substances, from the juice of sugar cane, from the mesquite or sweet
bean and the agave. They showed how most of these can be purified,
deodorized, and be used to advantage. Twenty-two awards recognized
the progress made in this industry.

GUATEMALA.

Two exhibitors showed by such an extensive array of rums and its
various redistillations, with many known and several to us heretofore
unknown aromatic fruits and other substances, that this science has
reached a high grade of development in that vigorous young State.
Two of its municipalities embittered our examinations by the excessive
tonic qualities of their dragon blood and aloe juices.

COSTA RICA.

The successful application of aquardiente de canna (spirits gained
from sugar cane) to the production of alcohol, as well as to all other
distilling of fine cordials, was shown to considerable extent in the
exhibits of two firms, which both carried awards.

Cuba placed itself near the head of the spirit column. Six awards
and a diploma will honor the efforts of the seven firms in demonstrat-
ing that their island is not surpassed b}'^ any country in the distillation
of alcohol, rum, and fine cordials. Their pineapple wine is one of the
most exquisite we ever met with.

The main strength of the alcoholic productions of the Republic of
Haiti lies in the distillation of bay rum. This belongs to another
group, where its merits will be recognized. One sample of it strayed
to our fold, and was duly awarded. Of her other exhibits, which were
similarly distinguished, four were of ordinary rum, one for plum
brandy, two for bitters, and one for a collection of liqueurs.

The island of Jamaica not only sustains its old reputation as one of
the principal sources of good, pure rum, but it also exhibited various
cordials, bitters, and vinegar, which helped to increase the number of
its awards to 16, being for two-thirds the number of its exhibitors.

Trinidad obtained her usual recognition for the Angostura bitters,
which makes its home there, but is known the world over. We saw
no other exhibit of theirs in our group nor on record.

Curacao: We have to remark here that only one of the liqueurs
bearing her name was on exhibition and was awarded a premium.

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Porto Rico made a veiy tino showing in agricultui*al hall, but if it
contained any objects belonging to group 11 they must have been
reported on under the head of Spain, the mother country.

Venezuela displayed considerable interest in our Exposition. I find
that 19 exhibits were examined, but that only one award was granted
to alcohol and one to anisette cx)ming from there.

Colombia I notice credited with but one award for a collection of
liqueurs.

Ecuador: Out of five names exhibiting, one only was awarded the
medal by the examining judge.

British Guiana honored us with a large selection of white and col-
ored rum from many of her most prosperous plantations. Five of
these were distinguished by awards for the superior quality of their
distillations.

Brazil: The representation of this great country in the line of spirits
comprised a great variety of resources for the use of distillers. They
demonstrated their applicability and industry by more than 80 entries.
Predominant among these was aquardiente de canna, the juice of the
sugar cane. It furnished the basis of most of the alcohol, for which 5
awards were granted; for many of their bitters and cordials, which car-
ried 13 awards, and for part of their vinegar, the other being derived
from grapes.

The Argentine Republic was strongly represented in group 11. Her
efforts covered all the ])ranches of the spirit industry. The exhibits
numbered 84, many contributing large collections bringing the number
of specimens really examined, as in most similar cases, to a consider-
ably higher figure. Ten of her firms obtained prizes for alcohol from
sugar cane and other materials, and eight for various liqueurs, cor-
dials, and bitters. She also furnished some vinegar.

Uruguay: Out of 15 assignments covering 19 exhibits made by 10
firms 6 were found deserving awards. These consisted of 1 for
alcohol, 1 for cherry bounce, 3 for collections of liqueurs, and 1 for
bitters. The vigorous enterprise of this country would appear to
greater advantage if instead of imitating European brands, styles, and
names, the distillers paid attention to its rich store of domestic aro-
matics in combination with the native material and gave them the
proper credit in their appellations.

Paraguay was more independent in this respect. Among her assort-
ment of 18 exhibits I find 3 awards granted to liqueurs of yerba,
banana, and other fruits, one for rum tafia and another for bitters.

EUROPE.

Russia has proved conclusively by number of exhibits, as well as
the complete range of her goods, that she is not excelled by any nation

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1015

in distLUation and rectification of alcohol, pure spirits, fine cordials,
and brandies from fruits of native growth. Thirty-four awards to her
87 exhibitors testified to the thorough appreciation of the high quality
disclosed in her large array of samples. Not only the goods them-
selves, but the artistic manner in which the}'^ were displayed, added to
the favorable impression they created.

Sweden did not send us a large assortment, but what they did send
was excellent. We were infonned that her Government before admit-
ting any competition in their space had previously made a selection of
the most meritorious. So of 6 firms submitting various brands of
punch we had the pleasure to award medals to all. This punch has a
world-wide fame, and sustained it at the World's Fair. The vinegar
brought from Stockholm secured also a prize.

Denmark: From Copenhagen we could only welcome two firms,
but their productions, arrack punch, cherry brandy, and gooseberry or
stickelbeer brandy, stayed in the front rank of their kind and carried
awards for both houses.

Germany's participation in this great review was not in keeping with
her successful efforts in other directions. Only the Grand Duchy of
Baden proved by a full line of her fruit brandies what gain can be
made from her orchards and the cherry trees grown by the wayside.
Other parts of Germany were awarded 11 medals for different kinds of
liqueurs and bittera, one of which was for whiskies purified by i^efrig-
eration. The principal source of the spirits produced in Germany is
derived from the potato and beet, although rye is also largely used,

Austria, so well prepared to meet competition in the field of spirits,
did not consider this a promising occasion to show her strength.
While some of her distillates are known and imitated the world over,
we found but few of the original producers claiming their proper dis-
tinction. Tt^o of these, however, were justly recognized.

Switzerland, the home of some of the most popular distillations,
only sent us three to judge the rest by. One award was decreed for
Kirschwasser, the other for absinthe, which comprise the principal
staples under our rubrics.

Great Britain showed its strong hand in several of the leading
branches. The Scotch and Irish whisky and blended whiskies intro-
duced from the United Kingdom, its gin, lime juice, and raspben'y
cordials, and vinegar, carried awards for over one-half her exhibits.

The Netherlands, the home of gin, genever, or schiedam schnapps,
had but few representatives in this line, which forms one of the princi-
pal articles of their export to this country. Its high quality was dis-
cerned by proper awards; one for arrack, one for gin, cordials, and
other liqueurs. Another of their exhibits did not come into competi-
tion because the party interested in its production was one of the
judges.

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Belgium acting in conjunction with France had both withdrawn all
their exhibits in every department from competition for prizes. We
were sorry to have been prevented by this action from according their
products in our line such consideration and recognition as they undoubt-
edly deserved.

Italy sent a splendid array of high-grade distillations. Not only her
well-known specialties the f ermet, genepe delle alpa, aqua tutto cedro,
and alkermes, were fully represented, but also very successful imitations
of French brands of cognac and so many other genuine cordials, fruit
brandies, bitters, and local productions as to warrant the distribution
of 14 medals and the according of 8 diplomas. Two premiums were
granted to some of her choice vinegar.

Monaco introduced from one firm a collection of liqueurs in the
style of the French, which came as near to their prototypes as can be
demanded, besides presenting some fine specialties of their own. The
principality also sent a line of lemonade gazeuse, which had suffered,
however, in transportation.

Spain manifested great activity in the production of spirits. Of her
distillates 55 were submitted to examination. Of these 2 samples of
alcohol, 3 of rum, and 1 of anisette were reported by the judge for
awards. Three were given for cider and 12 for vinegar.

OTTOMAN EMPIRE.

The Ottoman Empire had but one collection of exhibits in our
group. This came from the island of Samos. It consisted of cordials
delicately flavored by native herbs.

ASIA.

Japan honored itself and the Columbian Exposition by presenting
47 brewings of their rice wine, sake, 3 of which were for the sweet
variety called mirim. Thirty-two awards were allotted and 2 for vin-
egar, of which 5 samples had been submitted of a quality which would
compare favorably with that from any other source.

AFRICA.

Africa was a real dark continent for us. Its neglect by American
industry and occupancy by European activity was illustrated in the
total absence of any product in our group, with the exception of some
spirits or brandies of Algerian origin exhibited in agricultural hall.
From the examination of these we were prevented by the nonconcur-
of France and their entry under viticulture.

AUSTRALIA.

New South Wales was the only one of all the colonies among our
antipodes which exhibited a lively interest in the World's Fair. Her

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 18»3. 1017

participation disclosed considerable success in distilling, and surprised
us by the extent of their assortment.

From Sydney and Nowra we found 4 exhibitors presenting collec-
tions of cordials which for novelty, lemon sirups which for quality,
and vinegars which for strength could vie with any older country.
They received 3 awards.

The Australian rum from native sugar cane, of which 1 sample
was introduced, did not come up to the standard established by the
West Indies.

From the published statistics of special industries in the United
States, according to the census of 1890, the following figures are
extracted:

Liqtwrs, digtiUed,

Number of establishments reporting 440

Capital:

Aggregate $31,006,176

Value of plant:

Total 16,972,727

Land 2,816,967

Buildings 6,299,511

Machinery, tools, and implements 7, 856, 249

Liveassete 14,033,449

Miscellaneous expenses 65, 179, 927

Average number of employees and total wages (aggregates) .

Average number 5, 343

Total wages 12,814,889

^ OFFICEBS, FIRM MBMBSBS, AND CLERKS.

Number males above 16 years 573

Wages $564,325

Females above 15 years 8

Wages $4,500

OPSBATIVBS, SKILLED AND UNSKILLED.

Males above 16 years 4,559

Wages $2,142,232

Females above 15 years 3

Wages $390

Number children 5

Wages $540

Cost of materials used $14,909,173

Value of products, including receipts from custom work and repairing. $104, 197, 869

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HISTORY OF THE VINE, THE GRAPE, AND THE WINE.

By E. Dubois.

The culture of the grape is ancient as the World, although it can
not be traced further back than some time after the flood, in connec-
tion with Noah and his family. AH through the Bible is found men-
tioned the planting of vineyards and drinking of the wine. The vine,
" Vitis vinifera^^'^ was imported into Greece from Asia by the Phoeni-
cians, and from Greece it spread all over the southern and middle
countries of Europe and the northern part of Africa. It seems to
have been introduced in Italy prior to the foundation of Rome (800
yeai-s B. C), as it is said that Romulus forbade the libations of wine
which were in use in all the sacrifices to the gods. It was Numa who
tir>t pennitted it, and Pliny says that favoring and encouraging grape
culture was one of the means made use of by politicians to gain popu-
larity. Wine soon became so abundant that the people could make a
free use of it, and the fair Romans were accused of going too far in
that enjoyment. That abuse by the ladies of the land caused a law to
lie enacted by which women were forbid to drink wine under penalty
of death, but the excessive severity of the law was an obstacle to its
enforcement, and soon after it was amended so as to fix at the age
of 30 for both sexes the right of drinking wine. Before long they
found out that even that i*estriction was too great on the use of such
a precious product which had become more and more plentiful
and popular, and they were obliged at last to leave its use entirely
free.

The foregoing shows that the prohibition cause had some adepts
eight hundred years before Christ, but it shows also that then as now
all restrictive measures enacted proved a complete failure.

WINE.

Wine is the fermented juice of the grape. All so-called "unfer-
mented wines" have no right to that title, nor have the fermented
juices of other fruits. White wine is generally obtained by pressing
out the juice of white grapes, but in the making of some wines,
such as champagne for example, some particular grapes are also
pressed without allowing the juice, or must, to remain in contact with
the- skins any length of time; thus a wine is obtained which, although
lightly tinted in red, will blend well with the must from white grapes.

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and impart to the latter more tone and life. For red wine black ^frapes
are crushed, and juice, pulp, skin, and stem are allowed to ferment
together for a period of time varying from two to fifteen days, accord-
ing to varieties of grapes, country temperature of fermenting room,
etc., and often also to the skill or ignorance of the vintner. Some-
times the stems are eleminated from the fermenting vat by the opera-
tion know as "stemming," which is practiced when working varieties
of grapes with stems out of proportion with the berries, or still green
when the grapes are ripe, which is the case in most of our American
varieties.

We shall not in this report, which must necessarily be succinct, give
the chemical constituents of wine, or discuss the erratic statements of
laboratory wine makers who pretend to determine the quality and
commercial value of wines b}' analysis.

There are different theories as to what constitutes a pure wine, some
contending that no wine is pure except that made entirely from grape
juice, and that any substance whatever, added before, during, or after
fermentation, even for fining pui'pose, is an adulteration. The legis-
lators of the State of Ohio in this country went still further. In their
*'pure wine bill" they declare the blending of two or more pure
wines together to be an adulteration! In our mind, all treatments in
view of improving the quality of the wine, or producing certain types
of wine, should not be considered as adulteration, as long as deleterious
matters are not introduced in the wine. In the manufacture of port
or sherry, for instance, spirit is added to produce the kinds of wines
known as such. If it be grape spirit, the wine for us will remain a
pure wine; but should grain or other kind of spirit be resorted to for
the fortifying, we would call that "adulteration." In the latter case,
the aim is not to improve the quality but to lower the cost of pro-
duction.

Some qualities or defects in the wine are inherent in the variety of
grapes it is made of, some others in the soil on which these grapes are
grown, while the location of the vinej^ard and atmospheric conditions
modify these inherent qualities or defects. Consequently, the same
variety of grape will not produce in different soil and climate the same
quality of wine, but the main characteristics of that grape will, in a
certain degree, be found in that wine. A Cabernet wine will every-
where possess more or less of the Cabernet flavor — delicate and refined
in some locations, strong, rank, and common in others.

VITICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES.
I. REGION EAST OP THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS.

Although it is supposed that the first attempts at grape growing
and wine making date from the time the first European settlers came
to this country, it was not before the end of the last century that such

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 18»3. 1021

experiments were made from a business standpoint. At Spring Mill,
on the Schuylkill, near Philadelphia, Mr. Legaux, a Frenchman,
planted a vineyard in 1792 or 1793; and later on Philadelphia cap-
italists entered into partnership with Mr. Legaux and established a
stock company for the extension of that vineyard. On President
Jeflferson's place, in Monticello, a vineyard existed at about the same
epoch. In 1799 a company with a capital of $8,000 was formed between
a Swiss vinedresser, John James Duf our, and some parties from Lex-
ington, Ky., for the planting of a vineyard in the vicinity of that city.
Thirty-five varieties of grapes, mostly of European origin, were set
out, all of which proved worthless and perished with the exception of
one, known then as " Cape grape." This variety had been, according
to Mr. Legaux's statement, imported by him from the Cape of Good
Hope, but reliable authorities, less interested in the matter than the
propagator, claimed that it had been discovered by Alexander, gardener
to Governor Penn, on the banks of the Schuylkill near Philadelphia,
before the War of the Revolution. In 1802 some Swiss colonists had
also planted vineyards near Vevay, Switzerland County, Ind., on the
banks of the Ohio River, forty -odd miles below Cincinnati, confining
their planting to the Cape grape. In 1816 Mr. John James Dufour
joined the Swiss colony, and through his skill as a vinedresser and
vinter they produced a pretty fair wine of the claret sort, which soon
became very popular.

We shall not undertake to relate the different phases of the grape
and wine industries up to date. SuflSce it to say that Catawba was the
next favorite wine grape, and that its introduction gave a new impetus
to those industries. When, later on, mildew and black rot rendered
that grape unprofitable to grow in Ohio and other Western States Ives
was proclaimed the great wine gmpe of the countiy. Although Nor-
ton's Virginia Seedling had been introduced some thirty years before,
on account of the small size of its berries and bunches it did not attract
the attention of the American grape growers, who, for a long time, as
a rule, had a strong predilection for big monstrosities, and that little,
insignificant grape was not much made use of for the manufacture of
wine prior to twenty or twenty -five years ago. It is now considered,
with the Cynthiana, the best native red-wine grape in this country.

Unfortunately, those two varieties can not be cultivated on so large
a range as some of the grapes of inferior quality, such as Concord and
Ives, and their yield is rather small. For the production of white
wine Catawba and Elvira take the lead, the former especially in the
Northeastern States, the latter in the South and West. Many other
varieties of grapes are used for wine making, several of which,
however, have none of the requirements of a wine grape.

All the foregoing remarks refer to that portion of the United
States lying east of the Rocky Mountains, where all attempts at
growmg European grapes have proved futile. r^^^r^T^

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The viticulture of California will he the subject of the following
chapter.

II. VITICULTURE IN CALIFORNIA.

There is no country in the world where, in the same area, so many
different varieties of grapes can be raised successfully. There are
found the gi-apes cultivated in France, Spain, Italy, Hungary, Asia
Minor, Northern Africa, etc., all ripening to perfection, all produc-
ing wines which, if not as yet up to the highest standards of those
from the above-named countries, already rank next to their best, and
far sui*pass their ordinary products.

The following paragraphs, borrowed from the report made in 1888
by Mr. Ai-pad Haraszthy, president of the California State board of
viticultural commissioners, give the history of the grape industry in
California:

The old Mission fathers planted the grapevine in California immediately or shortly
after their arrival, previous to 1770. They planted small tracts close around their
Missions, guanied them jealously with high adobe walls, cultivated them carefully,
gathered their fruit, and made wine. These wines, so far as we can learn, did not
enter into the trade of those days, but were consumed by the good fathers, their
occasional visitors, and their immediate retainers. Even after the arrival of Amer-
icans in 1849, and with them representatives from every civilized nationality on the
globe, but little advance was made toward increasing the area of viticulture until the
year 1858, when, through the publication of vine articles in the reports of the State
agricultural society, and in the newspapers, a general and widespread interest mani-
fested itself in vine planting, and the area of our vineyards became very greatly
increased. A very large proportion, however, of these new plantations consisted of
table-grape producing vines, and the remainder was almost exclusively composed
of the old Mission variety.

Toward 1862 vine planting arose to a genuine enthusiasm, and a lively interest
was shown in selecting better varieties for the table, for the wine press, and for
raisin curing.

Of the three commissioners appointed by Governor Downey in 1861 **to report
upon the best means and ways to promote the improvement and culture of the grape-
vine in California," Don Juan Warner returned a clear, concise report on the state
of vine culture at that period within the limits of our State. On the other hand, the
late Agoston Haraszthy went to Europe, and after visiting all its most important
viticultural districts, made an elaborate report on the European methods of cultivating
the vine, making wine, and curing of raisins, adding practical suggestions to the
California vine grower, and at the same time bringing 200,000 grapevine cuttings and
roote<l vines of every attainable variety to be found in Europe, Asia Minor, Persia,
and Egypt. These were afterwards gradually distributed in small lots to different
parts of the State, and formed invaluable nuclei for experimentation. No report was
ever received from the third member of the above commission.

Toward 1870 the production of wine and table grapes became greater than the
demand, and our viticultural industry b^an to lag, and finally became so discourag-
ing that in 1876 many vineyards were either abandoned, uprooted, or replaced by
orchards and grain fields.

In 1879 the demand for table raisins and wine grapes caught up with the supply,
and a renewed interest was awakened in viticulture. Our raisins were looked upon
with charity in the East, our rich clusters of table grapes admired and sought for,

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1023

while onr wines, though still very crude, had found more numerous and less exacting
customers.

Up to 1880 those who believed in the value of varieties of grapes for wine making,
other than the old Mission, were few and far between. With the exception of a
very limited number of vine growers, none believed any grape could be as good as
the Mission, and we have even at this date a Quixotic spirit existing in some parts of
our State, still advocating the planting of this very poor, quality-lacking grftpe.

Experience has shown that it only produced an ordinary, coarse, heavy, flavorless
white wine, taking an indefinite period to mature. Such questionable qualities as it
may possess in the production of a white wine are more than overbalanced by the
miserable red wine made from it. And to this cause, more than any other, I attrib-
ute the bad reputation our wines had earned, both here and in the Eaatem States,
previous to the more general planting of other and finer varieties of grapes.

Many claims have been made by the admirers of the Mission grape, but none have
been proven. It bears unevenly, ripens unevenly, and takes upon itself almost
every disease that comes along. In this respect we have to congratulate ourselves,
for soon the phylloxera and the grafting knife will have rid us of its presence in our
vineyards. In point of fact, most of our vineyards are now planted with vines more
hardy, resisting disease better, more constant bearers, producing finer qualities and
greater quantity than the Mission ever succeeded in doing under the most favorable
conditions. Through the persistent efforts of a few enterprising viticulturists, small
quantities of wine have been produced from the imported varieties, whose character
was so distinctive and so strikingly showed superiority over those made from the
Mission, that new faith in the future of California wines was bom, and the belief
spread that under proper conditions our State might some day make wine of a
superior grade, and eventually rival some of the better wines of European countries.

At the beginning of 1880 our viticultural interests were in a complete state of
chaos. In spite of the efforts made by our wine makers and wine merchants, only
a limited market had been secured for our wines in the Eastern States, and though
the demand showed a steady annual increase it was at the slowest of rates. Even
that small increase, however, was considered gratifying and hailed as encouraging.

The crop of the year 1879 had been a short one. The old stocks had been
exhausted, and suddenly the price of all kinds of wine went up, and the supply was
barely sufficient to meet the demand of the market.

This awakened the more general interest of the public in vine planting, but there
was a woeful lack of knowledge, a want of system, no beaten paths to follow, and but
a few acknowledged authorities to apply to for information. Numerous newspaper
articles appeared calling attention to the value of viticulture in our State, and express-
ing the desire for the formation of some State institution where such practical knowl-
edge might be obtained as was necessary to the successful conduction of this impor-
tant branch of agriculture.

Under these influences, soon after, the State legislature took the matter under
advisement, and in March, 1880, the State board of viticulture was created, and pro-
vided with a modest fund to meet its necessary expenditures.

The numerous duties falling to this board are fully outlined in the organic act, then
created and approved April 15, 1880, and enlarged in 1881, and which you will find
in our first annual report, on pages 5, 6, 7, 8.

Under this act the State was divided into seven viticultural districts, each having
a representative in the board*, appointed by the governor, and chosen from among
men practically conversant with viticulture in its various branches, and recognized
in their districts as suitable for the position.

Besides the commissioners from these seven viticultural districts, there were to
be appointed two extra commissioners to represent the State at large, thus forming a
board consisting of nine commissioners. The officers of the board were to consist of

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1024 BEPOBT OF GOMMITTEE ON AWARDS,

a president, a vice-president, a secretary, and a chief executive health officer. No
salary was allowed any of the commissioners or officers, except the chief executive
officer and the secretary, the rest of the board serving without compensation.

It was understood that the governor of the State having the appointment of these
men would choose those who were best adapted to fill the post of honor without
regard to social position, creed, or politics, and though the terms of three gov-
ernors have ended, this understanding has been honorably maintained up to your
administration.

The original appointments were made, and the several commissions signed by the
governor April 19, 1880, and immediately upon receiving notice to that effect the
commissioners assembled, organized the board, and shortly afterward b^an their
labors.

The work of this commission and the method with which it was carried on was so
well appreciated by the succeeding legislature that it created a State board of horti-
cultural commissioners, under similar laws as those of this board, and put the same
under the direction of the viticultural commission to take chai^ of, together with
the funds appropriated for its maintenance.

The horticultural commission was supervised by our board during the term of two
years, and the result of their supervision proved itself satisfactory both to the horti-
culturists and the public at large. Owing, however, to the additional work thus
thrown upon this board, it appealed to the legislature to relieve them of the charge
and allow the horticulturists to conduct their own board as they might think beet.
This was acceded to at the following term of the l^slature.

At the time of the organization of the viticultural commission it was estimated
that there were 35,000 acres of vines planted in the State. I am inclined to accept
these figures as correct. Of this amount there may have been planted as much as 20
per cent with imported varieties and the balance with Mission grapes.

At the present date, after eight years' existence of the viticultural commission, it
is believed that there are planted not less than 150,000 acres in vines, and fully 90
per cent of these are reckoned as consisting of the finer grades of foreign wine grape
varieties, mainly drawn from France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Germany, and Hungary,
The result of the planting of these fine grade grapevines has been the producing of
wines of much better quality than had been hitherto produced, creating a revolution
in favor of California wines and the conquest of markets that even the most sanguine
among us never hoped to acquire.

To see the wonderful strides made by the California wine trade since
that report was published, a glance at the figures below will be suflS-
cient. In 1875 (the first record we have of the exports of California
wine) the total wine shipments out of the State had been 1,031,607
gallons. In 1887, the j-ear before the publication of the report, they
amounted to 3,140,305 gallons. In 1893 they reached 12,326,033 gal-
lons. A considerable increase in the export of cased wines dates from
1891, when from 5,486 cases in 1888, 5,659 in 1889, and 9,058 in 1890,
the number of cases shipped by sea reached 14,289, the increase on
overland shipments being probably in the same proportion, although
there is no record of these previous to 1891. In 1893 the export by
sea and by rail overland aggregated 51,046 cases.

BRANDY.

Brandy is the product of the distillation of wine. The typical
brandy is that known all over the world as "Cognac brandy" and is

world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1803, 1025

produced in two departments of France — Charente and Charente-
Inf ^rieuro. It takes its name after the city of Cognac, located about in
the center of the best brandy district. These districts or " cms" are:
Grande Champagne, comprising 21 communes, with Segonzac as prin-
cipal center. The brandy from that district is full-bodied (cors^),
absolutely clean in taste, with a powerful, although delicate, bouquet
developing with age. It will not mature as fast as the product of the
other districts, but will keep improving for a much longer period than
the latter — in fact, almost indefinitely. Petite Champagne, embracing
55 communes. Its brandy has all the qualities of that of the Grande
Champagne, but in a lesser degree. Its principal feature is a great
delicacy of bouquet. Bordin^s, smaller in area than the other dis-
tricts, produces a brandy with great body and chai'acter. Fins Bois, a
district comprising a stretch of country, irregular in shape, surround-
ing the 3 above superior cms. Its brandies vary a great deal in quality,
but h|ive in common a great cleanliness of taste, purity of flavor, and
mellowness. Bons Bois, the adjacent territory to the Fins Bois, extend-
ing more or less ftom the boundaries of the latter, forms the Bons
Bois district, which is said to be composed of over 350 communes, not
without including, however, what is also known as Bois Ordinaires.

The brandies from such an extended territory can not fail to differ
greatly in flavor, body, etc.; as a rule they are drier and "cut
shorter" than the Fins Bois, although in some localities brandy is
found with great mellowness and fine bouquet, lacking only in tone and
body. Besides these five principal crus, brandies are produced in the
northwestern part of the Charente-Inf ^rieure, which, although of an
inferior quality, are in great demand for and are used in all those
cheap blends with beet or potato alcohol which are palmed off as
cognac on the gullible foreigner, often prejudiced against his native
pure and wholesome grape brandy.

These brandies are known in France as Surgferes, Aigrefeuille, La
Rochelle. They all possess, to a more or less degree, a decided "gofit
de terroir;" that is, a peculiar and implicitly objectionable taste vary-
ing in the different localities and increasing as they near the seacoast.
This "gofit de teiToir" wears off with age, and as they ripen much
faster than even Bons Bois, old SurgSres and Aigrefeuille brandies
are often sought for to give the necessary ''rancio" (nutty taste) to
blends of younger but finer ones.

Different countries, Italy, Spain, Greece, Australia, California, etc.,
have tried to produce brandies to compete with those of France. Good
and encouraging results have already been obtained when the attempt
was made on a small scale, but the bulk of these brandies sold to the
trade being mostly made from spoiled wines, old and young, and from
lees and pomaces, have nothing in common but the name with the gen-
uine article they aim to compete with. Some houses in Australia and
COL EXPO — 02 65 r^^^^T^

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1026 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

California, especially in the latter country, by a judicious selection of
the wines they distill have made a name for their bmndies. So lon^,
however, as these tirms persist in using distilling appai'atus that rectify
the brandy to death by eliminating all ethers and essential oils, which
not only impart to the brandy bouquet and flavor but also mellowness,
so long will they produce the dry, thin, neutral article to which no
doctoring will give the cognac '* altogether/'

THE WINES AND BRANDIES OF THE WORLD.

There never wa.s at any former international exposition so fine and
complete a display of the wines and brandies of the world as could be
seen at our great Columbian World's Fair.

Spain had secured, as she was entitled to at a Columbian Exix)sition,
the most favored location, at the south end of the inniiense flower con-
servatory. The inclosure in which her wines were displayed was
formed of arches in the Moorish style, decked with garlands of ^vines,
and the innumemble bottles on pyramidal shelves, together with the
more substantial hogsheads and ])arrels painted in the national colors
of Spain, were of great decorative effect. There every province of
Spain was represented b}' its viticultural products: Cadiz ])y its inimi-
table Jerez wines; Cordova by its Montilla; Ciudad Real by its fine
Valdepenas; Barcelona, Terragona, and Valencia by their ''vins de
coupage;" Biscaya by its pretty red wines; Navari'a by its cheap, com-
mon wines, many of which, however, arc not without merit; Malaga
by its ''vinos dul(»es." It was indeed a most remarkai)le collection,
showing the great possibilities of Spain for the production of all sorts
of wines, ranging in prices from 8 cents per gallon and (50 cents per
dozen bottles (see official Spanish catalogue, '"Vino tinto de mesa,
from the province of Cuenca, No. STtt) to $4 and $5 per bottle.

South of Spain, occupying the southeast corner of the building, was
the French section. Here was no attempt to decorate; no individual
effort to make a special brand or firm more conspicuous. Uniform,
vertical showcases and double-sided shelves contain all the wines,
brandies, and liqueurs forming the official collective exhibit. Probal)ly
the French commissioners who presided at that arrangement thought
that, as the provei'l) says, " Bon vin n'a pas besoin d'enseigne." It was
a matter of regret for the wine jury, and for all interested in or admir-
ers of French wines, that France withdrew them from competition, as
well as other products. A wine juiy without the wines and the bran-
dies of France for its guidance is about like a boat without a rudder.
We noticed, however, and this with no little surprise, that the most
prominent Bordeaux houses, even those doing large business with this
country, had not sent any exhibit. I call that bad policy.

Never before had French wine houses, and especially wine merchants
from Bordeaux, more reasons for pushing their wines and keeping

^5

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, im'^. 1027

them constantly before the American pii})lie 1)\' judicious advertising.
Why not avail themselves of that great advertising schemed

The new tariff was being discussed, and there was alread}^ then a
probability that the duties on light wines would be reduced. Italy and
Spain were and are working hard to introduce their wines as substi-
tutes for French wines, and Italy has already succeeded in a certain
measure. We know the ''grands crus" of France do not fear any
competition, but France ships to this country other grades of wines.
W^hy not have seized that opportunity to place those wines in compe-
tition with the brands from the two other countries referred to? It
would have had better results than petitioning the French Government
for a commercial treaty with the United States.

In 18S8 France exported to the United States, tia New York: Bor-
deaux and Burgundy — in wood, 480,180 gallons; in glass, 111,045
dozens. In 189»3: Bordeaux and Burgundy —in wood, 3()S,220 gallons;
in glass, 107,420 dozens. Decrease, 41,900 gallons and 3,()1() dozens.

In 1888 Italy exported to the United Stiites, via New York: Italian
wines and vermuth — in wood, 69,210 gallons; in glass, 35,(337 dozens.
In 1S93: Itiilian wines and vermuth — in wood, 186,010 gallons; in
glass, 54,702 dozens. Increase, 11(),800 gallons and 19,065 dozens.

The importation of Cette wines fell from 132,740 gallons in 1888 to
31,120 gallons in 1893. California and Italian wines have taken their
place. Cognac houses were awake to the perils of the situation. All
the first-class brands were represented. They kncAv their products
have on the American market a formidable rival in the California
brandy, the quality of which is constjintly improving. The importa-
tion of Cognac brandy at New York was, in 18SS, in wood, 208,332
gallons; in glass, 42,290 dozens; in 181^3, in wood, 119,842 gallons; in
glass, 30,936 dozens, showing a decrease of 91,4i^0 gallons and 11,354
dozens. The shipments of California brandies to New York were,
in 1888, in wood, 33,689 gallons; in 1893, in wood, 285,531 gallons,
showing an increase of 251,842 gallons.

Although champagne shippers are not threatened with any danger-
ous competition, some of the tirst-class houses were represented, prom-
inent among which wereG. H. Munim &Co.,of Rheims, with a splendid
individual exhibit. Four French firms, namely, (1. H. ^lunmi & Co.,
already mentioned, Ruinart pero et tils, Theophile Rcpderer, all cham-
pagne houses, and Marie Brizard & Roger, of Bordeaux, protested
against the withdrawal of French products from competition and
applied to the dej)artment of awards for an authorization to enter
their products. The authorization wa.s granted, and the wines of G. H.
Mumm & Co. (extra dry) and Ruinart pere et fils (vin brut) were each
awarded a medal and diploma for excellence. The same distinction
rewarded Messrs. Marie Brizard & Roger for their superb collection of
fine old Cognac brandies and liquors.

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1028 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

Near the French section, in the bay at the east end of the building,
could be seen the banner of New South Wales. Although a compara-
tively new wine-producing country New South Wales has a most
creditable exhibit, which will be made the subject of a special report.
Near by was Mexico, with their wines, brandies, and tropical fruits.
Farther Russia, whose Crimean, Bessarabian, and Caucasian wines are
from year to year improving owing to the introduction of better varie-
ties of grapes and improved methods of vinification . Some pretty good
table wines are produced in Crimea and Bessarabia and a few brands
of Russian champagne were entirely free from that sui generis Cau-
casian flavor noticeable in so many^ Russian wines, and found to possess
the inherent qualities of good sparkling wines.

About in the center of the building were located several individual
exhibits from the States of New York, New Jersey, Ohio and Missouri,
most of them hastily arranged. If, however, a prize had been given to
the finest and most distinct exhibits, California would have won by
long odds. The Big Tree, the Big Vat, the Vina Vineyard and Ala-
meda County exhibits were such as to attract the attention of the
public by their originality and good taste at the same time. The west
end of the building was occupied by the exhibits from New Mexico,
North Carolina, Canada and Japan.

Upstairs, in the galleries, Portugal's most complete exhibit occupied
the southeast corner. Opposite, an annex of the Spanish section con-
sisting mainly of brandies and liqueurs. Then was Chile with its
artistic display of fine wines, and Greece with plain rows of bottles, on
shelves. Next, the collective exhibit of the State of New York was a
model of taste and contained a very interesting collection of apple and
grape brandies, besides wines of various sorts and denominations.
Finally, occupying the whole west end of the galleries, came the
Italiai^ section. Italy is now the largest wine-producing country in
the world, and a study of its diflferent types of wine would have been
particularly interesting for the writer, but being busily engaged else-
where he was deprived of that pleasure. All ultimate attempt to
obtain private sitting and sampling proved futile, owing to the Italian
commissioner in charge being unable to devote any time to it.

THE WINES OF GERMANY.

Germany occupies the sixth rank only among the wine-producing
countries of the world for the quantity of wine produced, but when
the quality of its wines is considered she has rivals, but no superiors.
While it can not be said, as some admirers of Rhine wines pretend,
that they surpass all other white wines and that Schloss Johannisberger
is superior to Chateau Yquem, it must be admitted by all that among
the light white wines of the world, Rhine wines on one side and Sau-
ternes wines (including the growths of Barsac, Preignac, andBommes)

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1029

on the other, reHjKictively .stand as the best types in that line All the
Other countries aim only at an imitation of these two different types in
their production of light white wines.

The history of the culture of the grape in Germany dates from way
back in the first centuries of our era. It is said to have been introduced
by the Romans, but proofs exist that grape culture was known and
engaged in in the Moselle districts before the Roman invasion. We
heard that it was introduced into Bavaria by the Duke Mei*wig, who,
in the year 460, ordered grapevines to be planted by seven hundred
prisoners of war coming from the Moselle.

In Franconia there is a prett}^ legend attached to the introduction
of the culture of the grape in that province:

Adeloga, a pretty girl of 18, sister of King Pipin, was one day standing at the
open window of her castle on the summit of the Schwanberg, holding in her out-
stretchetl hands a veil light as the vernal air. It was a warm summer day and all
nature seemed to be asleep. Suddenly a heavy puff of wind blew the veil away from
her hands and carried it over a long distance on the bank of the Main. Adeloga,
swift as a gazelle, ran after the veil and found it hanging on the limbs of two shrubs
entirely unknown to her; one was covered with golden fruit hanging in long and
large bunches, the other with the same kind of fruit, but blue as the sky above her
head.

The young damsel gathered some of these fruits and showed them to a hermit who
lived in the forest near by and who had come from very far distant countries. The '
hermit told her that the shrubb were grapevines and the fruit bunches of grapes.

Adeloga thought it a sign from God and caused a convent to be built on the spot
where the veil had fallen; thus the Benedictine Abbey in Kitzengen on Main was
erected, of which she became the first abbess and devoted herself to the culture of
the grape.

• Soon it spread all over Lower Franconia, and thus it is that we can
enjoy now those delicious Stein and Leisten wines which their fineness,
mellowness, bouquet, and vitality class among the grand wines of the
world, side by side with the best growths of the Rheingau, and others
mentioned in the following report:

REPORT OF THE GERMAN WINE JUDGES AT CHICAGO.

From the Moselle and Saar district about 190 samples have been sent, of which
the full-flavored Saar wines, and especially the Scharzhofberger, as well as the
aromatic and mild Josephshofer, raised the greatest admiration; not less successful
were the Bocksteiner, Eitelsbacher, Herrenberger, Berncastler, Piesporter, Tral)ener,
Braunebeiiger, etc., which have been recognized as highly elegant wines; further,
the Erckner, Winninger, Uerziger, Eukircher, etc., which for their fine bouquet and
lovely character have found a well-justified appreciation. Part of the American
judges considered these wines somewhat light or thin; others, and particularly the
German ones, made no restriction to their high appreciation.

The wines of the Nahe were represented in about 80 varieties of generally good,
partly very good growths, and with particular merits for the Rothenfelser, Kautzen-
bei^ger, and Monchberger.

Exhibitors of the right and left side of the Rhine, below Rudesheim and the
Nahe, have sent well-flavored ABsmannshauser, full-bodied Lorcher, and channing
Bodenthaler and Bacharacher wines. ^ ,

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1030 REPORT OF roMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

The Rlicin^au winos haw Ikh'ii rcpresriitiMl Ky a ^'reat nnin})er of promiiuMit pro-
(liicerH of tliiy (listrict; niont of the Hrnis of tlie Rlieiiish wine trade have made )^
ffood disphiy of the same, and have shown together al)out 820 samples. The highest
<lej?ree 8howe<l tlie choice jrrowtlis of Ri'idesheim, wliieh answer fully to the Ameri-
can tiiste, Ihmu^ full-])odie<l, finished, and very aromatie. Beautiful wines were also
fnrnislied fn)m the In'st districts of (ieisenheim, Johannisl)er^, Winkel, Oestrich,
liauenthal, Krhach, llattenhcim, Hocheim, etc., wines wliich are, thn)u^h their
fine bcKjuet ami excellent (juahty, without rival in the world. There were all great
vintiiges from ITtHJ, ISll, etc., up to date, but the wines of 1S.S() were preferred for
their remarkable freshni'ss, which is much like<l in America.

The Palatinate wits well representtMl by the large vineyard proprii'toi-s of the mid-
dle llardt mountains and the wine merchants of that district. About IHO samples
were on han<l and met with much success. The ex t inordinary richness, sweetness,
and fullness of these wines, together with their ])owerful aroma, were particularly
recognized in specimens of Deidesheim and Forst, of which the most beautiful
samples were at the disposal of the jury.

From Lower Franconia the proprietors of the l)est vineyanis of Stein and Leisten,
and other fine growths, were anxious that their districts should l)e represented
according to its merits. For this einl they showed not only the recent vintages,
but also wines from 17S;}, etc., which were, indeed, remarkable nirities.

WurttemlHirg, which had at first sent lots of samples, which, however, were
destroyed by the fire in the cold-storage building, was at the general taj^ting only
rej)re8ente<l with a few samples of which the wines of Ileilbronn, \Veinsl:)erg,
Lauffen, and Hofhanuner were particularly worth noticing.

Baden had plenty of samples, and they were well n^ceived. The full-bodied
wines of Ihringen, Burbach and Castle Neuweier, and especially the ^largrjifler, whi(!h
were represented in many vintages liack to ITOO, and the full-flavored, red Affen-
thaler, were to the jurors highly agreeable surprises.

The wines of Ilessen — 184 samples — were not only contribute<l by the connnerce
and the wine growers of Hessen, l)ut many other exhibitoi*s had Hessian ^mples
among their collections. On the otlier hand, its pro<luction was pushed by the
I^ndwirthschaftlicher Verein (agricultural society), well rc^presented in all qualitiea
from light, cheaj) wines, up to the highest degrees. The jury praise<l all these
kinds, ai)preciated the very good quality of the light wines of the Rhine-Hessian
Palatinate, ilm well as the mildness and characti'r of those wines grown on the Rhine,
and admired the noble riclnu'ss of the Oppenheimer and Nicrsteiner first-class
growths, the world-renowned Liebfrauenmilch and the elegant style of the Kaup-
terberg, the fullness and superior flavor of the Scharlach])erg; chiefly the latter wines
were found highly in accordance with the American taste.

Only very few samples of Alsace- l>orraine had been replaceil, but those few
samples showecl well how nmch pain and care ai-e displayed in cultivating the
wines and their handling and maturing; Rappoltsweiler particularly was favorably
represente<l through beautiful Riesling wines. Tlie claret wines, which are used to
l)roduce sparkling wines, ])rove careful and well understood treatment.

A very promini'iit part in the collective wine exposition was taken by the spark-
ling wines from all (Jerman districts, and the jury awanled them prizes without
exception. Even those firms which were out of competition had sent most beautiful
samples, and we may say that the success of these wines was very great and well
merited. Most houses showed two different qualities, one in the style of the French
Champagne and produced by the same grai>e — Burgundy p^rape — and one produced
from Riesling grajK'S, which shows the character of ihis wine j)articularly well. The
first-named quality is preferred in Germany, and seems to be In America, too, being
made up "dry," the favorite sjjarkling wine among (Jcrmans; but the latter quality
is nuich liked in England and the English colonies as Sjuirkling Hoc*k tmd Maselle

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 18ft3. 1031

has many friends among English-Anieri(3in8. There is no doubt that German sj)ar-
kling wines would find a good market in America if those houses who want to intro-
duce them, would, for advertisement, risk as large an amount as their French com-
petitors do, but to this purpose the (ierman sparkling wine trade would have to
strengthen itself, in the first instance at home, at such a rate that these houses could
easily span* similar large amounts.

German red wines, not l)eing of such great innK)rtance, were not very numerous;
some finns had only one samjile added to their collections, and thus it was difficult
to form an opinicm. Nevertheless we showe^l these red wines of different districts,
and the result was very satisfactory. Baslen has its recognized Affenthaler, Hessen
its excellent Ingelheimer, Rheninh Prussia and the Rheingau the high-flavored and
full-bodied Walporzheimer and Assmannshauser.

THK WINKS OF l»l)RTL'GAL.

Portuguese wines do not seem to have had a great reputation abroad
before the year 1()8J^, when England became involved in a war with
France. English wine merchants, unable to procure from that country
their usual supply of wines, imported some of the red wines of Poi'tu-
gal which, the hatred of Fnince helping, soon became popular, and
remained so ever since.

The wine generally known as port wine is highly alcoholized; not
as much so now, however, as it used to }>e, owing to an active crusade
of all lovers of natural wine and a change in the tiiste of the wine-
drinking public in favor of lighter wines.

Baron Forrester, a wine grower in Portugal, and a recognized
authority on port wine, described jis follows the method practiced
some thirty or forty years ago in th(^ maiuifacture of port:

To produce black, strong and rich wine, the following are the exp(»dients resorted
to: The grai)es l)eing flung into the open vat iudincriminately with the stalks, sound
and unsoun<l, are trodden by men till they are comj)letely mashed and then left to
fennent. When the wine is alx)ut half fermented, it is transferred from the vat to
barrels and strong brandy is thrown in in the proportion of 12 to 25 (?) gallons to the
pi|»e, by which the fennentation is generally checked. About two numths after-
wards the mixture is colored thus: A quantity of dried elderberries is put into coarse
bags; thest^ are placed in vats and a i)art of the wine to \ye colored being thrown on
them they are trodden by men till the whole of their colored matter is expressed,
when the husks are thrown away. The dye thus formed is applie<l acconling to the
fancy of the owner, from 28 to 56 jwunds of the dritnl elderberries being usihI to the
j)ij)e of wine.

Another addition of brandy of from 4 to 6 gallons per [)ipe is now made to the
mixture, which is then allowtnl to rest for alxmt two months. After the en<l of this
time it is, if sold, sent to Villa Nova, where it is racke^l two or thnn* times and
receives probably 2 gallons more of brandy per pij)e, and is then considered lit to l>e
shipped to England, it lK'ingal)Out nine months old. At the time of shipment 1
gallon more of brandy is usually added to each i)ipe. The wine thus luiving received
at least 20 gallons per pi|)e is considered by the merchant sufticiently strong.

Not satisfied with these 20 gallons of adventitious spirit per pipe,
the English merchant often fortifies his port wine in bond by what is
known as an ** operation."

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1032 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

Some fifty years ago the cry was for color! color! and prior to that
time "tawny port" was in demand as it is in demand now. Many who
discountenance the practice of fortifying port wine are not familiar
with the difficulties attending the fennentation of red wine in Portugal.

The fortifying of the Alto Douro wines, if practiced with modem-
tion, will precipitate all impurities held in suspension in light wines
exposed to a high atmosphere when their fermentation has been labo-
rious and defective; it will by combining with free acids, react upon
them and form ethers which impart to the wine the bouquet of the
grape. By many other mechanical actions it wilt also give the wine
a roundness and softness seldom found in the unfortified wines of a
hot climate. It should be borne in mind that even at their best the
red wines of Portugal, thoroughly fermented and unfortified, will be
lacking in that freshness, delicacy of bouquet, and suavity of flavor
which make the firet growths of Bordeaux so famous. But the prin-
cipal consideration militating in favor of the light fortifying of fine
Portuguese wines is that a unique article is produced for which a taste
exists and high price is paid.

The following report on Portugal wines, by Alphonse Le Due, will
be of interest:

Portugal is justly celebrated for its generous full-flavored port wines, which are
produced in the Alto Douro district, a rugged mountainous country, necessitating the
construction of terraces supported by walls to prevent the soil being washed away by
winter rains. The climate is very cold in winter, but extremely hot in summer; this,
combined with soil of argillaceous schist formation, produces the perfection of body,
color, and ripeness characteristic of port wine. Besides this typical wine, Portugal
produces a great variety of others, such as claret, the red, the white, and the spark-
ling. The average production of wines from Portugal is estimated to be 6,000,000
hectoliters, valued at $12,000,000. Port wine is drunk the world over, wherever a
connoisseur of wine is found. Great Britain takes about half the amount exported
annually, to be distributed to the world from the celebrated Ix)ndon docks. Brazil
and Germany come next The United States takes only 3,200 hectoliters, valued at
about $100,000 of direct importation.

The fine exhibit at the Fair, however, and the energetic and tactful manner in
which Senhor J. M. do Outeiro Ribeiro, the commissioner from Portugal, and at the
same time the secretary for the jury of the wine classes, has presented the produce of
his country will, without doubt, insure a very large increase of trade between the
two countries.

Portugal* s viticultural exhibit at the World's Columbian Exposition deserves the
highest praise for the uniformly excellent samples of the different varieties of wines
submitted to the jury. While different grades received different awards, there were
really no inferior wines offered, which fact proves how carefully the Oporto Cham-
ber of Commerce (Associa^fto Commercial do Porto), who collected the exhibit, made
their selection.

The Portuguese exhibit occupies about 1,650 square feet in the balcony of the south-
east pavilion of the horticultural building. It is composed of about 10,000 bottles
and 100 casks arranged in an artistically effective manner, about 70 exhibitors and
500 different varieties of wines being represented. The arches of the pavilion are
intertwined with vines bearing bunches of grapes and draped with Portuguese and
American flags, making a very attractive display.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1033

Among other prizes, the following 11 houses are recommended by the jury as
deserving the highest awards for ** excellent " wines exhibited:

(1) Antonio Oastano Rodriguez & Co., Oporto, for a complete collection of vintages
from 1812 to 1890, comprising several styles of port wine.

(2) A. Rebello Valente Allen, Oporto, for his rich vintages of 1834 and 1847.

(3) Antonio Ferreira Meneres, Successors, Oporto, for the rich wines of 1847 and
perfect old Muscatel of unknown age, and port wine above seventy years old.

(4) C. N. Kopke presented the excellent products of the famous " Quintade Roriz"
of 1834, 1847, and 1870, and others.

(5) Cockbum, Smithes & Co., carrying one of the lai^gest stocks of wine in Oporto,
whose products are well known in this country, being remarkable especially for
their branches of "extra dry," "white," and "extra superior" and "special
reserve."

(6) Companhia Geral da Agricultura das Vinhas do Alto Douro, Oporto, an old-
established house of one hundred and fifty years' standing, well known in the foreign
markets as the Royal Oporto Wine Company. They exhibit samples of vintages
dating from the beginning of the present century.

(7) Francisco da Rocha Leao, notable vintages, 1815 to 1847.

(8) J. H. Andresen, Oporto, among other wines, the sample "Non Plus Ultra,"
an excellent type of rich old port wine, and the superior vintage of 1881, raised in
the "Quintadas Lages," Upper Douro. This firm presented the best wine spirits
exhibited, for which "excellent" was awarded too. It is the wine spirits used by
his house for the blending of his wines.

(9) Miguel de Souza Guedes, proprietor of the "Quinta das Carvalhas," for sam-
ples of wines from this farm, vintages of the past ten years, and his old reserves 1830,
bottled in 1854; his red wines of 1834, and others.

(10) Offley, Cramp & Forresters, for their typical collection of port, different
vintages.

(11) Sandeman & Co., the well-known old house, for their samples carefully
selected.

Besides the above collections of perfect wines exhibited by Portugal, several
houses had special brands in their exhibit that were of the finest type. I may
mention the Extra-secco 1882 of Visconde de Villarinho de St. Romfto, which is
excellent; he also exhibited other very good vintages. Warre & Co. had an excel-
ent red wine marked " S. S." Wiese & Krohn had a long list of choice wines with
a Coroa that was excellent. William & George TaiJ had a superior exhibit of sev-
eral wines with a Nonpareil that was classed " excellent."

The beautiful wine exhibited made by Portugal was most complete, showing the
different styles and grades in as compact a manner as possible.

WINES AND BRANDIES, MEXICO.

We regret very much not having been able to meet the commissioner
for Mexico in order to obtain some information on the wines and
brandies on exhibition in the horticultural palace, as well as on the
peculiar processes of vinification and distillation in Mexico.

We examined the products of 19 wine exhibitors, some 30 samples
in all, and we found it very difficult to give a general idea of these
wines. Most of them showed, on the part of the vintner, an utter
ignorance of the first principles of wine making and of the extra care
wine in general requires.

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1034 KEPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

THE WINEH OF THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE.

The culture of the vine in Cape Colony is very ancient, and probably
dates from the arrival of the first settlers from Europe, that is to say,
about 165i^ to 1()()0. Some of the vineyards now in existence can be
traced back to 17(H> and 1713.

The first varieties of grapes that were imported came from France
and from the banks of the Rhine. The former, more numerous, hav-
ing been introduced by French Huguenots, who, expelled from France
into Holland by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, were drafted
thence into the colony and allotted farms in the western provinces.
As early as 1710 it was estimated that there were 2,729,300 vine stocks
in the colony, producing 151,150 gallons of wine, a large proportion
of which was shipped by the East Indian Company to its Indian set-
tlements and even to Europe. The vineyards of the colony, occupy-
ing an area of 20,800 acres, produce 6,012,522 gallons of wine and
1,423,043 gallons of bi-andy annually.

Three difi'erent classes of wine are made, namely: (1) Sweet wines,
under the general name of ''Constancia;" (2) dry and semisweet wines
of the sherry, Madeira, and port types; (3) light table wines, red and
white. The sweet wines are commonly made from the Haanepoot,
white and red Muscat, Frontignac, and Pontac (Teinturier). The
wine known as '* Sweet Pontac" is the product of the grape of that
name with one of the Muscats used for flavoring. Most of the wines
of the second category are produced by different manipulations of the
Haanepoot and Muscadel, as the Muscat-Frontignac is also called
there. The Grosse Symh or Hermitage grape, the Pii.eau, and Cal>
ernet are made into dry red wines which are not without a certain
pleasant flavor and possess a })eautiful color, but are rough, strong in
alcohol, and lacking in freshness.

THE WINES OF AUSTRIA AND HUNGARY.

We were greatly surprised that Austria, which took so prominent a
part in our great Columbian World's Fair, and whose exhibits in the
different departments were second to none, contributed only a few
samples to the viticultural exhibit. The abstention of Hungary was
especially inexplicable, considering the great efforts that have been
made of late years to introduce and popularize Hungarian wines in
this country. That the agents of those Hungarian houses advertising
extensively in our papers have not seized that opportunity of making
theii favorite brands known is, for us, a matter of speculation and
regret.

At the Vienna Universal Exhibition of 1873 the Austro-Hungarian
Empire was represented by 743 exhibitors of wines, contributing
3,363 samples. In Chicago there were only (i exhibitors, contributing
12 samples. ^ j

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world's OOLirMBIAN KXPOSITTON, 1893. 1035

A medal wa.s awarded to L. Littke, of Vienna, for a collection of 3
brands of champagne, viz: Imperial Dry, Sport, and Dry Monopole,
all with the qualities of a high-grade champagne. A Tyrolese red
wine furnished by Francis Inherebner was found to be good, with
clean taste and delicate aroma. The same exhibitor w^as also awarded
a medal for his Tyroler Kriiuter-Bitter, pronounced very fine and
highly flavored. Two samples of Dalmation wine were found very
poor, as were also two samples from Szegedin, Hungary. A To-kayer
Ausbruch from Jos. Klein, of Budapest, although of no great style,
secured a medal for its exhibitor.

THK WINES OF THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE.

The vineyards of the Cape of (lood Hope are said to date from the
epoch of the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, when some French
Huguenots from southern France emigrated thither carrying with
them some Muscat wines. There were only 4 exhibitors from Cape
Colony at the Columbian World's Fair, and they contributed some 14:
or 15 samples, most of which were sweet fortified wines.

J. Sedgwick & Co. were awarded a medal for a Constantia Frontig-
nac, pronounced " excellent,'^ and a good sweet Constantia Pontac.
The former was a fine, luscious white Muscat, rather sweet, but of
great character and refined flavor. The latter, a red Muscat, had not
the refinement of the white Muscat, but its vinosity, not destroyed by
the admixtion of a too large percentage of alcohol, together with
its delicate flavor, made it very pleasant. The same house exhibited
a Hermitage of no merit whatever. Another medal was awarded to
J. H. Van Ryn for three different whines, namely: A fine white Fron-
tignac, of great unctuosity, with rich, delicious Muscat flavor, a good
grade of Lacrimai Christi, and a Pontac a little too sweet and sirupy,
but with light, delicate flavor.

E. K. Green, of Cape Town, was awarded tw^o medals, one for very
fine red Malmsc}" Constantia, and one for a sample of good light
Sheriy, which, although it had not exactly the character of a Jerez,
wa.s judged worthy of recognition.

Some other samples of sherry and port types, or so termed, had
been too liberally fortified. A solitary sample of brandy was exam-
ined and found very poor.

WINES OF NEW SOUTH WALKS.

It is a matter of regret that the wines of New South Wales exhibited
at Chicago had suffered so much, some from having been frozen, all
of them more or less from exposure to a temperature of 100^ and
over in that hothouse called Horticultural Hall. Over one-half of the
samples submitted to the jury were out of condition, and in most

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1036 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

instances it could be seen that the wine was originally good, but had
spoiled. Only such wines as had perfect corks, with bottles well filled,
resisted the weather and remained sound. Not less than 245 samples
of wine were examined, and, owing to the queer classification adopted
by the administration of the Columbian World's Fair, to which we
have already referi'ed in one of our former reports, all fortified wines,
sweet and dry, which did not go under the denomination of Sherry,
Port, or Madeira were classed according to their color with either dry,
white, or red wines, so that there could be found in the same class, 126,
Sauternes, Hock, Verdeilho, Riesling, Chablis, together with Malaga,
Muscutel, To-kay, etc., and in class 127, Claret, Burgundy, Hermitage,
Cabernet, together with Muscatel, Frontignac, etc. The wines which
oftener met with recognition were of the Hermitage type, but, owing
to the heating process the}" had been submitted to during the whole
summer, they had lost some of their freshness which they most
assuredly possessed when firet brought to Chicago.

Red wines of the Bordeaux type presented under the names of
Claret, Cabernet, Malbec, Verdot, etc., were not as a rule of as high a
grade as the Hermitages, being generally too thin for their alcoholic
strength, and lacking *' finesse" and bouquet. A few samples, how-
ever, were found with all the characteristics of high-class wines, and
ranked first in the list of awards. Of the Rhine wine style — Hock
and Riesling — the samples were numerous, but few of them show-
ing remarkable features, only 8 out of 32 receiving some kind of
recognition.

; One of the grapes extensively grown in New South Wales is Ver-
deilho, the main variety cultivated in Madeira.

• Some samples of Verdeilho wine purporting not to have been forti-
fied, and ranging in alcoholic strength from 25 to 28 per cent of
English proof spirit, were examined by the jury and found to be stout,
heavy wines, lacking in vinosity, but with agreeable bouquet.

As a whole the New South Wales wine exhibit shows the great pos-
sibilities of that country for the production of good full-bodied wines,
deficient in "finesse" and delicacy of flavor, although the lack of
these qualities may be attributed to defectuous vinification or improper
treatment of old wines.

Very few exhibitors had their wines properly bottled, bad corks
predominating, and in most instances the wine barely reaching the neck
of the bottle. Among the red dr\'^ wines awarded we deem the following
worthy of special mention, viz: Four samples exhibited by Walter Y.
Cousins, of Bebeah, namely: Malbec, 1881, a well-developed wine with
full body, roundness, and fine flavor; Verdot, 1888, light, tender, and
mellow, with great delicacy of bouquet — a prett}'^ wine; Lambruscat,
1885, combining ''finesse" and roundness; Hermitage, 1886, a rich
wine of great mellowness.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1037

From Henry J. Lindeman, of Sydney, Claret, 1889, a wine well
developed, of full body, and pleasant bouquet. Your jury did not admire
some semisweet Hermitage, Burgundy, and Cabernet produced by the
same party.

Two samples from E. Wyndham, Bukkulla Vineyards, Inverell:
Hermitage, 1874, and Burgundy, 1874, both remarkably well-preserved
wines, of great character, but of a rather high alcoholic strength, whi'ih
would lead one to believe that they have been fortified, a practice
which our Australian friends should abandon for their dry table wines.
On the other hand, we would advise them to have their sweet wines
higher in alcohol, as most samples of the latter had spoiled by expo-
sure, which should not occur with sweet wines of the types they aim at
when of a sufficient alcoholic strength.

A good full-bodied Hermitage, vintage 1889, was exhibited by the
trustees of the late J. Wyndham, of Dalwood Vineyard.

Of the different styles of white wines a few samples showed marked
superiority over the others, and we will especially mention them here:
A Chablis, 1880, exhibited by Bauffiers Brothers, of Sydney. A
Verdeiiho, 1891, of great body and mellowness, from Caldwell & Co.,
of Lake Albert Vineyard, Wagga Wagga. A White Hennitage, 1886,
of high character, from James Kelman, Kirkton Vineyard, Branxton,
Hunter River.

From J. Lindeman, two good samples of Hock, vintages 1884 and
1885, respectively, and a White Hermitage, 1883, rich and mellow.

Thomas Mather, of Roslyn, Inverel, presented a Shiraz, 1891, of
remarkably clean taste and fresh flavor.

Two other samples of Shiraz from J. Wyndham wfere found to be
light, vinous, and very pleasant.

As to wines of the Sherry, Port, and Madeira types, although some
samples were deemed meritorious and worthy of awards, none showed
any special distinction.

Before closing this report on the wines of New South Wales we
desire to express our thanks to Mr. Pugh, the special commissioner in
charge of the exhibit and our colleague in the wine jury, for his
intelligent and effective collaboration, and we congratulate the New
South Wales wine exhibitors upon having such an efficient agent to
place their wines before the American public and international jury.

THE WINES AND BRANDIES OF TURKEY.

Owing to the list of Turkish wines prepared for entry being mislaid
by the executive committee of awards, these wines were not examined
before October, and as the bottles had been kept during the whole
summer standing up on shelves in the Turkish pavilion, it is no wonder
that few samples of dry wines were found in perfect condition. The
exhibitors of wines and brandies numbered 22, with 30 samples of

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1038 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

wines and 13 of brandies. Awards were tifranted to 8 exhibitors of
wines and 2 exhibitors of brandies.

Most of the red dry wines were heavy in color and alcohol, but, like
those of Greece, thin in texture and lackin^^ freshness. Among the
best wines of that class, a Ket<^'hi Meniessi (after the name of the
grape) was found to be a good, full-]>odied wine, very deep in color, of
a type between a Burgundy and a natural Douro Port. A medal was
awarded to its exhibitor, II. S. Soukiassian, of Constantinople, who
presented also a rather pretty white wine called Misket Tchouch, dry,
sound, and clean, and a Kara Tchouch, the product of red grapes not
fermented on the husk, semisweet, light, and pleasant. The latter was
recommended for award as *' fair,'' but dropped by the executive com-
mittee on awards.

A dark red wine with good body and roundness, but containing a
little excess of tannin, secured a medal for its exhibitor, Mr. J. A.
lUidis, of Erdek. Another pretty wine, of the claret type, (contrib-
uted bj' Mr. Selim Nasser, of Schtaum, Mount Lebanon, Syria, was
pronounced good, sound, with good body, and a peculiar but tine flavor
and bouijuet, and medal given for same. The foothills of Mount
Lebanon seem to be well adapted to the ])roduction of comparatively
light wines. One of the largest, if not the largest, vineyard in Asia
is to be found there, near the station of Schtaura. This vine>'ard is
located about 3,000 feet above sea level, and overlooks the beautifid
valley of the Beka, between Beyrouth, Damans, and Balbec, the cele-
brated Heliopolis. Messrs. I})rahim and Selim Boulad, the proprietors
of that vinej'ard, submitted to the jur}' samplesof their diflerent wines,
consisting of white wines, dry and sweet, and of a red wine, claret type,
of three vintages, 188t^ 1891, and 1892. From lack of a proper storage
and defectuous corking, all the red wines had spoiled. Your jury,
especially interested in these wunes, tried several bottles, and from those
having suffered the lea^t it could h?, seen that originally the wine was
a good, medium, light Claret of blight color and good bod\'. There
was in it the stuff of a good wine, but we are inclined to believe that
had the wine of the vintages 1S8V) and 1891 been strictly sound and
fresh when bottled it would not have spoiled.

As Messrs. I. and S. Boulad contemplate enlarging their vineyard
and the production of their French type of wines, they should improve
their mode of viniflcation. They were awarded a medal for their
white wines, dry and sweet: the former, a rather heavy, full-bodied
wine of clean taste and flavor; the latter, quite distinct, reminds us of
a Portuguese Verdelho, with peculiar, yet rather pleasant, aromatic
flavor imparted to the wine by sweetening with hone3\

The " Vin d'Or" (golden wine) of the Schtaura vineyard we found
to possess a rank, disagreeable flavor, pleasant, no doul)t. to the palate
of the Levantines, as this wine is said to l)e in great demand in Syria
and in Egypt.

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WOBLD's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1039

The Muscat of Samos is considered the finest wine of this kind in
the world, and its high reputation was sustained at the Cohmibian
World's Fair by two samples exhibited by Mr. Athanase Tsoukaladaki
and G. L. Mark, both of Samos. The wine from the former party
was pronounced very fine, with high flavor and bouquet, although
words but faintly express the qualities of that delicious wine, so sweet
and unctuous and yet so light, with so high and yet so delicate and
refined a flavor. The other sample was not quite of the same high
grade, although fine and rich in flavor. Bo*:h were awarded.

Among other Turkish wines which, in the opinion of the jury,
deserved recognition, we will mention an old sweet Muscat sent by
the city of Kirk Killisseh and another wine, fifteen years old, having
some resemblance to an old Madeira.

Most of the brandies exhibited were the product of inferior wines
distilled with mastic and anise, and found to be unpalatable. Two
samples of so-called ''Cognac" were, however, judged worthy of
awards: One, a new brandy of remarkably clean taste and nice flavor,
from Mr. J. A. lUidis, of Erdek; the other, also a good clean brandy
with the peculiar though pleasant flavor of the grape used in making
the wine, contributed by Mr. Paul Gouttenoir, of Kirk Killisseh.

The jury had also recommended for award a sample of mastic and
anise bi-andy of remarkabl}^ delicate flavor and showing a skillful dis-
tillation of good wine. We regret that, for reasons to us unknown,
the name of the exhibitor, Nikolaki, of Samos, does not figure in the
list of awards.

The quality of these three samples evidences the fact that sound
wine and careful distillation can, in some parts of Turkey, produce a
good grade of brandy. We doubt, however, w^hether people used to
the permeating fragrance of the turpentine in their wines and brandies
are able to appreciate the delicac}' of flavor of a pure well-distilled
brandy.

To summarize, if any opinion can be formed by the samples of wines
and brandies submitted to the jury, it is that there are still among
Turkish sweet wines some types worthy of their ancient fame, but in
the vinification of dry wines, red and white, the wine men of that coun-
try have to adopt more improved methods, exercise more care, and
give better attention to the keeping of old wines.

THE WINES AND BRANDIES OF GREECE.

We had anticipated the greatest delight in the tasting of the wines
of Greece, so famous in remote antiquity. Were we not to find among
them that luscious nectar, the juice of the golden grapes of the plain,
sweetened with the ambrosial honey of Mount Hymettus, celebrated
by all the poets of yore as the beveiTtge of the gods?

Was it not from the beautiful islands of Greece — Tenedos, Lesbos,

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1040 REPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWABD8.

Chio, Candia, Samos, etc. — that the barbarians of western Europe,
later on, received their wines? Alas! how disenchanting was the
plain, modern reality. We had forgotten that these are no more
Greek, but Turkish, islands.

The isles of Greece, the isles of Greece!

Where burning Sappho loved and song,
Where grew the arts of war and peaoe,
Where Delos rose, and Phoebus sprung!
Eternal summer gilds them yet,
But all except their sun is set.
* * * * *

In vain — in vain; strike other chords;

Fill high the cup with Samian wine!
Leave battles to the Turkish hordes,

And shed the blood of Scio's vine!

Byron.

Among the Greek wines exhibited only a few names suggestive of
the glorious past — Aurora, Ambrosia, Nectar — and nothing, nothing
but the names I Our modern Greeks, after having catered to the gods,
are now catering to the growing taste of the public for light, dry
wines, and the numerous labels of Hock, Medok, Margaux, even
Chateau Lafitte and Ch&teau Margaux, showed the general tendency,
in Greece as everywhere else, to an imitation of French and German
wines.

The best collection of wines of the Bordeaux type was contributed
by P. J. Skouses from his stock in the caves of the Grand Hotel,
Paris, France. Two samples of his Clos-Marathon, of the vintages
1881 and 1885, respectively, were considered by the jury, very good,
full bodied, rich in color and vinosity, but wanting a little in softness.

A red wine from L. A. Sypsamos, of Patras, was clean in taste,
deep in color, and of good style, but slightly astringent. Of about
the same character was a Bordeaux four years old presented by^ Nicolas
Agyros, of Athens. All the above were awarded. We found most
of the red wines harsh and rough, owing to an excess of tannin.
Stemming and short period of fermentation on the husk would, no
doubt, correct that defect.

Some white wines were of remarkable clean taste, light, fresh, and
pleasant. Such was a sample of white wine, 1891, contributed by Zanos
& Roche, of Athens, and another from Georges Pachys. This latter
sample, styled ''Tour la Reine," was of very delicate flavor and aroma.

Solon & Son, of Athens, exhibited under the names of C6tes
Fameses some red and white wines, and also a *'vin ros6," all clean
and pleasant in taste and flavor.

Among the sweet wines awarded we will mention the following,
viz: A Muscat of Patras, very fine and luscious, and a light, pleasant
Muscatel, both from Theodoros Agapitos, of Pati-as; another sample

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1041

of old Muscat secured a medal for its exhibitors, Metaxa Brothers,
of Pireus.

A few sweet wines of special character, namely, a Navrodaphne of
delicious flavor from the Achaia Society of Patras, some Phalerfes
wines, clean but distinct in taste, exhibited by Solon & Son, and a
delicate red sweet Vissanto from Spyridion Denaxas, of Athens, com-
plete the list of still wines worthy of mention.

Two brands of sparkling wines were awarded:

A sample from John Giorgiadis, of Tripolis, pronounced " excel-
lent," had all the characteristics of a first-class French champagne —
purity of taste, delicacy of flavor, and richness of texture.

The other samples, exhibited by Tapanicolaou, of Athens, was of
an inferior grade to the above, wanting in refinement, but clean in
taste and flavor, with good body without being too heavy.

Fifteen parties exhibited brandies or wine spirits, some distilled
with mastic, others without. Hippocrates Kararias, of Athens, con-
tributed a sample of brandy pronounced very good, with clean taste,
fine bouquet, and pleasant flavor.

John Bollas, of Tripolis; Solon & Son, of Athens; Alexander S.
Kouzfes, of Athens; and Metaxa Brothers, of Pireus, contributed the
other samples awarded.

THE WINES OF PERU.

Peru had only one exhibitor of wines, Mr. Adrain Ward, of Locumba,
who sent five sorts of wines, styled Lagrina Seco, Lagrino Dulce,
Vino Tinto Seco, Vino Tinto Dulce, and Vino Delicioso. Two of these
were recommended for award, viz, the Lagrina Seco, a very dry
Muscat of some merit, and the Vino Tinto Dulce, a dark red wine,
sweet, and rather pleasant, but without much character. Owing, how-
ever, to the word *^fair" being used by the member of the jury
reporting on the former wine, the executive committee on awards
dropped it from the list of awards. If the above were an average of
the wines produced in Peru it must be confessed that the viticulture
and the vinification of the country can be greatly improved.

THE WINES OF CHILE.

The wines of Chile were a surprise and a revelation to the three
members of the jury who, one day, late in the afternoon, met in
Superintendent De La Rue's oflSce to examine these wines. If I am
not mistaken, the samples passed on had been taken from the differ-
ent exhibits, where the bottles had been standing up over five months,
in the upper story of the building, which accounts for several originally
good wines found to be out of condition.

The principal feature of the Chilean wines is their perfectly clean

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1042 BEFORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWABDS.

taste. No "gofit de terroir," no rough, heavy flavor of the grape, as
often found in the valley wines of California.

They so closely resemble some Bordeaux wines that a Californian
present at the sampling asked us whether we were sure that these
wines did not come from France, for his opinion was they were
French wines.

Most of the Chile wines were put up in nice style, with no preten-
tious names; in some instances the name of the grape the wine was
made of, but oftener that of the manufacturer or his vineyard.

As a rule the Chile reds were of a higher type than the whites.

We would liked to have known the price at which these wines were
selling at home, but we were unable to obtain any information what-
ever on this and other points of interest to the jury.

Two samples were pronounced "excellent," namely, "La Florida"
brand, from Mr. Victorino Rojas M., of Santiago — a light, tender,
delicious wine with fine, delicate bouquet; a "Santa Carolina Caber-
net," from Mr. Louis Pereira, of Santiago — a robust, well-matured,
smooth wine with a rich, refined Cabernet flavor.

Very close to these comes an "Errazury Panquehue Cabernet,"
from Gmo. Errazury, of Santiago — ^a very good full-bodied wine of
great vinosity and roundness, with fine bouquet.

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WINES AND BRANDIES OF CALIFORNIA.

By E. Dubois.

It is with 8ome reluctance that I am undertaking to make a report
on the wines of California; not for fear of criticism on the part of the
malcontents, but because I am afraid I can not in this report, which
must necessarily be succinct, do justice to all those who, among the
grape growers of that favored State, deserve credit for their incessant
efforts to raise the standard of California wines. The critics have
been at work ever since and before your jury commenced its exami-
nation; on the system of awards first, on the jurors and their work
next. Articles were sent to the newspapers of California in which
the jury were represented as "unfriendly to California wines" and of
"an aggressive sort'" — condemning all of the white wines, with the
exception of a few of them. Others complained that the awards were
given too freely, and that Calif ornians "when they got through the
Fair" would have "a Christmas tree full of medals and diplomas."
The perusal of this report will show that both informers of the Cali-
fornia papers had very little information as to the number of awards
given.

Owing to the late date the jurors were summoned to Chicago, the
lack of a suitable place for the storage of the California wines, and
also, to all appearances, as shown by the diyness of the cork, to the
bottles having been kept standing too long, many samples were found
out of condition, especially white wines and Burgundies. Even some
sherries and ports were pricked, which could have been brought about
only by a long exposure to the air, although it shows also that these
wines were deficient in alcoholic strength.

Most of the Burgundies found to be unsound had fermented in the
bottles, and so had a few clarets and Cabernets of the recent vintages,
which is especially to be regretted, as, in general, sound samples of
the youngest wines showed a marked improvement upon those of old
vintages.

With the knowledge California wine makers have of the respective
merits of the different grapes, it is a matter of surprise to your jury
that many still persist in using a single grape in the manufacture of
each wine, and presenting this wine to the public under the name of
that particular grape. The Cabernet wine will generally have body,

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1044 REPORT OF COMMITTEE OK AWARDS.

vinosity, and bouquet, but lack that velvety softness of the Merlot
wine. The latter will be deficient in body and roundness, and the
Malbeck found wanting in body and bouquet. Now^ by the mixture
of these three varieties of grapes a wine could be produced combining
fullness of body, softness, and delicacy of bouquet. The same remarks
apply to white wines. When a party grows Semillon and Sauvignon
Vert, what is the reason for making two sorts of wine instead of
one? We take, for example, Mr. F. W. Billings's Sauvignon Vert and
Semillon wines, both awarded; the former as good, full-bodied wine,
with pleasant flavor, the latter as good, light wine, with nice bouquet;
both certainly meritorious wines, but one a little too heavy, while the
other is wanting in body. The mixture of the two grapes would have
corrected the defect of each, and resulted in a perfect wine.

The exhibitors of California wines and brandies who entered their
wines for competition numbered 53, and the samples submitted to the
jury 348, divided as follows between the different classes, viz: Class
126, white wines, 127; class 127, red wines, clarets, Zinfandel, Bur-
gundies, 93. For want of a better classification, all strong wines, dry
and sweet, such as Malaga, Tokay, Muscat, Angelica, etc. , were included
in class 128 with sherries, Madeira, port, and with the latter num-
bered 108.

By the way, we can't help remarking that the party who devised
this queer classification of the wines of the world did not seem to have
any idea that besides sherry, Madeira, and port, there are other types
of wine produced in France, Italy, Greece, Turkey, Austria, Chile,
Cape of Good Hope, California, and even Spain and Portugal, known
as Tokay, Muscat, Marsala, Malaga, etc. We would also like to know
why, after having comprised in class 127 red wines, clarets, and
Burgundies, he thought of specifying Zinfandel. Is Zinfandel a more
special grape than Barolo, Barbera, Mataro, and many others? These
anomalies in the classification caused many wines to be entered in the
wrong class, as we shall point out when reporting on these wines.

The 117 samples in class 126 were exhibited by 41 parties, and con-
sisted of 37 Riesling and Hock, 9 of which were awarded; 10 Chablis
and others of the white Burgundy type, with 5 awards; 42 of the
sauterne type, with 14 awards, and 28 samples of different other kinds,
with 7 awards; the total number of wines awarded in that class being
35, from 22 exhibitors.

As an examination of the list of awards will show, the best Riesling
wines were exhibited by Jacob Schram, of St. Helena; H. W. Crabb,
of Oakville, and C. Carpy & Co., of San Francisco; the best wine of
the sauterne type by C. A. Wetmore, of Livermore; C. P. Howes, of
Mountain View; J. Crellin & Son, of Livermore, and C. Carpy & Co.;
the best Chablis by H. W. Crabb.

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In class 127 the 93 samples were entered by 49 exhibitors, and com-
prised 43 clarets and Bordeaux types of different denominations. Here
the name is very little indication of the nature of the wine, for while
some houses present their best blend of Bordeaux grapes as claret, the
claret of other houses is their cheapest brand, being quoted even lower
than Zinfandel.

Be it as it may, 34 samples out of 43 were deemed worthy of awards,
and this proportion shows the degree of perfection already attained in
the production of red table wines in California. Among the choice
samples exhibited, the following wines received the most favorable
mention : Haraszthy , Chateau d'Orleans, Chateau Gundlach, Wetmore's
Margaux Souvenir, and the Cupertino Wine Company's collection of
clarets of different vintages from the finest Bordeaux grapes, the
vintage of 1892 being of especially high character.

As to Burgundies, they were rather disappointing; many samples
had spoiled, others had not the slightest similarity to any of the wines
known by that name, and only 7 out of 32 were found deserving recog-
nition. A superb wine of great body roundness, and flavor, labeled
Chambertin, was exhibited by J. Gundlach & Co., of San Francisco,
while H. W. Crabb presented a remarkable wine of the Hermitage type,
with good firmness and softness combined, together with a most deli-
cate purity of aroma; also a robust, full-bodied, round wine of the
Burgundy type.

Seventeen samples of Zinfandel carried 7 awards, and while none
was of a very high grade, a sample from J. P. Smith, of Livermbre,
showed great body and finesse.

Among the 11 samples of other different types of wines, 3 were
awarded, the most eulogistic mention being for two samples from the
Italian-Swiss colony, namely, a Barbera of great finesse, body, and
mellowness, and a Tipo Chianti of remarkable vinosity and roundness.
To sum up, out of 93 samples in class 127, 51, contributed by 29 exhib-
itors, were awarded.

In claws 128, 108 samples were examined and 41 reported for awards,
viz, 7 out of 14 samples of Angelica, 11 out of 25 samples of Sherry,
10 out of 28 samples of Port, 1 out of 6 samples of Madeira, 3 out of 4
samples of Malaga, 5 out of 19 samples of Muscat, 3 out of 8 samples
of Tokay, and 1 out of 4 samples of other wines. Most prominent in
that class were the following wines: An excellent old Port and a fine
old Sherry from L. J. Rose & Co., San Gabriel; a very good old Port
and a very fine old Muscat from the Eisen Vineyard Company, of
Fresno, and also a fine old Port from Stern & Sons, of Los Angeles.

In class 129, sparkling wines, 6 samples were entered by 3 exhib-
itors, two of whom were awarded for 5 of these samples, Haraszthy
Brut being found of surprising clean taste, great delicacy of flavor,
and pronounced excellent.

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1046 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

For brandies, class 131, the number of exhibitors who entered their
products for competition was 24, some with several samples of differ-
ent vintages.

The grade of California brandy is steadily improving, and a vast
field is open before the distillers of that State. They must, however,
bear in mind that it is only by the purity of their article and the
discriminate use of the right sort of wines for distillation that they can
overcome the prejudice attached to all our domestic products and have
their pure, well-distilled and well-matured brandies take the place in
our market of those aromatized spirits, blends, branded with the
names of fictitious houses, and sold under the fallacious appellation of
Cognac. Let our California brandy merchants drive all of these
bogus houses out of the market of England and Australia, which are
the largest brandy markets in the world. Some of the samples sub-
mitted to the examination of the jury showed remarkably clean taste,
and delicacy of bouquet without the least earthy taste. Others were
of a more stout character with less refined flavor, but having acquired
great ripeness and mellowness from age, which renders them very
acceptable and worthy of being called good, old brandies. A fine
collection of different vintages was presented by Geo. West & Son, of
Stockton.

After having read this report and perused the list of awards, our
California friends will be convinced that the jury was neither aggres-
sive nor unfriendly, and that, if the Christmas tree does not break
down under the load of medals and diplomas, all wines and brandies
deserving of praise received recognition at our hands.

WINES AND BRANDIES OF THE EASTERN STATES AND CANADA.

With the exception of California wines, which have been the sub-
ject of a separate report, the wines of the United States and Canada
are made from native American grapes or their hybrids, and possess,
, like those grapes, distinctive chai-acteristics which render comparison
with the other wines of the world rather difficult, if not impossible.
These characteristics are: (1) A peculiar flavor, more or less pro-
nounced in all varieties excepting grapes of the uEstivalis class, such
as Norton, Cynthiana, Herbemont, etc., a flavor which in the wine is
pleasant to but a few Americans, and obnoxious to others, and gener-
ally to all regular wine drinkers of this and other countries; (2) an
excess of acids, and in many cases a deficiency of saccharine matter,
which makes these grapes unfit for wine making without an addition
of water and sugar. This does not apply to the above-named varieties
and other ^stivalis, which ought to really be considered as the only
American wine grapes. Unfortunately most JEstivalis being late
grapes, do not ripen well in the Northern States, and in the South
they are subject to diseases.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1047

Having to labor under such and many other difficulties — not being
benefited by the provisions of the "sweet- wine bill," for example —
our Eastern wine makers deserve great credit for the result they have
already obtained, and it is especially so in the production of their
sparkling wines, which are, as a rule, of a higher character than their
still wines. Three brands of these sparkling wines (Champagne) hav-
ing been pronounced excellent, I think I must explain the significance
of the different terms used by the judges in reporting singly on each
sample of wine.

Having to pass on wines of so diversified a nature and origin and
determine the specific point of excellence or advancement of each wine,
the task of the judges was not an easy one. It often happens that a
wine has not anything striking in its quality, but possesses in a nor-
mal proportion the intrinsic features of a good wine. In that case the
single word ' ' good " was inserted in the report. If the wine was short
of one, or deficient in some of these requirements, but still above the
average of that class of wine, the word "fair" was used. In the class
of wines which by their nature have to be judged more or less by cer-
tain accepted standards of foreign wines the characteristics of each
sample were mentioned.

In order to do every one justice, the wines of each country had to
be, however, judged from a different standpoint, taking into consider-
ation the difficulties the wine makers have to contend with, the taste
of the country where the wines are produced, and of the usual consum-
ers of these wines, their commercial value at hand and abroad, and
their advancement as compared with those formerly produced in the
same country. It would not have been fair, for instance, to take as
standards the greatest wines of the Old World, Chateau Lafite for
claret, Romane Conte or Chambertin for Burgundy, the best brands
of French champagne for sparkling wines, Schloss Johannesburger
for Riesling, etc., all of which are the result of centuries of experi-
ence and study. It takes a man's life to study closely the different
evolutions of a wine's life.

Although the vintner of a new wine-producing country has theories
based on the Old World's practice, it is not sufficient. He has to learn
by practicing himself, and if it is so for the countries who follow in
the Old World's tracks and deal with the same kind of grapes, how
much more so is it for the eastern American vintner who has no past
to study from and imperfect material to operate on? It should not,
therefore, be inferred from the fact that three eastern brands of
sparkling wine have been pronounced "excellent" that these wines
are necessarily of same high grade, of same commercial value, of same
accepted type as an "excellent" French champagne, such as two
French samples passed on have shown. Your jury simply deemed that,
in their line and everything considered, these three wines were fine
and as meritorious as the two French wines referred to.

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1048 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

Were we to advise our eastern wine makers it would be to not
attempt making so many kinds of wines. How can they expect to
make in Ohio and New York State a good sherry or a good Madeira
when California, with the same grapes as raised at Jerez and Madeira
and an almost identical climate, can hardly turn out an acceptable imi-
tation of these wines? Why not confine themselves to a few types of
good wines, dry and sweet, and do away with that long string of
names which mean nothing when one comes to sample the wines, as
most often the difference is only in the name and a few ounces of
sugar, more or less, per gallon?

Eight States in the Union, viz, New York, Ohio, Missouri, Virgina,
New Jersey, North Carolina, Florida, New Mexico, and the District
of Columbia, contributed, together with the Province of Ontario,
Canada, 274 samples for the examination of the jury. Not less than
48 different kinds of wines were represented — some with pretty names
indeed — more than Spain with its 1,400 exhibitors. Fifty -five awards
were given, including 65 samples, and were distributed between the
different States, the District of Columbia, and Canada, as follows:
New York, 134 samples examined, 36 awards to 20 exhibitors for 42
samples; Ohio, 41 samples, 8 awards to 6 exhibitors foi 10 samples;
Missouri, 16 samples, 4 awards to 3 exhibitors for 6 samples; Virginia,
3 samples, 1 award to 1 exhibitor for 2 samples; North Carolina, 26
samples, 2 awards to 2 exhibitors for 2 samples; New Mexico, 3 samples,
1 award to 1 exhibitor for 1 sample; Canada, 21 samples, 2 awards to 2
exhibitors for 2 samples; Florida, 11 samples of '' hors concours " (not
competing) exhibited by one of the judges (the undersigned); New Jer-
sey, 17 samples, no awards; District of Columbia, 2 samples, no awards.

The three brands of champagne declared excellent are Cook's
Imperial, Pleasant Valley Wine Company's Great Western, and Hom-
mel's Sparkling Catawba.

Among still wines none was found of so remarkable a quality as to
deserve special mention. Out of 10 samples of Norton and Cynthiana
presented, 8 were awarded, most of them of a deep rich color but
lacking a little in body.

The Catawba wines, dry and sweet, were not of high character,
many of the former being too acid and thin, and the latter wanting in
that distinctive flavor of the Catawba grape, which, if objectionable
when too pronounced in a dry wine or a champagne, is the principal
attribute of a perfect sweet Catawba.

One of the requirements of dry wines and champagnes is a clean
taste, great purity, and extreme delicacy of flavor, while sweet wines
must have a decided bouquet, whether Muscat, Tokay, Catawba, etc.

New York sent a very creditable exhibit of brandies, especially
apple brandies, and the samples furnished by J. L. Sayer & Son,
Chas. G. Wisner, of Warwick, and D, A. Shaffer, of Montgomery, were
deserving of great praise. .

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LIVE STOCK.

ARAB HORSES.

Rev. F. F. VIDAL.

1049

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ARAB HORSES.

By Rev. F. F. Vidal.

The classes it was my duty to judge and report upon were, first,
Class XXXIV, pure-bred Arab horses and mares; second. Class
XXXV, Americo-Arab horses and mares. I was generally disap-
pointed at the small number of exhibits compared with the number of
entries in each of these classes. It was not to be expected that there
could.be a large number of pure-bred Arabian horses exhibited, but I
had hoped that those who were possessors in the United States of
some of these rare and valuable animals would, for the sake of their
countrymen, have had the patriotism to send them to the World's
Fair as an instruction to breeders. I am often asked, and have been
several times in the stock pavilion, ^'Wherein consists the excellence
and value of the Arab horse over others?" My answer is, In his
blood, entirely apart from any comparison of size or outward confor-
mation with other breeds. A scientific breeder of horses can no more
afford to ignore the value of the Arab blood than can the farmer the
value of fertilizers. Without the one the breeding stock will as
surely deteriorate until it becomes worthless as will the farmer's
crops without the other. Everything that is valued in any breed of
horses owes it excellence to the amount of Arab blood infused into
the strain. The reason of this absolute truth is that the true-bred
Arabian is the only exisiting horse of absolutely pure and unadul-
terated blood; and of such excellence in itself that any type of horse
that the exigencies of mankind may require can be produced from it by
scientfic selection and inbreeding. If breeders would study the ques-
tion, first, scientifically and, second, without prejudice, as a scientist
endeavors to seek and find a cause for an effect, they would discover
that their success or failure depends upon the amount of Arab blood
infused into the stock at a remote or later period.

With regard to the Arabs that were brought before me to judge
upon in the stock pavilion, I have to say that the evidence of their
purity of blood satisfied me. They came from the stud of Arabs
maintained by the King of Wurtemburg. This stud is one of the
only two studs of absolutely pure Arabians on the Continent of
Europe, the other being in Hungary. There are also three in Eng-
land.

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1052 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

Now, having expressed my belief that these animals from the royal
Wurtemburg stud are pure bred, I must also state that in my opinion,
though they are beautiful animals, they are not altogether perfect
specimens. They all, more or less, are defective in a point in which
pure Arabs are generally superexcellent, namely, their shoulders.
The pure Arabian has as a rule the most magnificently oblique and
powerful shoulder. I have known frequently the rear point of the
top of the scapula to rest 6 inches behind the elbow. In the case of
these animals a plumb line would touch both points.

The young stallion showed little of the characteristics of the high-
bred Arabian. His head was slightly coarse and short, and he had a
generally mean appearance. No doubt this colt will improve vastly
with age. It is characteristic of Arabs that their heads fine giud-
ually until they are 6 years old.

Of the mares, the gray, Aga, has a great deal of the beauty of forai
and action belonging to the Arabian; her sole defect is the shoulder,
which, as I have said before, is upright. Her head is good and well
set on; the arch of the neck is curved, and she carries her tail well up.
Her action is elastic and true. Her eye is large and prominent. She
lacks the peculiar prominence of forehead, so much desired in Arabs,
called the " jibbah," but altogether she is a handsome animal. The
bay, Hasf oura, was shown in very poor condition. She is a handsome
mare with a good head, though a flat forehead, eye large and promi-
nent, head well set on to a finely arched neck, shoulders too upright,
back too much dipped. Her tail is carried well, and her action is
sti*aight, true, and lively. Both these mares have excellent hocks,
knees, legs, and feet. They each stand about 15 hands 1 inch.

The Americo-Arab was a distinctly good class.

The young stallions, Fez and Aldebaron, greatly took my fancy.
Both these are by Abdul Hamid II, who was by General Grant's Arab,
Leopard, out of an inbred Clay mare, the property of Mr. Randolph
Huntington, who has done so much and so successfully in this country
to plant Ai-ab blood on Clay soil.

Fez, a 3-year-old golden sorrel with white markings, standing 15
hands, is a very beautiful colt. He has a fine, clean, Arab- like head,
well set on to a light, beautifully arched neck, eye full and prominent,
shoulders very oblique, fine and yet powerful; back short, barrel
round, and finely coupled; loins powerful; tail set on high and well
carried; quarters lengthy and flat; thighs very muscular; hocks of
the very best, clean and well formed; legs flat and hard as steel; feet
sound and good. This colt, in my opinion, will develop into a very
fine saddle horse. It is rarely that a youngster is found so forward
in muscular development as he is. In addition to the blood of the
imported barb, Black Emperor, he is, with the remoter crosses of
Arab blood in his Clay progenitors, largely inbred to Eastern blood,

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WOBLD'b COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1053

and ought, in consequence, to be a very valuable stud horse. He was
sired by the stallion, Mizpah Shaffey, bred by Heyl.

Aldebaron, by Abdul Hamid U, is a half-brother to Fez. He is a
black colt, 3 years old<, standing 14 hands 3 inches. He is a handsome
colt, but with thicker head and neck than Fez; the same fine shoulders,
back, and loins. The tail is set on slightly lower, but he carries it
w^ell. His joints and legs are equally good. He has fine trotting
action, and I should imagine would make a fast trotter if trained.
The grand dam of this colt was a Morgan mare, a fast trotter. He
was bred by Dr. Hall, as was also Fez.

The mare, Keturah, is a dark chestnut with four white legs, 3 years
old, and is by the same sire, Abdul Hamid II. She stands 15 hands
2 inches. This mare is good all over, and fit for either harness or
saddle work. She is also of the breeding of Dr. Hall.

Of the others of this class, I should select two mares under a year
old, Adelina and Marina, for special mention as being very beautiful
and excellent in all ways, and a credit to their breeder. I do not
know how they were bred, but was told they are a few generations
from the Arab. Both are bays, showing great quality, substance, and
power. I should be glad to see these youngsters when they have more
years over their heads, and should be very much mistaken s^nd disap-
pointed if they are not then very exceptiona> animals.

I have said at the opening of this report that I regret a larger num-
ber did not appear in the ring, but enough were exhibited to demon-
strate the excellence of an Arab cross.

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MACHmERY.

BY

R. H. THURSTON, Jud^e.

1055

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MACHINERY.

By R. H. Thurston, Judge,

This exhibit is as remarkable for its novelty, its variety, and its
usefulness as for its extent and costliness. It is unrivaled in its mag-
nitude, is representative of one of the most important of all modern
branches of steam-engine construction, and is of peculiar interest as
illustrating progress made, during the generation just ended, in the
improvement of a special class of machinery originally introduced by
the founder of the house now making the exhibit and perfected by
continuous experiment and constant observation of the conditions
arising in the field of application by the inventor and his successors in
the firm. All this machinery is of the same general and now standai'd
type, and the immense extent and great variety of design here illus-
trated simply exhibits the extent and variety of application which has
been demanded of the universally recognized Worthington engine.
A careful study of this collection leads the engineer to the conclusion
that it is as unique in its variety of design in adaptation to the various
conditions under which water supply is demanded as in its ingenuity,
neatness, and correctness of design and of proportions. The award
asked for this collective exhibit on these grounds is, at best, but an
inadequate recognition of the interest and value of the exhibit and of
its preeminent usefulness to the great Exposition, to the success of
which its continuous and always efficient operation and its economy of
performance have in such large degree contributed. I have for many
years been familiar with the products of this house, and knew the
founder and his inventions when he was engaged in the work of slowly
and painfully introducing the Worthington pump in its crudest form
into the market. It was the first of the independent steam pumps (1840)
and for years occupied the field without any real competition. The
invention of the Worthington duplex pump and the introduction by
others of steam pumps having auxiliary valves insuring the automatic
movement of the main distributing valve of the pump led to the gen-
eral use of this class of machinery, and it promptly — between 1860
and 1870 — ^assumed a prominent place among the essential accessories
of the steam engine and became as promptly an important article of
manufacture. It is now almost exactly a half century since Henry R.
Worthington, since deceased, invented the original type of this

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REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

machine. To-day the firm making this exhibit report a total output of
over 70,0()0 pumps of ail sizes and forms; while, the original patents
having long since expired, the manufacture of the Worthington duplex
pump by other makers has also come to be an enormously extensive
and important branch of industry, both in this (X)untry and in Europe.
The Worthington pumping engine, the latest development and out-
growth of the direct-acting steam pump, Ls now constructed for the
water supply of cities in every part of the world, and New York and
London, Chicago and Brooklyn, Montreal and the City of Mexico, the
great cities of South America, of Fmnce, Germany, Austria, and
Australia are supplied with the latest types of this machine.*

The accompanying graph i<- scale exhibits the growth of this business,
showing the total capacity of the engines built each year, from 1860,
in gallons:

«M • 2.

WfS

7^

• seOjOCff

29, age, 009
s9,4afiaao

tj9,oogiCOO

19,100,000
57,700,000
M /S9,350C00
7t,l5d.000
f7, 250,000
^^ 179,40^000

259,090^000

^

200000

I
100

I

ISO

100

I
250

I
300

n^'^

The number of Worthington pumping engines reported by the
makers to be installed in waterworks stations throughout the world is
as follows: America, 957; Europe, 124; Asia, 44; Africa, 13; Aus-
tralia, 9.

These exhibitors claim, and undoubtedly cori-ectly, that theirs is the
largest and most varied collection of steam-pumping machinery ever
brought together at any international exposition. These engines have
been continuously in operation, and have supplied all the water used
for other than potable purposes within the limits of the Exposition.
I have had frequent oi-casion to observe their condition and operation

"It ha« been e8tinaate<l that not lens tlian (>0 |)er t-ent of the entire water Hiipply
of the Metropolitan district can be furnistied by the Worthington engines at present
installed.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893 1059

and to note their constant availability for the work demanded of them.
They are distributed about the Exposition, as shown on the accom-
pan3^ing map supplied by the makers, but the largest and most inter-
esting installation is in machinery hall and adjacent thereto.

The one distinguishing characteristic of this class of pumps and
pumping engines is the operation of the valve of the one of a pair of
twin engines by the piston motion of the othfer. In all pumps which
are unprovided with the expensive and power-wasting accessories of
fly wheel, shaft, and connections, the actuation of the valve must oe
secured by some other automatic system of driving gear than the
familiar eccentric and rod. Were it attempted to rely, as did the
makers of the first of this class of pumps, upon the motion of the
machine itself for the movement of its own distributing steam valve,
either the valve would fail to open to its full and necessary area of
port, even if continuing its motion at all, or the speed of pump needed
to insure this effect through the action of inertia would be unsatisfac-
tory. In the single-cylinder pump of the direct-acting class the valve
and pump piston must constitute one piece, and they must have a com-
mon motion. For this reason it has come to be admitted that the only
way in which the steam distribution can be made correct and certain
in tbese pumps is by the provision of an independent valve system,
the oflSce of which is to move the valve of the main system. The
operation in all such pumps is the same in principle and nearly iden-
tical in method. The motion of the pump, as it approaches the end
of its stroke, moves the secondary or auxiliary valve and gives steam
to a piston which in turn moves the main steam valve. This move-
ment being effected the latter gives steam to the main piston and the
pump stroke is reversed, the same succession of movements of the
independent pistons taking place on the return of the main piston to
the opposite end of its cylinder. It is easily seen that since the two
pistons are independent the motion of either must continue, once
. started, until it has made its stroke, irrespective of the movement or
stopping of the other. The process is thus: (1) The opening of the
main piston to steam, through the operation, automatically or by
hand, of the main valve; (2) the traversing of the cylinder by this
main piston, producing a working stroke of the pump; (3) the shift-
ing of the valve of the auxiliary steam piston in such manner aa to
throw it across its own cylinder, carrying over, at the same time, the
main steam valve to which the auxiliary piston is secured; (4) the
reversal of motion of the main piston and the performance of another
working stroke of the pump in the course of its return to its starting
point. The cycle is then repeated and continued indefinitely, or until
steam is shut off from the machine.

The duplex pump of Worth ington is one in which two steam pum^is
are placed side by side, and each is the auxiliary system to the other.

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1060 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

The auxiliary piston of the older type becomes here a working piston
as well. The twin pumps make their strokes alternately, each, at
the end of its own stroke, giving motion to the steam-valve system of
the other, and itself halting while the second makes a stroke, and, at
its termination, acts as starting engine for its fellow. All modern
fonns of Worthington pump embody this feature, and are duplex
pumps, the type having been original with the founder of this house.
It is by the adoption of this device that the most certain operation, the
smoothest movement, and the most_perfect regulation and adjustment
to the prescribed work are secured; while, as a direct-acting system,
the elimination of the fly wheel and its accessories gives the advan-
tages of decreased complication and cost, lessened weight, and reduced
volume and cost of foundations, as well as of the machine itself. In
cases in which the price of the fuel is so low as to make the interest
account on first cost a relatively important matter — as is often the fact
in locations not far from good coal deposits — this cheapening of the
cost of engine, foundations, and erection may prove more important
than slight differences of engine efficiencies. Where efficiencies are
approximately the same, this difference of cost gives the vender an
advantage which he usually shares with his customer, and the fact
gives him a market otherwise beyond reach. The finance of steam-
engine economy has, of late years, assumed great importance, and the
interest account and other permanent taxes are carefully considered, as
well as the regular operating expenses on account of labor and fuel.
Such considerations often settle an otherwise doubtful choice among
the various forms of engines available for a specified purpose.

The collective exhibit of H. R. Worthington includes illustrations
of the principal types of direct-acting pumping engine now built for
the market, and some which possess points of peculiar interest and
novelty. Those installed in the large Worthington pumping station
are one 25 and 50 by 27i by 36 horizontal high-duty pumping engine,
with attached condenser, with a capacity of 12,500,000 gallons in
twenty-four hours, working against a pressure of 100 pounds with 125
pounds of steam. Also one 30 and 60 by 32 by 60 vertical compound
condensing engine, with independent condenser, of 15,000,000 gallons
in twenty-four hours, working under the same conditions. Also one
15 and 33 and 57i by 22 by 36 vertical beam-compound condensing
engine, with independent condenser, of 7,500,000 gallons capacity in
twenty-four hours; and one 9^ and 15 and 25 by 11 by 48 horizontal
high-speed triple engine, with independent condenvscr. of 5,000,000
gallons capacity in twenty-four hours, working on the same service.
In the same building there are two Worthington underwriter fire
pumps for fire service. In machinery hall, Section A, there are in
operation seven pumps, handling water for circulating purposes, with
a combined capacity of 24,000,000 gallons in twenty-four hours,

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 18»3. 1061

divided as follows: One 16 and 25 by 15 b}^ 15 compound pump, capac
ity two and a half million; one 18i^ and 29 by 17 by 18 compound
pump, with a capacity of 3,500,000 gallons in twenty-four hours; one
12 l)y U hx 10 pump of 2,000,000 gallons capacity; one 14 by 19 by
15, 3,500,()00 gallons capacity; one U by 22 by 15, 4,500,000 gallons;
one 29 by 20 by 18, of 4,000,000 gallons capacity, and one 14 and 24
by 20 by 18 compound condensing pump, with independent condenser,
of 4,000,000 gallons capacity. In this location is also an exhibit of
thirty-four pumps of various sizes designed for special services, but
not in operation.

Distributed at different points throughout the Exposition grounds
afe about twenty Worthington pumps, most of which are in operation.
In the greenhouses attached to the horticultural building are three
pumps and receivei-s operating in connection with the heating system.
In the power house of the Western Railway is a 12 by 15 by 10
Worthington independent condenser, condensing steam from their
engines. In the Libbey glass factory is a 7i by 4i by 6 pump, feeding
their boilers. In the exhibit of the Norwalk Iron Works in machinery
hall is a 12 by 15 by 15 Worthington condenser operating in connection
with their engines. In the transportation building are two 16 by 25 by
15 by 15 compound Worthington pumps, operating Otis elevators. In
the annex to machinery hall is an 18^ by 5 by 10 pressure pump,
operating Crane elevators. In the power plant of machinery hall are
two 14 by 19 by 15 independent condensers operating with Westing-
house engines. In the United States battle ship lUinois is a 10 by 7 by
10 Admiralty pump. In the United States steam launch is a 2 by 1^ by 2i
pump, feeding boilers. In the exhibit of the United States Wind Engine
Company is a 10 by 6 by 10 Worthington pump. In the electricity
building is a 7 by lOi electric power pump in connection with the
Westinghouse exhibit. In the transportation building is a 9 by 2i by 10
Worthington pressure pump and steam accumulator in connection with
the Otis exhibit. In machinery hall is a 12 by 15 by 10 condenser,
operating in connection with the Ball engine. In the boiler house of
machinery hall is a 6 by 4 by 6 Admiralty pump and a 7i by 4i by 10
pressure pump, feeding a batteiy of Zell boilei's. There are also Worth-
ington pumps in the sewage department.

This extensive, costly, and interesting exhibit contains illustrations
of two principal clasvses of Worthington duplex pumping engines,
both of which embody the twin system above described, and are dis-
tinctively Worthington pumps, but differ in the fact that the latest
examples of the machine, constituting the more modern class, are
fitted with what is known as a "high-duty attachment," through the
action of which the engine is made very much more economical than
the older type. Since these engines are direct acting, and since no
practicable method of employing steam expansively has been devised

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1062 BEPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWABDS.

which will make the total steam pressure on the piston a constant
quantity and equal to the hydraulic resistance of the load, thei*e must,
in all pumps of the older form, exist a variable driving effort and a
substantially invariable load on the pump plunger or piston. It is
thus only practicable to expand the working steam down to such a
point as will still leave sufficient forward pressure at the end of the
stroke to complete the stroke of the piston against the resistance of
load, back pressure, and friction combined. This fact restricts the
mnge of expansion in even the multiple-cylinder engine of this class to
a comparatively narrow range, and some device which shall equalize
the difference between the driving and the resisting forces, acting
upon the passing stream only, can give the power of continuing tfie
expansion of the steam to the extent which is now known to be essen-
tial to economical working. None of these engines have, in their
older form, given duties which would to-day be regarded as high, and
their use has thus been restricted to cases in which their comparatively
small cost of construction has compensated anticipated differences in
economical performance as compared with rival constinictions. A
duty of 75,000,000 foot-pounds per pound of good fuel is a high figure
for the older duplex engine, even when compounded. Duties exceed-
ing 100,000,000, and often approximating 120,000,000, or even more,
are now expected in the best modern pmctice as representative of
what is considered high economy. The second class of engines of
this kind, as exhibited in this section, are expected to approach such
figures as these last. They are fitted with an equalizing apparatus
which, by alternate storage and return of energy, reenforces the
deficient pressure of the expanded steam, while at the beginning of
the stroke it resists the overplus of prcvssure, producing in this man-
ner, throughout the stroke, a comparatively complete equalizing of
the net working pressure and the load resistance, whatever the mtio
of expansion adopted. This [permits the use of high pressures and of
correspondingly high ratios of expansion, and this in turn gives the
thus improved engine an efficiency substantially equal, thermodynam-
ically, to that of the best type of crank-and-fly-wheel engine.

The high-duty Worthington pumping engine, illustrated in the
accompanying figure, is of this latest standard construction. Its
compensating cylinders are seen at the nearer end of the structure
and outside the pumps. They may be placed at any point in the line
of the piston and pump rods that may be found convenient. They
consist simply of a pair of plungers working in oscillating cylinders
of suitable size, so placed as to precisely counterbalance each other in
all lateral efforts, while giving a resistance to the motion of the
engine and pump at the commencement of a working stroke, this
resistance falling to zero at the half stroke, and becoming a reenforc-
ing effort, during the second half stroke, of continually increivsing

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THE WORTHINGTON VERTICAL PUMPING ENGINE.
Built for the World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, I

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1063

magnitude. Jt is found |)erfectly practicable, with the best propor-
tions of engine, and with the most denirable ratios of expansion, to so
proportion these compensating cylinders as to secure pmctically com-
plete equalization of the net driving force of the expanding steam,
which, in these engines, expands from a pressure far in excess of the
resistance of the pump down to a pressui'e as far below that required
to keep up the motion of the piston and the flow of the water, the com-
pensating device supplying resistance during the first phase and the
needed additional effort during the second phase of piston movement.
This wonderfully simple and effective device has converted a compara-
tively uneconomical steam pumping engine into a machine of the
highest possibilities in themaod^'^namic and mechanical eflSciency. The
abolition of the fl}'^ wheel, while retaining the power of employing
steam expansively, constitutes an improvement upon the older type
which originated with Watt and his successors of the early half of the
century that must be rated as of the highest order, and as the more
meritorious for its supreme simplicity. Watt sought in vain for a
practically effective device of this character. What Watt and his
contempomries and suct^essors failed to accomplish has been done by
Mr. Charles C. Worthington, the son and successor of the distinguished
founder of this finn (1884). The device here illustrated costs little,
adds no perceptible resistance to the load, is simple, unlikely to get
out of order, and adds 50 per cent or more to the value of the engine
as measured by its economical performance. It is at once the simplest
and the most important of all the improvements effected in the con-
struction of direct-acting pumping engines by these makers and is to
be classed among the great inventions of the time.

The exhibit here reported upon contains examples, also, of another
interesting and valuable departure from hitherto usual practice — the
vertical type of duplex engine, without fly wheel. Of this novel type
there are two illustrations, both of large capacity, and doing work, as
occasion arises, in supplying water for use in the Exposition, to the
extent of 37,500,000 gjillons in twenty-four hours, the one having a
capacity of twelve and a half, the other of fifteen millions per day.
The general appearance of one of these machines is (exhibited in the
accompanying figure, and it is seen that it gives a remarkably compact
construction, economizing floor space greatly, and at the same time,
is accessible in all parts for examination, lubrication, and repair. The
side elevation of the machinery and section of the station, also illus-
trated herewith, give a good idea of the relative compactness of the
two forms of machine, the horizontal and vertical.

Still another interesting and novel departure from common construc-
tions of pumping mac^hinery is found in the fourth of the engines
erected in the pumping station with the preceding, a horizontal six-
cylinder, triple-expuision engine, designed for an unusually high

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REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

speed of engine-piston and purap. The speed adopted is 350 feet a
minute, double that customarily employed in earlier constructions of
steam pumping engines. So well designed and constructed is this
engine that it works at the designated speed with the utmost quietness
and smoothness. While no one special feature is here to be noted as
embodying a great invention or peculiarly ingenious adaptation of

known devices to new purposes, the skill of designer and constructor
is nevertheless illustrated in a remarkable manner by the excellence
of proportions, the admirable workmanship, and the satisfactory per-
formance of the machine. This is, so far as I am aware, the first suc-
cessful attempt to arrange a triple-expansion engine for such work as
is here performed.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1065

Connected with the engines are examples of the Worthington con-
struction of independent condenser and air pump, an accessory to the
high-expansion steam engine, and to marine engines, which has of late
years come to be considered as often of extreme importance. It per-
mits the production of a good vacuum in advance of starting the
engines, and thus enables them to be started off at full power at the
desired instant — a peculiarly important matter with high ratios of
expansion, and where the power is in very large proportion that
obtained by the action of the vacuum. It is also useful in pumping
engines, where the load is a maximun at the instant of starting.

In marine engines this independence of condensing system and
the main engine permits the former to be operated at precisely the
right speed, and at any time, whatever the speed of the main engine
or its variations, in heavy seas or under other trying conditions.
These condensers are also largely used in connection with stationary
engines in mills and factories; their cheapness, compactness, and
handiness giving them, frequently, the preference over the attached
air-pump and condenser system formerly exclusively employed.
Where the exhaust steam can be utilized for heating feed water or
other valuable applications, they are not seriously uneconomical of
steam; this point being their most objectionable departure from old
standard practice, in which the cost of operation was measured by the
economy of the main engine. The Worthington condenser and air
pump, of the independent variety, embodies the advantageous quali-
ties of the class, and possesses the disadvantageous attributes in
better pioportion than is usual, and they have therefore come into very
extensive use and are to be found at the Exposition in operation in
connection with the engines of a considerable number of exhibitors,
as well as in that of H. R. Worthington. They constitute a valuable
and interesting feature of these exhibits.

The four pumping engines above described, with their ingenious,
valuable, and diverse forms of design, constitute, as a collection by
themselves, one of the most attractive, impressive, and satisfactory
exhibits to be found at the Exposition, and, in their class, are unique
and unexampled, at any time or in any place.

The most striking and novel points of construction to be noted in
these various forms of W^orthington pumping engine may be stated
in a very few words. Of one, the horizontal '' high -duty engine" is
the now standard pattern, and its peculiarities, and especially its pro-
vision for securing high expansion and consequent high duty, have been
already fully described. The other three of the four large engines in
this exhibit represent, each in its way, a somewhat novel and radical
departure from the older designs.

The vertical engine is a very recent and exceptional variation from
the old forms. A balance of working parte is secured by means of

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1066 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

beams, and it is thus rendered possible to obtain a Worthington en^ne
with single-at^ting plunger pumps. In some situations this form of
pump is considered essential, and outside packed plungers are abso-
lutely demanded. It is necessary, in this case, to secure an equal
division of work between the two sides of the machine, and this is
effected, in this case — that of the large, vertical, triple-expansion
pumping engine exhibited — by dividing the high-pressure cylinder,
assigning one of the pair to each side. This gives the required regu-
lation of the two machines, which act as one in this new type. It is
stated by the makers that a duty of 130,000,000 foot-pounds per 1,000
pounds of steam used has been attained by this form of engine.

The other and larger vertical engine illustrates a singularly novel
and effective method of balance of the load and a peculiar construction
of the water end of the machine. The first of these results is attained
by alternately compressing and expanding any gaseous fluid in a closed
tank. It is simple, effective, and is not subject to accident or derange-
ment of adjustment. It accomplishes its purpose thoroughly well and
seems to have no important defect of design, construction, or opera-
tion. Any leakage is readily supplied from the pump main. In the
construction of the pumps half the valves are inveiled in this engine.
The pump is thus made compact and the space occupied by the engine
made remarkably small, even for this class of machine. The makers
infoim me that this plan has been in successful use in their engines
for several years past, and has proved in every instance satisfactory.
The valves are made very light and are supported by a spring of ample
resilience. The plan permits more pumping capacity to be attained
in a given size of well than with the older arrangement of pumps, and
the builders refer to the Memphis waterworks, where they have three
10,000,000-gallon engines at work in a well 38 feet in diameter, and
space still remains for another of similar size.

The fourth of these engines exhibited is mainly distinguished by its
high speed of piston and by the arrangement of its triple-expansion
system of twin engines, which, while necessarily making a long engine,
occupying considerable floor space, is, nevertheless, so designed as to
be very compact for a triple-expansion machine, and yet to give easy
access to pistons and working parts.

The Worthington steam pumps are simply small direct-acting pumps
of the duplex variety, and of the same general design with the simplest
form of large pumping engine, none having a '' high-duty attachment,"
although it is very possible that cases may arise in which this append-
age might prove economically desirable, even on these small machines.
There are 34 of these pumps distributed about the Exposition, the
larger number by far being placed in machinery hall. Among them,
are 9 pumps having their steam (•ylinders compounded, similarly to

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1067

the older form of Worthington pumping engine. These are the
largest pumps, having steam cylinders from 12 and 18 to 16 and 25
inches diameter, with 10 to 15 inches diameter of pump and of 10 to 24
inches stroke of piston. They are proportioned for all steam pres-
sures and heights of lift, and adapted to every vanety of application,
from simple water elevation for house supply or for filling water tanks
for railways, to use as fire pumps or in elevation of water from the
deepest mines. In all cases they embody the Worthington principle of
actuation of the valve motion of one engine by the piston movement of
its twin, a pair of duplicate machines in all cases constituting a single
pump. In this extraordinarily extensive collection, I note in addition
to the 9 compounded machines: Five pressure pumps, 2 with packed
plunge i-s; 5 with packed pistons; 4 of the old, regular, standard pat-
tern, above described; 1 dry vacuum; 2 large Underwriters' fire pumps,
16 and 19 inches diameter of steam and water cylinders, respectively;
3 Admiralty pumps; 1 each, sinking, brewery, ammonia, racking, and
wet vacuum pumps; 4 boiler feed pumps; 2 air compressors; 3 pumps
with receivei*s; a wrecking pump, 18 and 30 inch cylinders, 9 inches
stroke, and various miscellaneous minor exhibits. In number, value,
variety, and novelty this section of the Worthington exhibit is as
remarkable in its way as is the imposing collection of great pumping
engines, and the same verdict will here apply.

There are, altogether, 25 different varieties of pumps in this great
collection, and between 80 and 90 individual exhibits, all illustrating
the latest and highest state of the art of construction of their class of
machinery.

The Worthington Water Meter is a long and well known example
of that class of apparatus. It consists of a twin system of pumps,
somewhat like the standard Worthington pumps of regular pat-
tern, but with inverted operation; being driven by the flowing stream
instead of compelling its flow. Its constant volume of displacement
gives a measure of the volume of water thus passing through it, and
the instrument, while in action, each element working by alternation
with its fellow, measures off the quantity of fluid received and dis-
charged; the total being automatically recorded on a dial, provided
with suitable mechanism to take the motion from the two pistons of
the meter. It is read like the common gas meter. These machines
find extensive use wherever water has commercial value, and many
large cities employ large numbers of them as a means of fairly taxing
their citizens and householders for water consumed, either in manu-
facturing or for domestic purposes.

These meters are ingenious in design, of excellent material and work-
manship, and under favorable conditions of operation extremely
accurate; so exact, in fact, as to find use as instruments of scientific

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1068 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

and exact measurement in steam-boiler trials and other work of the
engineer in which accuracy is required. I have frequently employed
them in scientific work, and find that with proper care in standardiz-
ing and checking by the customary methods they make an extremely
satisfactory and convenient means of measuring volumes of water and
other fluids. Their extensive use in city water supply is the best and
ample proof of their value for general use. The Worthington exhibit
of meters is itself alone noteworthy, and in extent, variety, and excel-
lence, as a whole and in detail, is most remarkable.

The design and construction of the individual items of the collective
exhibit of H. R. Worthington have been made the subject of report
by competent and distinguished judges, and it is only necessary here
to state that they are in all respects admirable, and worthy alike of the
great Exposition of which they constitute so important a part and of
the famous firm which has shown so much enterprise in their selection
and contribution. Each is well adapted in its general form and in all
its details to the special purpose for which it is intended; each illus-
trates good judgment and good taste in form of proportions; eac'h
illustrates the use, in proper place and proportion, of the best of com-
mercially available materials; and all, without exception, exhibit the
best of workmanship, judged from a business point of view. Manu-
factured by piecework, and under rigid inspection and the adoption of
a system of interchangeability as far as is in such work practicable,
have rendered the construction of these machines at once satisfactorily
perfect and singularly inexpensive. It is probably no exaggeration
to say that it would cost twice as much to build them by the methods
of a generation ago as it actually costs to-day. This enormous gain in
economy necessarily, through the action of competitive supply shared
between makers and the public, constitutes a gain which has real
importance for the whole country. The manufacturer is, in such a
case, a public benefactor. Our enormous material progress during
the century, marvellous as it has been, has been due largely, probably
principally, to the activity and the genius of our inventors and con-
structors of machinery. They have received comparatively slight
recognition, but their deserts exceed those of any other class in the
community. The awards proposed and conferred at the World's
Columbian Exhibition for such displays as this collective exhibit, and
the thousands of others less extensive, perhaps, but no less meritori-
ous in many instances, are deserved but necessarily far from adequate
recognition of the wonderful and beneficent work of the inventor and
mechanic.

The economical performance of the machinery of this exhibit can
not be gauged on the ground, but must be judged by the operation of
similar machines as employed for similar pui'poses elsewhere. Fortu-

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1069

nately, there is no deficiency of data. Hundreds of the pumping
engines built by this firm ai'e in use^ and under circum-stauces which per-
mit, and often under contracts which compel, their accurate economic
tesL The total pumping capacity of the engines built to date by this
firm, and of the types here represented, approximates 4,500,000,000
gallons in twenty-four hours, supplied by some 1,200 engines. Of
these, large numbei*s have been subjected to duty trials, under con-
tract or for the satisfaction of the builders or buyers, and of these
trials many have been made with all the accuracy that modern science
permits. The builders publish a book in which these latter are sum-
marized, from which 1 glean the following brief collection of data.*
They relate to the latest and highest type of the machine. They are
all of later date than 1884, that of the first application effected by
these makers of a cutoff to a direct-acting nonrotative engine, with
success and resultant economy.

Mr. J. G. Mair, in a paper read before the British Institute of Civil
Engineers, describing an examination and test trial of a small engine
of this class, as made by him in 1885, the engine indicating between
108 and 130 horsepower, obtained a mechanical eflSciency exceeding 90
per cent, and a duty on 112 pounds of coal assuming a mechanical efiS-
ciency of 88 per cent of 112 millions as a minimum, and 114.8 millions
as a maximum, in the series of tests. The oflScials at a trial of a
5,000,000-gallon engine at New Bedford, in 1887, repoiled a duty of
over 102,000,000 on 100 pounds of coal. Practically the same figure
was reached in the official trial of a 10,000,000-gallon engine at Mon-
treal in 1888. On the same-basis, a duty of 121,795,222 foot-pounds
was officially reported at Davenport, Iowa, for an engine of the smaller
size, and the loss of mechanical efficiency was there reduced to the
smallest figure yet recorded so far as known to me; the efficiency being
given in this case as 96.3 per cent, the waste by friction thus being
but 3.7 per cent. Professor Unwin, in 1888, reported to Messrs. Simp-
son & Co., the English agents and builders for H. R. Worthington,
that the results of tests of a 200,000,000-gallon engine at Hampton, as
made under his direction, indicated a duty of 106,513,000 foot-pounds
per hundredweight of coal. The engine applied in useful work 0.8495
of the indicated power, the energy received at its pistons from the
steam. A pair of engines of aggregate capacity of 30,000,000 gallons
in twenty-four hours at Minneapolis, Minn. , guaranteed to give a duty
of 115,000,000 per 100 pounds of fuel, were reported by Professor
Pike to have actually given a duty of 116,683,000 foot-pounds, with
no allowances whatever. Numerous other and later tests confirm these
reported figures. Mr. W. H. White reported the duty of the Worth-

*Diity and Capacity Teste of Worthington High-duty Engines on Waterworks and
Pipe-line Services; Henry R. Worthington, New York, 1892.

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1070 REPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS. ^

ington engine at Oxford, England, to have been in 1891, 122,000,000
on ten pounds of water evaporated, and, on the British basis of weight
of fuel, it gave 125,100,000. These results of actual test, and as
given in official reports of indisputable reliability, are so remarkably
creditable to the builders of this engine that no hesitation need be felt
in reaffirming the statements of the judges in this case, and in second-
ing the recommendation that an award be given the collective exhibit
of H. R. Worthington, for its extent, the excellence of design, the
admirable construction, and especially the high efficiency of perform-
ance which these machines are proven to be capable of exhibiting.

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MANGANESE FROM VIRGINIA.

JOHN S. APPERSON.

1071

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REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

The outcropping and float for 2 or more miles eastward along the
base of Rich Mountain to the head of Deans Branch and down Staleys
Creek to Currin Valley are very frequent. Currin Valley is a basin
between Rich Mountain on the west, Wolf Pen Ridge on the south,
and Pond Mountain on the north. It is about 1 mile in length and«
half this distance in width. Into it empty numerous ravines from the
above-named mountains. Staleys Creek traverses its center from
west to east. Along the foothills of the mountain the iron ore is
found mixed with clay and sand, covering extensive iron deposits.
Except explorative work for iron -ore beds, and these are not deep, no
pits or shafts have been sunk to test the nature of the underlying
formations. On a slight elevation of level land jutting out into this
basin several hundred tons of manganese and manganiferous iron ore
may be seen. The latter gives the following analysis by Professor
Jarman:

Iron peroxide 36. 75

Protoxide manganese 17. 28

Phosphorus pentoxide 1. 62

Sulphur tr oxide 23

Silica 23.42

Moisture 807

From general appearance the manganese here carries a large per-
centage of silica.

The slopes of the mountain above this plateau is covered with
ocherous clays and manganiferous sand.

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MUNITIONS OF WAR.

"W. C. DODGKE.

1075

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MUNITIONS OF WAR.

By W. C. Dodge.

PRELIMINARY HISTORICAL STATEMENT.

History shows that from the earliest ages man has devoted much of
his time and attention to the production and improvement of weapons
for hunting and for war, the former as a means for obtaining subsistence,
and the latter for defense and conquest. It is not possible within the
limits of this report to refer to the weapons used prior to the introduc-
tion of firearms, nor is it necessary, as they form no part of the
exhibits to which this report relates.

Firearms were the result of the invention or discovery of gunpowder.
The exact date when that occurred it is impossible to determine. For
a long time the invention of gunpowder was credited to Roger Bacon,
of England, who about 1249 published a pamphlet entitled The Secrets
of Art and Nature, wherein he states that —

From saltpeter and other ingredients we are able to make a fire that shall bum
at what distance we please, and that sounds and coruscations resembling thunder
and lightning might be formed in the air, much more to be dreaded than those that
happen naturally, inasmuch as by its power cities and armies might be destroyed.

And in another chapter he says:

Mix together saltpeter with luru mone cap ubre and sulphur, and you will make
thunder and lightning, if you know the method of mixing them.

Bacon was a fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and familiar with
Arabic writings. He did not claim to be the inventor of powder, and
it is believed that he obtained his information from a book written by
Marcus Grcecus (Leiber Ignium), wherein was given not only the
ingredients, but also their proper proportions, or from another Arabic
writer mentioned by Hallam in his History of the Middle Ages, as
more clearly referring to gunpowder.

In the Gen too laws, supposed to be coeval with Moses, a passage
occurs which Halhead translates thus: " The magistrate shall not make
war with any deceitful machine, or with poisoned weapons, or with
cannon and guns, or any kind of firearms," and in the Sanscrit, which
has so long been a dead language, words are found answering to
firearms ("aigmaster — weapon of fire") and cannon ("shangtee —
killer of a hundred men at once.") As is well said by a learned

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1078 BEPORT OF ComflTTRE ON AWARDS.

writer, many of these statements are to be taken with some doubt as
to whether they refer to gunpowder or the celebrated '' Greek fire"
which was known to the rulers of Byzantium as early as the sev-
enth century, and its composition ordered by them to be kept a
state secret.
The Emperor Constantine, writing to his son, says:

Thou shouldst, above all thinjjs, direct your care and attention to the liquid fire
which is thrown by means of tubes, and, if the secret be asked of thee, as it has
often been of me, thou must refuse and reject this prayer, stating that this fire had
been shown and revealed by an angel to the great and holy Christian Emperor Con-
stantine. By this message, and by the angel himself, it was enjoined to him, accord-
ing to the testimony of our fathers and our forefathers, to prepare this fire but for
Christians only, and solely in this imperial city; never to divulge it or allow it U) be
shown to any nation whatever.

And to make certain of his successors' secrecy he caused to be engraved on the holy
table of the church of God curses against whoever should reveal it to a foreign nation.
He decreetl that the traitor should be considered unworthy of the name of Christian,
or of any trust or honor, and if poasessed of any dignity should be deprived thereof.
He proclaimed him anathematize<l forever; he declare<l him infamous, whosoever he
might be, emperor, primate, prince, or subject, who should attempt to violate this
law.

This was used in various forms, both as a liquid or semiliquid, and
also as a solid.

Records, however, exist showing that gunpowder, as then under-
stood, was known and used in China 700 years B. C, and, as some
claim, 1,600 years B. C. It is certain that it was known and used in
the East long before it was known to Europeans, and that it was
brought from the East into Europe during the Crusades. The article
as known and used in the early days was not, however, the gunpowder
of the present day, but was similar to that used in rockets and other
fireworks. Indeed, the guns and powder used in those days by the
Chinese and other Eastern nations partook much more of the nature
of fireworks than of modern firearms, they seeming to rely more on
frightening their opponents by the fire and noise than on disabling
them by the projectiles, some even claiming that they did not use
projectiles.

According to Jervis it was not until about 1364 that ''corned" or
granulated gunpowder was invented by Berthold Schwartz, a monk of
Cologne — an invention that was as important as the original discovery
of powder, as it imparted to gunpowder a propellant force hitherto
unknown, and which specially adapted it for use in firearms. In fact,
so important was this invention that it has been claimed that he was
the original inventor of gunpowder, and a monument was erected to
his memory as such.

From the time when Schwartz made his invention down to a com-
paratively recent date, gunpowder remained essentially the same, there
being some improvement in its qualit}' and in the means used for its
manufacture. One recent and important American improvement was

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WORLD'8 COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1079

making it in the form of large grains
known as "pebble" powder, or in per-
forated blocks, by which its combustion
can be so regulated as to greatly increase
the muzzle velocity of projectiles fired
from large guns without increasing the
bursting strain on the gun.

Since the invention of guncotton and
many other more powerful explosives,
new kinds of powder have been invented,
the two principal kinds for sporting guns
being the Schultz powder of England and
the Ditmar powder of the United States.
Both are made of wood treated with
acids, the Schultz being formed from
wood pulp, and is granulated, while the
Ditmar is made from sawdust without
being reduced to a pulp. Both are used
in sporting guns.

For military arms, a new kind of pow-
der known as the "smokeless" or nitro-
powder of various makes is being intro-
duced and tested at the present time, and
it bids fair to work as great a revolution
in powder as there has been in arms.
Although mining was an ancient art,
gunpowder was not used for that purpose
until early in the eighteenth century, the
earliest mention of such use being in
1720. It is a singular fact that gunpow-
der was first used in cannon long before
small arms were invented. The records
show that it was thus used in the East long
before it was in Europe. Elliott, in his
index to the historians of Mohammedan
India, says that allusions to cannon are
made by Chased, a Hindu poet, who
wrote about 1200; he speaks of their
loud report, and of the noise of the ball
being heard a distance of 19 coss, or 1,465
yards. Mohammed Shah Bahmiani, A. D.
1368, captured 300 gun carriages, among
other spoil. The Portuguese, on their
arrival in the East in 1498, found artil-
leiT in common use, and apparently of
old date.

Fjg. 1.— Wooden cannon from Cochin
Chln^.

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1080 BEPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

In the Mua^e des Invalides, at Paris, is a Chinese cannon made of
wood, as shown in figure 1.

It is composed of two longitudinal pieces of wood held together by
14 iron rings. The breech plug is also of wood dovetailed into the
other pieces.

In the arsenal at Venice is a mortar of 18-inch bore composed of
several coils of hempen rope covered with a thick casing of leather;
and in the arsenal at Malta are preserved mortars made of paper with
a covering of leather. These are of Elastern origin, and are believed
to have been used at the time of the Crusades or before.

In 1308, at the siege of Gibraltar, Ferdinand IV, of Castile,
employed cannon, and in 1311 Ismail attacked Bazas, in Granada, with
'^machines throwing balls of fire with a noise resembling thunder."
The records also show the adoption in 1313 of —

A provision of the Republic of Florence granting to the priore, gonfalamarie,
and 12 elders the power to appoint 2 officers, intrusted with making iron shot and
metal cannon for the defense of the castles and villages of the Republic.

At the siege of Constantinople in 1413, Mahomed II had a cast-iron
gun of 48-inch caliber, throwing a stone ball of 600 pounds, and,
according to Amelgord, at the siege of Caen, in 1460, there were 24
great bombards, having a diameter at the muzzle so large that a man
could sit upright in the bore.

In 1478, Mahomed II, at the siege of Santaria, in Albania, used
bombards which threw stone balls weighing, respectively, 370, 500, 760,
860, 1,200, 1,500, and 1,640 pounds, the latter nearl/ equaling the
weight of the shot of the 110-ton gun of the present day. According
to the statement of General Lefoy, a French engineer, the stone Imlls
used on that occasion weighed about 1,000 tons, while he estimates the
amount of powder used at 250 tons. These balls were cut from the
solid rock on the spot, and he estimates their dressed surfaces to
amount to about 32,000 square feet.

. The United States Government is in possession of a bronze Chinese
cannon, captured from the Koreans by Rear- Admiral Rogei*s in 1871,
bearing an inscription, which, as translated by the Chinese minister
shows that it was made in 1312. It is a short breech-loading wall
piece, of 2-inch caliber. This tends to confirm the statement of
Captain Parish, who visited China, and who says that —

Two thousand years af^>, the Chinese used jingals, or wall guns, or some firearm
of that kmd; and that in the embrasures in the great wall, built about 221 years
B. C. he found small holes similar to those used in Europe "for the reception of the
swivels of wall pieces, and that they appeared to be a part of the original construction."

Monsieur Parvey, in his report to the Academy des Sciences in 1850,
says that it is mentioned in the books of the Chinese that —

In 608 B. C, during the Taing-off dynasty, they used cannon bearing the inscrip-
tion, *'I hurl death to the traitor and extermination to the rebel."

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Cannon appear to have been introduced into Europe early in the
thirteenth century. The records show that Seville was defended by
cannon throwing stone balls in 1247. Mibela, in Spain, was also
defended by "a machine resenabling cannon" in 1259, and in 1273,
Abou Yousof, at the siege of Sidgil-messa, used cannon throwing
stone balls.

Fio. 2.— Early breech-loading cannon.

In 1338, among the stores of the hulk, Christopher of the Totoer of
London^ were three iron cannon with five chambers, and in the barge
Marie de la Tour^ was one iron gun with two chambers, and another
of brass with one chamber.

Most of these earlier cannon appear to have been breechloaders,
and the chambers above mentioned were the breech closers, which had
a chamber in their front end for the reception of the powder. (See
Figs. 2 and 3.)

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REPORT OP COMMITTEE ON AWABD8.

Among those who gave much attention to the art of war and war-
like implements was Leonardo da Vinci of Italy, who not only
designed many improvements in artillery, but also demonstrated the
resistance of the air to the flight of projectiles, and the curvature of
their trajectory. Even the steam gun, which was reinvented in i-ecent
years, and which at the beginning of our war, in 1861, was brought
out by Winans, of Baltimore, with glowing expectations, was devised
by this restless genius about 1502. It is illusti-ated b}'^ the accompany-
ing figure (figure 4), and was thus described:

This is a brass machine which throws iron shot with great noise and violence. It
is thus used. The third of this instrument consists in a great quantity of charcoal
fire. When the water is very hot you must tighten the screw over the vase where
the water is; and, by tightening the screw above, ail the water will escape below,

Fig. 3.— Brecch-loading cannon of the fourteenth century.

falling into the heated part of the instrument, and will immediately turn into steam
so abundant and strong that it will be marvelous to see the fury of this smoke, and to
hear the noise it produces. This machine throws a ball of the weight of a talent
and six.

The first mention of their use in England was by Edward III in
1327, and, as stated b}^ Greener, they were imported from Flandei*8.
Within ten years thereafter they appear to have l)ecome well known
and common in Spain, Ttaly, France, and Germany.

Some of the earlier European cannon were made of bars of iron held
together by bands. One now in possession of the United States Gov-
ernment, that was brought up by a dredging machine from the bed of
the Hudson River at Albany in 1879, is thus described:

It is made of wrought iron, with projecting bands around the barrel. The bore runs
from a calibre of 2 inches at the breech to 4 inches at the muzzle. The breech-closer
is a block having a handle at the top, and a chamber for the powder in its front por-
tion, which was re<luced in diameter to fit in the bore, where it was fastened by a
wedge or key driven through holes in the sides of the breech.

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WOBLD^S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 18d3.

1083

precisely as in the Chinese cannon captured from the Koreans, herein-
before mentioned. It is believed to date back to early in the four-
teenth century, and is said to be like the English cannon of that date.
Its construction is similar to that shown in figure 2.

The improvement made in gunpowder soon after its introduction
into Europe necessitated a change in the structure of cannon. They

Fig. 4.— Steam gun, about 1502.

were made much stronger, generally muzzle loading and largely of
brass or bronze, in which latter the German, French, and Spanish
nations appear to have taken the lead. The first record of the use of
brass for this purpose is of the date of 1378, when a founder named
Aram, at Augsberg, in Germany, cast 30 cannon of a metal composed
of copper and tin.

There are numerous records of the use of cannon in Europe from
1325 to 1365, but it is unnecessary to refer to them, as the present
object is simply to trace the origin of firearms and show the various
steps by which they have been brought to their present high state of
eflSciency.

SMALL ARMS.

The date of the origin of small or portable arms is as diflScult to fix

FiQ. 6.— Earliest form of portable arms.

definitely as is that of cannon. One writer says they were first pro-
duced by the Italians in 1430, but mention is made in the Chronicles
of Boulogne in 1397 of "hand cannon," or, as they are designated,
"sclopos," and subsequently "sclopeto," and hence '' escopette,"
"escopeta," etc. Valturius, who wrote in Latin, speaks of them
as machines of war used by the Romans of antiquity, and he called

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REPORT OF OOMMITI'EE ON AWARD8.

Fig. 6.— Italian hand bomborde.

them ballista, from the name of the ancient ballistes of the Roman
armies. They were also termed bombards, hand cannon, and cul-
verins. At first they were simply small cannon fastened to a stick
and fired from the ground, their front end being supported by a
crutch or rest, as shown in the accompanying cut, figure 5.

This may have been the
kind of small arms men-
tioned as having been
used at the battle of
Creecy in 1346. They
were sometimes made
conical with a stem or
handle at the rear end, as
shown in figure 6.
The object of making
the bore conical, as stated by one writer, was to enable them to fire
balls of various sizes. Stone balls were generally used, and when it
was proposed to substitute leaden balls they were objected to on the
ground that they would sink into the earth when they struck, whereas
the stone balls would rebound,
and thus might wound more
of the enemy. These state-
ments will give to the reader
a good idea of the inefficiency
of the firearms of those days.
One of the first, if not the
first, form of a gun to be fired
from the shoulder is shown in
the accompanying cut (fig. 7).
As will readily be seen, it con-
sisted of a conical tube fas-
tened to a notched stick which
rested upon the shoulder. The
next change was to give a bend
to the stock in order to bring
the barrel more readily in line
with the eye, as shown in fig.
8. These arms still had their
touchhole on top like ordinary
cannon, and were fired by a
match carried in the hand, as
represented in fig. 9, which also shows the manner of using them on
horseback.

As these early arms were generally too heavy to be held at anil's
length, they were usually provided with a support, termed a crutch,
the crutc^h, in the ease of mounted men, being secured to-pr resting

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1085

on the pommel of the saddle. Soon, however, they were improved by
the addition of one or more sights, with the touchhole at the side, and

Fig. 8. — Early hand gun, with crutch or rest.

with a pan to hold the priming, and finally, by the addition of the
matchlock, which in its earliest form consisted simply of a bent lever

Fig. 9.— Early hand gun as used on horseback.

pivoted to the stock to hold the burning match, and by which the
latter was thrown down upon the priming in the pan to ignite the

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REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

charge. The accompanying cut (figure
10) represents one of the earliest forms
of the matc».hlock arquebus.

The guns used by the followers of
Columbus and those who succeeded
him, and which inspired the natives
with so much awe, were doubtless
matc^hlocks, as neither the wheel lock
nor the flint lock was invented until
subsequently. A curious arm of this
class was brought from China to New
York in 18(>1, by W. S. Livingston,
an American residing at Shanghai.
After the capture of the Peiho forts
by the English troops, Mr. WiLson
visited the place, and there found that
the Chinese had laid down a large
number of these guns to form a cor-
duroy road, and he dug up this one
and brought it home with him. The
barrel was 8 feet long and weighed 22f
pounds, the whole weight of the gun
being 28 pounds. It was termed a
'^ Jingal," and according to the state-
ment, was used as shown in the cut, fig-
ure 11. In the exhibit in the United
States Government building was one
of these guns, the barrel of which was
14 feet long. It was brought from
India, and kindly loaned to Captain
Russell, in charge of the Government
exhibit, by Messrs. Tillery & Co.,
agents for an India house. Some have
expressed the belief that the Chinese
used this kind of gun long before Euro-
peans had small arms, but there is no
recoixl to show it, and it is quite prol)-
able that they obtained the knowledge
of them from eastern Europe. The
weight of some of these guns is shown
by the statement that ''Charles VIII,
of France, in his expedition to Naples
took with him 140 heavy guns, 200
bombards, and 1,000 arquebuses, each
weighing 50 pounds."

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Small arms appear to have
spread in Europe almost as
rapidly after their introduc-
tion as did cannon. They
were used in towns much
sooner than in the field.
About 1364 the town of
Perouse had ordered to be
made "500 small cannon, a
palm long, to be fired from
the hand." (A Roman palm
is 8i inches.)

In 1381 the town of Augs-
burg had "30 men armed
with hand cannon," and the
records show that in 1471,
when Eklward IV landed at
Ravenspur in Yorkshire, he
brought with him "300
Flemings armed with hand
guns." These were followed
by the musket, which was a
larger and more powerful
modification of the arque-
bus, and at first was fired
with a crut(*h or rest. It
was in use in Italy in 1530,
in France in 1570, and in
England prior to 1590. The
caliver and fusil were sim-
ply lighter varities of the
musket. The carabine or
carbine was a short caliber
with a large bore, and the
blunderbus (or thunderbus)
was still shorter with a
larger bore.

The pistol was a miniature
arquebus. It was common
in Germany about 1512,
was adopted by the French
cavalry about 1550, and
reached England a few years
later. The petronel occu-
pied a position midway

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1088 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

between the arquebus and the pistol, and was known in England as
early as 1580, as was also the dag which was a long pistol of large bore
with a curved stock.

According to Boutell, the names of animals were generally bestowed
on ordnance, as the falcon, and its diminutive, the falconet, the musket
deriving its name from the male young of the sparrow hawk, while
the pistol is supposed to be so called because when first made its caliber
corresponded with the diameter of the coin, pistole. There was also
an arm known as the dragon, a kind of blunderbus used by mounted
men, which gave to them the name of dragoneers, whence was derived
the term dragoons, while grenadiers were soldiers who threw small
shells or hand grenades. The scorpion discharged envenomed darts,
and the onagar, a machine for hurling stones, derived its name from
the wild ass of the desert, which was supposed to throw up stones with
its heels when pursued.

ICSANB FOR EXPLODING THE CHABGB.

At first firearms were discharged by means of a match carried in
the hand, and which consisted of a piece of small rope soaked in a
solution of saltpeter, so it would burn slowly and for a long time.
This was succeeded by the matchlock, invented by the Germans about
1424. Then came the wheel lock, invented by the Germans about 1509,
which was first applied to the carabine, a sort of a pistol, first used by
the German cavalry against the French in 1554, much to the astonish-
ment of the latter. It was soon applied to the arquebus or infantry
arm. It consisted of a steel wheel made to rotate by a chain wound
on its arbor and drawn by a spring, the flint being held on the wheel
by a cock, which could be turned back when the lock was wound up by
a key or crank applied to the projecting end of the axis, the same as a
clock is wound up. A sample in the possession of the writer is also
provided with a safety bolt, by which it is prevented from being fired
until the bolt is withdrawn — ^a device that has been reinvented and
applied in many forms to modern arms, both sporting and military.
This was succeeded by the "snaphaunce" or flint rock, too well known
to require description. Grose says, it originated with the Dutch about
1580, and is said to have been brought into use by a class of marauders
termed " snaphaans" — hen stealers — who could not afford wheel locks,
and dare not carry lighted matches for fear of detection. Locks were
also made which combined both the match and the wheel, so that in
case one failed the other might be used. The rebounding gun lock
now in such general use in sporting arms, was of American invention,
having been first patented in the United States in 1870. It was first
embodied in a gun by the writer, and which is still in his possession.

The discovery of the fulminate of mercury by Bayen, of France, in
1774. opened the way for the invention of the fulminate since used for

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igniting the gunpowder used in firearms. This was the invention of
Alexander John Forsythe, a Scotch clergyman, who patented it in
Great Britain, April 11, 1807. It was first used in the form of pow-
der, and was ignited by a punch, and hence the term punch lock.
Subsequently it was used in the shape of small pellets, tenned '' pills,"
which were ignited by the blow of the hanmier of the lock, guns made
to use pilLs still being found among old arms in the United States and
elsewhere. It was also used in the form of pellets secured between
two strips of paper in small tubes and with various other devices.

A great many patents were also taken for magazines in the lock and
on the barrels of guns for holding and feeding the pellets or other
forms of fulminate to effect the discharge, one such being the United
States patent to Walter Hunt in 1848. These, however, never came
into general use, and were superseded by the percussion cap, which at
first was made of paper. The copper cap was invented in 1818, but by
whom it is difficult to tell, as it was claimed by nearly every gun maker
in England. It was introduced into the United States by Joshua
Shaw, of England, in 1842, who was paid $18,000 for it by the Gov-
ernment, although he could not patent it here, as the law at that time
did not permit the grant of a patent to an alien. This and the gran-
ulation of powder were two of the most important inventions ever
made in reference to firearms, and the percussion cap in one form or
another is universally used in small arms and rapid-fire guns to the
pi-esent day, but is applied to the metallic cartridge instead of the nip-
ple of the gun. With heavy guns a friction primer, invented by Cos-
ton, in the United States, in 1845 or 1846, was formerly used, but is
now being superseded by electricity.

RIFLED GUNS.

The greatest improvement in firearms was the rifling of the bore.
This was first done at Vienna about 1498. At first, however, the
rifling consisted of straight V-shaped grooves, which were adopted
simply as a means of more easily getting the ball down, and which
was driven down by a mallet in many cases, and as receptacles for the
residuum produced by the burning of the powder in the btfrrel. Such
rifling was of little or no value. A gun maker of Nuremburg, in
about 1523, first gave to the grooves a spiral form, by which a rota-
tion is imparted to the projectile around its center of gravity, thereby
vastly increasing the accuracy of its flight and enabling elongated pro-
jectiles to be fired without tumbling, the rapid rotation keeping them
end on.

The first general use of rifled small arms is said to have been by the
American colonists in their contests with the Indians, and in the Revo-
lutionary war, in which the American riflemen gained great renown.

In Berlin is a rifled cannon of 1664, and in Munich is another of i^er-

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haps equal antiquity. The French carbineers had rifled arms in 1692.
Kobbins, in his treatise published in 1734, strongly urged the adop-
tion of rifles, and also that they be made breech-loading; but it has
taken over a century and a quarter to convince military officials of
their advantages, though now their use is universal.

THE VARIOUS KINDS OF SMALL ARMS.

Want of space forbids a description of the various forms in which
small arms were made; but, in addition to those already mentioned it
may be stated that a series of barrels or guns were mounted in a frame
on wheels, with a shield in front to protect the men, and that in addi-
tion long spears were sometimes interposed and made to project in
front. Pistols were also applied to shields with their muzzles pix)-
truding through a hole at the center. They were also applied to the
handles of swords, battle-axes, and other warlike implements, and
also to the butt of a heavy whip carried by mounted men.

REVOLVING FIREARMS.

Revolving firearms were made early in the fifteenth century, there
being many specimens of them in the various museums of Europe,
some with matchlocks, others with wheel locks, and one with a flint-
lock, with devices for drawing back the covers of the powder pans as
they are brought successively to the top by the rotation of the cylinder.

A curious revolver was patented by James Puckle in England in
1717. The chambers extend entirely through the cylinder, like those
of the present da}^ and the charges were placed in metallic charge
holders which were inserted in these chambers, apparently from the
front. The cylinder was rotated by a crank, but how fired it is impos-
sible to tell, the patentee, who appears to have been an excessively
loyal man, saying that he would not give the details lest the enemies
of the king might learn how to construct the arm. It is represented
as of large size, mounted on a tripod with a swivel which permitted it
to be turned in any direction, and was provided with means for adjust-
ing the barrel vertically at any desired angle. One of the curious
features of this arm was that it was provided with round chambers
for shooting round balls against Christians, and square chambere for
shooting square balls against infidels. Revolving firearms, however,
were not a success, and did not come into general use until the inven-
tion of Colonel Colt, who obtained his first patent in England in 1835
and in the United States in 1836, but did not perfect his arm until
1845. Since then they have come into universal use, both for military
and private use. The features which made Colt's revolver a success
were the mechanism by which the cylinder was rotated in the act of
cocking the hammer and the means for locking the cylinder when
rotated, so as to bold the chamber to be fired in exact Une with the
barrel.

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An English author has claimed that Colt's invention was anticipated
by a revolver in the Tower of London, of which he gives an illustra-
tion, but in that the cylinder is rotated by the falling of the hanuner.
a plan that is utterly unreliable, because in that case the mainspring
has not only to operate the hammer but also to rotate the cylinder,
which it would never do with certainty, especially when obstructed by
foulness or rust, as is genei^ally the case. By Colt's invention the
cylinder is rotated positively by the power of the hand in the act of
cocking, this power being more or less as may be required, thus leav-
ing nothing for the mainspring to do but to operate the hammer. It
was just this diflFerence, which the writer had failed to observe, that
converted failure into success, and which justly entitled Colt to the
credit he received as the real inventor of a successful revolving firearm.

The extractor now in general use on revolvers was invented by the
writer in 1861, and patented by him in 1865. The ingenious mechan-
ism by which its action is rendered automatic on opening the arm was
devised and applied by Smith & Wesson.

MAOAZINB OR REPEATING GUNS.

Magazine or repeating guns, although but recently adopted for
military use, have been known for many years. The first in the
United States was patented by Day in 1837, and others, followed by
Hunt in 1849, Smith in 1851, and by Smith & Wesson in 1854, the
latter being the foun4ation of the celebrated ''Winchester" of the
present day.

HAMMERLE8S GUNS.

Although what is known as "hammerless" guns — that is, guns
in which the hammer is concealed by being located inside the frame —
have but recently come into general use, they are of early date, speci-
mens still being preserved in the museums of Europe, of the wheel
lock and other varieties. The term is a misnomer, as the so-called
*' hammerless " guns are provided with hammers inside instead of
outside of the frame. ''Concealed hammer" would be a much more
accurate term.

BREAKDOWN OR DROP-BARREL GUNS.

This style of gun, which is used exclusively for sporting purposes,
dates back to 1812, it having been patented in France by Pauley at
that date and in England in 1816. He proposed to apply the idea to
both cannon and small arms, but his plan never came into use; first,
because he pivoted the barrel on trunnions at the sides, which neces-
sitated forming the rear end of the barrel and the front face of the
breech piece in the arc of a circle, and which it was difficult to
construct with accuracy in the then condition of metal-working
machinery; second, because, although he proposed to use a metal case

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for the powder, it was simply a tube with a wooden head or " rosette,"
and could not be rendered gastight and secure. He proposed to close
the joint and render it gastight by the use of a ring of lead which
was to be forced into the joint around the head of his shell by the
explosive force of the charge, similar to Morse's cartridge patented
in the United States in 1856, but which also never came into use. He
proposed to ignite the charge by the compression of air by means of
a small piston.

To M. Lafaucheux, of Paris, is due the credit of having rendered
this style of arm practiciCble in 1835, and so valuable were his improve-
ments that they were universally adopted for double-barreled shot-
guns. Lafaucheux was a workman with Pauly at Paris, and in 1835
he submitted to the Society for the Encouragement of National Indus-
try his improved gun and cartridge, on which an elaborate and eulo-
gistic report was made by Baron Siguier, chairman of the committee
of mechanical arts. His improvement consisted primarily in hinging
the barrels to the frame at their underside, whereby a flat-faced verti-
cal breech shoulder could be used, the rear end of the barrels being
cut square oflF to fit against it when closed — in securing the barrels
firmly to the frame by lugs on the underside of the barrels and locking
the barrels in position by a lever — features which, with some varia-
tions, have continued in use to the present day. He also submitted a
military gun firing a charge of 70 gmins of powder, which was tested
and favorably reported on by M. Oliver, chairman of the committee
appointed to test his guns. His other, and perhaps more important
invention, consisted in making a cartridge shell which would, by its
expansion and pressure against the walls of the barrel by the force of
the gases within it, make an absolutely gas-tight joint at the instant of
the discharge. In speaking of this feature, the report, after alluding
to the leakage of gas in prior breech-loading guns, says:

The flexible edges of this hat (brass cup) dilating at the moment of explosion, and
applying itself to the sides of the barrel with such exactness that henceforth the
slightest escape of gas becomes impossible.

This method, which is as simple as it is ingenious, and which an observing mind
has known how to borrow from the hydraulic press to make of it a happy applica-
tion, deserves to fix your attention. We look upon it as one of the most useful
improvements applied for a long time to sporting arms which are loaded at the
breech; for by its use the combination of closures which are less exact, will be safe
from the escape of gas, and henceforth it will not be the exactitude but only the
solidity of the closure which renders the problem of the manufacture of arms with
broken breech difficult to solve.

So far as can be found from a careful search of the records, this is
the first description of the principle on which all metallic cartridges
operate, and which rendered breech-loading guns practicable. The
same idea was described in the United States patent to D. Minnessinger,
in 1849, who had no knowledge of what Lafaucheux had done.

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I have dwelt upon this, because all a^ree that this invention is of as
great importance as that of loading at the breech, and because the
credit of it has been claimed in recent official publications for other
parties, and of much more recent date.

In 1871 the writer invented means for compensating for the wear
of the pai-ts, by which the barrels can be always kept tight on the
frame, a feature since adopted by several makers of this style of gun.

THE BAYONKT.

As to the origin of the bayonet, there is as much uncertainty as to
that of small arms. Most writers have stated that it originated with
the French at Bayonne in 1682, and hence the name bayonet. It was,
however, known in Fitince as early as 1570, and was in common use
there on firearms in 1640, it being used by troops instead of the pike.
At first it was simply a dagger, the handle of which was stuck into the
muzzle of the gun. Who fii"st made it with a socket to fit over the
barrel, so that the gun could be fired with the bayonet on, is uncer-
tain. Its origin "has been accredited to Vauban of France, 1633-1707;
Mackey of England, 1691; and to Coehorn of Holland, 1704. In
Coehom's writings on the Dutch army in 1681 we find this statement:
"This bayonet devised by me can be so fastened on the musket that
it does not interfere with shooting," etc. There was, however, a
strong contest between him and a Dutch engineer, Capt. L. Paen,
with regard to the credit for the invention of the socket. In the
Culeman collection at Hanover is a wheel gun of the sixteenth cen-
tury with a bayonet having a socket, and in the sixteenth century a
baj^onet having two rings, by which it was secured to the staif of a
lance, was used. With the modern improvements in long-range fire-
arms, the bayonet, which in Napoleon's time was so important, has
now become of little account as a weapon.

THE MANUFACTURB OF FISBARM8.

Formerly this work was performed almost entirely by hand, while
at the pi-esent time it is performed almost wholly by machinery, and
which was rendered possible only by the invention of the "inter-
changeable" system, or the making of the pai-ts in exact duplication
so that any one part would fit equally well in any and all guns of the
same make. It is uncertain who first conceived the idea, but it appeai-s
to have originated in France as early as 1722. The plan was tried on
gunlocks by order of the Government for about ten years, and then
abandoned. The plan of thus making gunlocks was taken up by M.
Blanc, superintendent of the royal manufactory of arms at St. Etienne
about 1778, but met with great opposition from the skilled workmen
and others; and though his plan was indorsed by a committee of the
Academy Royal des Sciences, it was condemned by a military commis-

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sion, on the grouni that it was expensive and inexpedient. In 1797-
1798 he engaged in the business of thus making gunlocks on his own
account. Prior to this, however, in 1790, Eli Whitney, the inventor
of the cotton gin, who had taken a contract to manufacture muskets
for the United States Government, conceived the idea, and applied it
to the entire arm. The idea is believed to have been entirely original
with Whitney, who appears to have had no knowledge of the efforts
of others in that line. He encountered great difficulty in carrying
out his idea, mainly because of the nonexistence at that time of suit-
able machinery for doing the work, much of which he had to devise
and make for himself. The system was adopted in the United States
arsenals as early as 1814, and since then by all private manufacturers
in the United Sbites, not only for firearms but for many other arti-
cles of metal. This system was introduced into England from the
United States in 1850, a set of machinery for the manufacture of
Enfield rifles being made at Windsor, Vt., by Lawrence and oth-
ers, for the British Government. Nearly all the machinery used for
that purpose is of American invention; and the high degree of effi-
ciency to which these various machines have been brought excites the
astonishment of all who witness their operations for the first time,
most of them being automatic and requiring the workman only to put
in and take out the pieces of metal being operated upon, start the
machine, and keep the tools in order.

Another importaiit invention was the lathe for turning irregular
forms, by which the stocks of nearly all firearms, as well as man}'^
other articles, are now made. This was the invention of Thomas
Blanchard, of Massachusetts, who patented it in 1819.

CARTRIDGES.

Originally the powder and bullets used in firearms were carried
separately, the former in flasks or horns, and the latter in bags. About
1550 "bandoleers" were introduced, consisting of shoulder belts, from
which were suspended a series of small cases, each containing a charge.

To Gustavus Adolphus history gives the credit of first devising a
cartridge by uniting the powder and ball in a paper case in 1630, and
in that form they continued to be used for military arms down to a
recent period.

Although metallic cartridges were not adopted by the United States
Government until 1808, they are of a much earlier origin. Charge
chambers, made of solid metal bored out to contain the powder, were
shown as early as 1718, and in American patents for breech-loading
guns as early as 1839.

Shells of brass or copper for small arms seem to have originated with
the French, the earliest being shown in the patent of Galay Cazelat of
1827. It is shown as a tapered shell with a central recess or pocket in

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the head, in which the fulminate was placed, and ignited by the friction
of a needle operated by a spiral spring, similar to that of the German
needle gun. The cartridge is described as " a very thin brass envelope
(cylinder) in one single piece without soldering." It is also provided
with a radial flange at the rear end. How made it is impossible to tell
with certainty. So far as can be learned from the meager description,
the head is thought to have been a separate piece placed loosely against
the rear end, and held in place by a small piece of parchment tied over
it, and which he says was to protect the fulminate from moisture. Such
a cartridge would obviously be of no use with the charges used in
modern arms.

DRAWN METALLIC SHBLI^.

The first jecord of a cartridge shell drawn up from sheet metal by
machinery, as is now the universal custom, appears to be that of an
American by the name of Palmer, who, in 1854, at Paris, submitted to
the Society for the Encouragement of National Industry a machine
for that pui-pose. It was reported upon by a committee, and is illus-
trated in the journal of the society, but he does not appear to have
patented it at home or abroad.

A great deal was done by the French in devising breech-loading sport-
ing guns, and cartridges for the same, from 1845 to 1860, but the
shells used were of paper with brass heads, generally of the pin variety,
although as early as 1853 they were described in patents as being made
of metal, and with a primer set in a central recess or pocket in the
head, somewhat similar to those now in geneml use.

Drawn or punched-up copper shells appear to have beeij;used by
Flobert in small rifles, and by Lafaucheux in revolvers as early as 1853.
The first in the United States was a center-fire copper cartridge
patented by Smith & Wesson in 1854; and in that year small rim-fire
cartridges were made by D. B. Wesson, at Springfield, Mass., and by
Allen of Worcester, about 1861.

The first factory for the manufacture of metallic cartridges of
various sizes for aU kinds of small arms was established at South
Coventry, Conn., by Messrs. Crittenden & Tibballs about 1862. In
1864 they were succeeded by what is now the Union Metallic Cartridge
Company of Bridgeport, Conn., where, under the supervision of
Hobbs, who became famous by picking the Bramah and other locks at
the English Exhibition, thej^ began the manufacture on a large scale,
both for sporting and military arms, their fii-st foreign contract being
9,000,000 for the Russian Government. Prior to that, in 1858, the
New Haven Arms Company, subsequently reorganized as the Win-
chester Repeating Arms Company, made rim-fire copper shells of 44
caliber; and in 1870 the latter company erected an extensive plant for
the manufacture of all styles and sizes of metallic cartridges. Various

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other establishments have also made them, especially one at Lowell,
Mass., but the Union Metallic Cartridge Company and the Winches-
ter Repeating Arms Company manufacture the great mass of those
used in the United States, and send large quantities to Canada and
other countries. At first these cartridges were made of copper, and
were rim fire, but brass was soon substituted because of its greater
elasticity and consequent less liability to stick in the chamber after
being fired, and they were made center fire by fitting a short cap or
primer in a pocket formed in the center of the head or base of the
shell. As the charge of powder was increased, much difficulty was
encountered by the bursting of the shells at the rim, there often being
slight fractures caused by forcing down the metal to form the
rim, these being imperceptible to the naked eye. Many improve-
ments were adopted to remedy this defect, the principal one being the
insertion of a metallic cup and pasteboard wads as a reenforce to the
head and flange, a plan devised by the French as early as 1850 or
before.

About 1869 the solid-headed shell was invented, which has proven
to be one of the most important improvements in metallic cartridge
shells ever made. This is accomplished by using thicker metal for the
shell, and instead of folding the metal to form the flange, it is formed
by a pressure sufficient to cause the solid metal to flow outward into
the annular recess of the die, thereby producing a head and flange of
solid metal; and in addition the walls were made thicker near the base.
This form of shell was patented by Hotchkiss, of the United States, in
1869. The machinery for making these appears to have been almost,
if not entirely, of American origin; and soon after the business was
commenced by the Winchester Company, improvements were made
which render them piuctically automatic, an attendant being required
simply to keep the machines supplied with material, and see that they
do not get out of order. The extent to which improvements have been
carried may be seen when I state that solid-headed brass shells are now
made for lapid-fire guns, from 4 to 8 inches in diameter, and from 2
to 4 feet in length, they being drawn up from a single piece of sheet
brass. Such shells of 4-inch diameter were shown in the exhibit of
the Union Metallic Cartridge Company and in the French exhibit, and
4 to 8 inch shells in the exhibit of the Winchester Repeating Arms
Company. The manufacture of these shells, like that of making tire-
arms with their parts interchangeable, was introduced into Europe
from the United States, the first set of machinery for that pui^pose
having been sent to Russia by Governor Winchester in 1878.

In consequence of the refusal of the ocean steamers to carry car-
tridges, as they^ were supposed to be dangerous, Governor Winchester,
in order to supply cartridges for his guns abroad, arranged with parties
to manufacture the cartridges in Europe; but after trying it they failed.

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On sending one of his skilled operators over there to ascertain what the
difficulty was, he found that the trouble arose from the simple fact
that they did not anneal the shells during the half dozen or more opera-
tions, each operation of drawing and working the metal hardening and
crystallizing it, so that when the flange was finally formed the metal
cracked. He erected an annealing apparatus and showed them when
and how to anneal them, and thereafter they had no trouble. Soon
after trials were made by placing boxes of loaded cartridges on rail-
road tracks and running ears over them, and in other ways, by which
it was demonstrated that they could be shipped with safety, and they
are now shipped to all parts of the world.

OPPOSITION TO FIREARMS AND IMPROVBMSNTB.

In looking back over the history of firearms the fact which now
strikes the mind with the greatest force is the slowness with which
improvements have been adopted. But this is nothing new. In fact,
when firearms were first introduced into England there was strong
prejudice against their use in any form.

Says Deane, in his Manual of Arms:

So tenaciously, indeed, was this predilection for the long bow evinced in England
that as late as the reign of Elizabeth, when firearms had become elsewhere of uni-
versal use, the prejudice against them was so strong that the general opinion expressed
itself openly against their use; and to strengthen the popularity of this prejudice, it
was even vested with a religious garb; for at that x)eriod in England the extension
of the use of firearms was considered in the light of a very calamity, and people were
found who prophesied the downfall of the state itself from their more general intro-
duction. Not only during the reign of Elizabeth was the use of the favorite bow the
popular theme, and a treatise thereon written by Robert Aschan, 1589, but as late
even as the days of Cromwell, Jervase Markham, 1634, wrote upon the subject,
exhorting the Government to return to the use of the bow, and reestablish the archer-
militia of England. And no less a person than Blaise de Vigenere, in his Art Militaire,
1503, contended that the long and cross bows were more effectual weapons than fire-
arms. The philanthropist, Michael Montaigne, also predicted that he would live to
see the abolition of firearms, while the French General Latrille declared the time
would come when artillery would only be used for the defense of fortresses.

Says the author of the Hand Book of Hythe:

Although the rifiing of the gun barrels was discovered almost as early as was this
continent, aud though more than a quarter of a century ago Robins fully pointed out
nearly every improvement since made in the rifie, even to the elongated ball and
breech loading, still it was only within the past few years that the rifle has been
introduced into general use as a military arm, so slow were military men to see or
acknowledge its superiority. So, too, after the match had been supplanted by the
pyrite or wheel lock, and that again by the fiint, it was with the greatest difficulty
that the latter could be diBplace<l by the percussion cap. So strong was the prejudice
in favor of the fiint that the percussion principle was in general use in France for
nearly half a century before it was adopted in England, although invented in the
latter country.

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he was compelled to resort in order to convince people of the supe-
riority of percussion over flintlocks, and that, too, within comparatively
recent years.
Scoff ern, in speaking this opposition, says:

In proportion as the manufacture of small arms improved, their advantages could
not fail to be in some degree appretdated. Prejudice, nevertheless, strongly oper-
ated against their general application. Indeed, the prejudice against even cannon
was at first very strong on the part of the knights. The introduction of cannon was
a sad blow to their chivalry. Loudly did they protest i^inst the villainous salt-
peter; loudly they inveighed against such unknightly modes of fight. The force of
public opinion, however, was too strong for their prejudices. * * * But when
the ungentle musket b^an to supplant the bow, what a terrible innovation was
there! Deep and loud were the execrations of the knights; low the mutterings of
the armorers, who began in near prospective to see their occupation gone. For a period
the strength of armor was increased; breastplates acquired the thickness of anvils;
helmets became like cooking pots; horses tottered under their heavy loads; and
knights were not infrequently smothered in the fray. It was useless longer to effect
disgust at innovations; the day of chivalry had passed; knights felt that they were
no longer the strength of the anny, nor did their armor secure them immunity
from injury and death. Gradually, then, manual weapons of firearms were univer-
sally employed; the soldier threw away his armor, the knight relinquished his lance,
rapid evolutions succeeded to the slow but ponderous charge, and the whole system
of war changed.

There were several reasons for this opposition. The haughty barons
opposed their general use by the populace, because it would increase
their power of defense, and to the same extent lessen the arbitrary
power exercised by the ruling class. Napoleon, in his preface to
his treatise on the Past and Future of Artillery, says there were two
reasons for the opposition by officials, first, the complication and
imperfection of the arm submitted, and, second, the opposition of
routine. He, however, lays the greatest blame upon the opposition
of routine, " which, being enamored with old ways, has preserved for
ages practices that are most stupid; and not only does routine scrupu-
lously preserve, like some sacred deposit, the errors of antiquity, but
it actually opposes, might and main, the most legitimate and the most
evident improvements." It was the same in the United States, for
although the Government soon after the war of 1812 adopted HalPs
breech-loading gun, patented in 1811, and had it made at Harpere
Ferry Armory in 1814, and in order to familiarize the people with it
Congress authorized one to be given to each member of Congress to
take home to show to his constituents, and although as improved by
Savage & North the Government had a large number of them made
for the cavalr}'^, some of which were used in the war with the Seminole
Indians and with Mexico, still when our war broke out in 1861 the
then Chief of Ordnance strenuously opposed the adoption of breech-
loaders, as did also the Secretaiy of War a few years before; and when,
in 1862, the writer tried to secure the adoption of breechloaders by

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the United States Government, and published a pamphlet showing
their advantages, he was denounced as a " crank."

The then Chief of Ordnance insisted that breech-loading and maga-
zine guns were utterly impracticable and unfit to put into the hands of
the common soldier, saying '' they would fire too fast and waste their
ammunition/^ and that ^'the best arm ever made was the old smooth-
bore flint-lock musket," adding that '4t was old Brown Bess and the
bayonet that decided battles." His successor in like manner opposed
them, and said that no nation had ever proposed to ann infantry with
breechloaders, notwithstanding the fact that the reports of Majors
Mordecai, McLelland, and Dellafield, wiio had been sent to Europe in
1858 to examine the arms and equipment of European troops, had
officially reported the fact that breechloaders were used in the Nor-
wegian navy; that one battalion of each regiment of the German aniiy
were armed with the needle gun, and they were running their works
day and night to provide them for the entire army; and that the Cente
guards at Paris were armed with a breech -loading metallic-cartridge
gun which had proven so effective that its adoption for the entire army
had been reconunended by the chief of ordnance. With the appoint-
ment of General Dyer as Chief of Ordnance there was a change.
Several of the subordinate officers of the Bureau were strongly in favor
of breechloaders, while the demand of the volunteers in the field was
unanimous for them, several regiments when asked to reenlist making
it a condition that they should have the improved guns, and offering
to pay the difference in cost out of their own pockets, so anxious were
they to have them.

From the first, the cavalry were armed with breech-loading carbines;
and the superiority of breechloaders over muzzle-loaders was so effect-
ively demonstrated by General Berdan's sharpshooter, who were
armed with Sharp's rifles, that the improved arms were gradually
adopted.

The earliest use of breechloaders by infantry in our late war, was
by a rifle company in the first regiment of three months volunteers
from Connecticut, raised by Senator Hawley, in the spring of 1861,
who purchased 75 Sharp's rifles for the men on his own responsi-
bility.

The firat repeating guns used were 1,200 Henry magazine guns
oixiered for Colonel Baker's regiment of cavalry, raised in the District
of Columbia, and several regiments of infantry were subsequently
armed with them, and they were used in Sherman's march to the sea,
and elsewhere.

About the same time the Spencer repeating ann made its appear-
ance, and was used with such effect, especially by General Wilder's
brigade of mounted infantry, that a contract for 70,000 was made by
the Department, but the}^ were not delivered until after the war

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1100 . REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

closed. In the meantime the Remington and various other styles of
breechloaders made their appearance, and so strong became the popu-
lar feeling that all opposition ceased, and soon after the close of the
war the Department officially adopted a breechloader. The opposi-
tion to magazine or repeating guns still continued however, the Chief
of Ordnance in his official report as late as 1886 recommending the
continuation of the use of the single breechloader in preference to any
repeating gun then in existence. The result is that now after every
nation in Europe has adopted repeating guns, nearly every one of
which is a mere modification of American inventions, our Government
has finally concluded to do the same.

It is a remarkable fact that nearly every invention adopted by the
Government, from the Monitor down to the latest improvement in a
gun or a cartridge, has originated with civilians, and has literally had
to tight its way against the opposition of officials. At the present
time, however, there seems to be a more friendly feeling toward
improvements, and several of the subordinate officers, both in the
Army and the Navy, have themselves made some valuable inventions
in their respective lines.

RECENT IMPROVEMENTS.

A vast number of improvements in breech-loading and repeating
arms have been devised, as was shown by the exhibits to which refer-
ence will be hereinafter made. The most important changes in mili-
tary arms have been the adoption of the breechloader and the metallic
cartridge, and now of the repeating arm with its magazine located cen-
trally, of which the Lee gun was the first, and the adoption of the
reduced caliber, both of which have now been adopted by the United
States and all European and South American Governments. The cal-
iber of military arms now ranges from 0.236 to 0.315 of an inch. The
bullets consist of a jacket or shell of sheet metal composed of copper
and nickel, filled with lead and antimony, though the jackets are some-
times made of steel, but this, being more liable to rust and injurious to
' the rifling unless patched, is not generally used. This style of bullet
is of American origin, it having been designed and used by the Win-
chester Repeating Arms Company in a trial of the Hotchkiss gun at
the Springfield Armor}'^ in 1879. One form of it was patented to
Leonard Geiger, the inventor of the Remington breechloader, in 1884,
and another form of it by T. G. Bennett, of the Winchester Repeat-
ing Arms Company, in 1886.

Another important change has been the adoption of the smokeless
powder, which is just coming into use. These improvements in small
arms bid fair to change materially the art of war, as the small caliber
bullets have a range of from 2 to 3 miles, and as shown bj^ recent
experiments, will pass through four or five men at 110 yards, and two
or three at 900 yards.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1101

As illustrating the great advance made, it may be stated that the
penetration of 12-inch pine boards was the capacity of the military
rifle at the commencement of our war in 1861; and when in 1863 one
was produced which penetrated 26-inch boards it was thought to be
something remarkable.

Within the past few years, at a trial at the Washington Navy-Yard^
a steel projectile 1.07 inches long, of 0.32-inch caliber, penetrated
solid iron 1.15 inches, fired at an angle of 80 degrees. It also pene-
trated 60 inches of pine boards, and its range is estimated at about
3 miles — much farther than an object of the size of a man can be
seen. This idea of a reduced ciiliber was advo(5ated by the writer in
1862, and a strong effort was made to induce the Sharps Rifle Com-
pany to adopt it; but at that time neither military men nor private
manufacturers could be induced to adopt it.

The improvements in ordnance or cannon has been equally great.
In 1732, 600 yards was considered a sufficient range for artillery. As
late as 1860 4 miles was considered a long range, and when, in 1863,
General Gilmore planted his "swamp angel" about 5 miles from
Charleston, a leading English paper ridiculed the idea, and said that
*'no gun had been made that could throw a projectile 5 miles."
Since that, so rapid has been the improvements in the construction of
cannon and in the powder used, that the whole aspect has been changed.
Steel has been substituted for cast iron, the length and the power of the
guns have been enormously increased. As illustrative of the advance
made since 1866, it may be stated that the penetration of iron armor
by our 16-inch cast-iron guns, the largest made, was but 6 inches at
the muzzle and but 3i inches at 1,500 yards. With the present
built-up steel guns, the penetration ranges from 8.04 inches for the
4-inch guns up to 36.42 inches for the 13-inch gun at 1,500 yards, and
32.32 inches at 2,500 yards.

In an experiment abroad it is reported that a 63-ton British gun sent
a 13i-inch projectile weighing 1,120 pounds through an 18-inch com-
pound plate, 6-inch wrought-iron plate, 20 feet of oak backing, another
lOJ-inch plate, and was found sticking in a 2-inch iron plate; that is,
34i of iron and 20 feet of oak. It is also reported that in a recent
trial one of the 110-ton British guns sent a 16-inch projectile through
20 inches of steel armor, 8 inches of iron, 20 feet of oak, 5 feet of
granite, 11 of concrete, and 3 feet of brick. A French 47-ton gun is
reported to have penetrated at short range 32.62 inches of steel armor,
and at 1,500 yards 19.69 inches. The great Krupp 124-ton gun with
its projectile weighing about 2,600 pounds will penetrate 3.53 feet of
wrought iron near the muzzle and 3.01 feet at 2,000 yards. Some of
these big guns use as much as 700 to 900 pounds of powder, and the
cost of firing them with their projectiles ranges from $1,000 to $1,500
at each discharge.

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1102 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

Aoother great improvement of recent date is what are termed
"rapid-fire guns." These are simply breechloaders using a metallic
cartridge, the same as in small arms. They are now made of all sizes
from 2 to 8 inch caliber, the brass shells for the latter being 4 feet
long. The breech mechanism of these guns has been so improved of
late that the 5 and 6 inch guns have been fired at the i*ate of 5 rounds
in 24 seconds, and in one instance 5 rounds in 17 seconds, thus having
from 3 to 5 shots in the air at once. As to the range of these modern
guns, it may be roughly stated at a mile per inch of caliber; that of
the 13-inch gun of the United States Navy being estimated at 13 miles,
and other sizes in proportion. In this line improvements are still
being made, the French having experimented with a 6.8-inch gun 90
calibers, or 47 feet 3 inches long, with 80 pounds of smokeless powder
and a 90-pound projectile, which gave a muzzle velocity of 3,900 feet
per second, with a pressure of but little over 16 tons per square inch.

In a wire-wound experimental American gun of 6-inch caliber, 19
feet 2 inches long, with American smokeless powder, a pressure of
75,000 pounds per square inch was obtained. One shot gave a muzzle
energy of 3,557 foot-tons or 857 tons of energy per ton of weight of
gun, or 169 foot-tons of energy per pound of powder. TLis it is said
exceeds any record yet obtained for any gun or powder.

When armor was first adopted it was a question as to whether guns
could be made of suflEicient power to penetrate the armor that a vessel
could carry; and it soon became a struggle between the thickness of
armor and the strength of the gun.

At first armor was composed of a series of thin iron plates, then of
thick iron plates, then of iron faced with steel, and all steel, and now
of nickel-steel, and finally of nickel-steel "Harveyed" — that is, hard-
ened on its face by the Harvey process, by which its power of resist-
ance is increased 100 per cent up to 6-inch plates and proportionally
less for thicker plates. Step by step as the thickness and resistance
of the armor was increased, the power of the gun was increased until
finally it was found that the projectiles failed to penetrate but were
broken up. Then inventors set to work to make stronger projectiles.
At first they were made of chilled cast iron, but even these were
smashed, and now they are made of peculiar qualities of steel; and to
such a degree of perfection have they been brought that a 6-inch pro-
jectile has been fired through a 9-inch compound plate and was finally
broken up on another plate speciall}' prepared. In another instance a
9.2-inch projectile penetrated a 16i-inch iron plate and went 8i inches
into a second plate.

The thickest armor ever put on a vessel was 24 inches, and that only
on a portion of the vessel, so great was the weight. At the present
time steel only is used for armor, as by its use the weight for a given
resistance can be lessened about one-third. There is a known limit to

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the thickness of armor that a vessel can carry, but there is no known
limit to the power of the gun, powder, and projectile of the future;
and as shown by the trials above mentioned, already there are guns
capable of penetrating the thickest armor afloat or that any vessel can
carry and float, as the writer in 1863 predicted would be the case.

From the foregoing the reader will be enabled to get a very fair
idea of the advance, made in firearms and ordnance since the discovery
of America by Columbus; and although many of our modern improve-
ments were conceived at an early date, it is only within the present
century that they have been embodied in practicable form and ren-
dered useful, and largely within the past quarter of a century.

Aside from the invention of gunpowder itself, it is safe to say that
more improvements and advance have been made during the past
forty years than during all the preceding ages, due, no doubt, to the
more general diflfusion of knowledge and skill among men, the rapid
improvements in metallurgy and machinery, and the inducements held
out by the patent laws adopted by all civilized nations in modern
times.

To those who look only upon the surface of human affairs, the idea
of nations devoting themselves to the production of these terrible
weapons of war is shocking, but, as was said by a prominent writer:

If the wealth of nations is based upon the industrial energies of their peoples, the
power and independence of a nation is no less dependent upon a healthy condition
of its military institutions and the excellence of the eirms it places in the hands of its
soldiers.

But recently one of Europe's greatest statesmen, himself a promi-
nent military chieftain, has said that the terrible destructiveness of
modern weapons and the enormous cost of war is becoming such that
soon civilized nations could not afford to war with each other, thus
confirming the statement that —

There are no more eloquent pleaders in the cause of peat;e and arbitration than
the destruction-dealing instruments that science has made for modern warfare, and
this fact should cheer thost; who have that cause at heart.

While in the present state of society the good time coming may
seem afar off, still every lover of his race will long and labor for the
time when war shall be no more, and the rivalry between nations shall
be in the effort to excel in the arts of peace, of which these interna-
tional exhibitions are but an exemplification.

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FIREARMS, AMMUNITION, ETC.

By W. C. Dodge.

AMERICAN EXHIBITS.

The development of the gun industry in the United States resulted
in a large number of exhibits by Americans, mostly of spdrting ai-ms,
ammunition, and gun implements, while there were compamtively few
by foreign exhibitors.

THE WINCHESTER REPEATING ARMS COMPANY'S EXHIBIT.

One of the largest and finest exhibits was that of the Winchester
Repeating Arms Company, of New Haven, Conn., which embraced the
well-known Winchester repeating gun, made both as a military and
sporting arm. The following cut shows the form of the gun known
HS the model of 1873:

Another, known ss the model of 1886, is shown in the accompanying
illustration. In this, the reciprocating breechblock is locked in posi-
OOL EXPO— 02 70 11^

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1106

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

tion by a vertically reciprocating block, which renders it more secure
and better adapted for firing heavier charges.

This was still f ui-ther improved by their model of 1892, shown in the
cut below.

Their exhibit also contained a single-shot rifle having a vertically
reciprocating breechblock opemted by the lever; a repeating rifle
operated by a sliding movement of the left hand, and the Hotchkiss

repeating gun, designed more especially for militarj^ use. These arms
are made in various styles and of various calibers, by which they are
adapted to all the purposes for which a rifle can be desired.

In addition to these, they also exhibited a repeating shotgun firing

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1107

six charges, operated by a hand lever, and also a new magazine shotgun
of what is termed the *' trombone" style (from the fact that the gun is
operated by a reciprocating movement of the left hand), and which is
illustrated herewitii, first in the closed and second in the open position.

A new feature of these arms is means for instantly detaching the
barrel, so that they can be conveniently packed in a trunk or case.

All of these arms showed excellent workmanship, and some a high
degree of ornamentation. The exhibit also contained a very extensive
assortment of metallic cartridges, ranging from the smallest size made
up to 8-inch shells for the rapid-fire guns recently introduced, and also

paper shells for shotguns, all of excellent quality. They also exhib-
ited specimens of jacketed bullets, which were invented and first used
by this company and which have recently been adopted for the small-
caliber military arms now used by nearly all nations.

In connection with the above the exhibit also contained a variety
of tools for reloading and recapping shells; one of which seemed to be
especially useful, as in addition to removing the spent primer, insert-
ing a new one, and reloading the shell, it also resizes the cartridge to
fit the chamber of the gun, thus enabling the same shell to be used
many times — a result of much importance to persons on the frontier
or distant from the source of supply.

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1108 BEPOBT OP COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

The manufacture of arms was begun by Governor Winchester in
1857, who subsequently organized the present company. Since the
erection of their present works in 1870, the company has become the
largest private manufacturer of arms in the United States at the pres-
ent time. More than a million of their arms have been sold at home
and abroad.

THE REMINGTON ARMS COMPANY'S EXHIBIT.

The exhibit made by the Remington Arms Company consisted
mainly of the well-known Remington gun, in its various styles, as
manufactured for home and foreign use. Its construction is so well
known as to require no iescription further than to say that it is one
of the simplest and best single-fire breech-loading guns ever produced,
as is attested by the fact that since its introduction in 1865 about
1,600,000 of them have been sold at home and abroad, mostly for mili-
tary use. They are also made for sporting purposes, and the long-
range '^Creedmore" target rifle, used in the international matches,
established its reputation as equal to any in the world for fine shooting.
The exhibit also contained samples of the double-barreled breech-
loading shotguns made by the company, the manufacture of which
they commenced about 1869. These guns are made in the ordinary
style of breakdown guns, with rebounding locks, having outside ham-
mera, with a firing pin in the breech shoulder. Thej" are made with
plain, homogeneous steel barrels, which this company first produced.
These barrels are drawn out by rolls from a solid piece of steel, and
being made throughout without any weld, they are exceptionally
strong and free from defects. In shooting qualities some of these
guns have proven equal to the high-priced foreign guns, though sold
at a much less price. The exhibit also contained samples of the well-
known Remington revolvers, so extensively used during our late war,
they having since been adapted to the use of metallic cartridges.
The article of most interest in this exhibit was, however, the Lee
magazine gun, which has recently been adopted by the British Gov-
ernment for its army. This gun, which was patented at home and
abroad in 1879, was the first of its kind. Its principal feature of
novelty consists in the form and location of the magazine which con-
tains the cartridges. This is made in the shape of a box in which the
cartridges lie one upon another, with a spring at the bottom, which
shoves the cartridges up as fast as they are used. It is located just in
front of the trigger guard, with its open upper edge fitting in a slot
cut through the bottom of the receiver or frame, so that as the bolt,
in its forward movement, shoves the top cartridge forward into the
chamber of the gun another takes its place ready for the next move-
ment of the breech bolt The box or magazine is made detachable,

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1109

the idea being to have a number of them ready filled, so that the sol-
dier can remove the box when exhausted and replace it with another.
It is provided with a '' cut-off," or stop, by which the cartridges can
be held in the magazine and the gun be used as a single loader.

This gun is shown in the accompanying illustrations.

One great advantage claimed for this gun is that by locating the
magazine at the center the balance of the arm is not changed, whether
the magazine be full or empty.

This style of gun, modified in its details more or less, has been
adopts by nearly all the European and several of the South American

governments. In most of these modified guns a clip is used to hold
the cartridges while being shoved into the magazine, or to hold them
in the gun, in lieu of a separate box or magazine. This was also an
American invention, having been devised and first used by Capt. A. H.
Russell, of the United States Army, who also had three guns with his
improvements on exhibition in the United States Government building.
A large number of this class of guns were recently submitted to the
board appointed to select a magazine gun for the United States Army,
most of which were on exhibition in the United States Government
building, and are described in the accompanying report of Captain
Russell, who had charge of the same.

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REPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

THE MARLIN FIREARMS COMPANY'S EXHIBIT.

The exhibit of the Marlin Firearms Company, of New Haven,
Conn., consisted of a fine collection of repeating rifles, of two different
styles of mechanism, both designed to be used either for military or

sporting purposes. In general appeai^ance these guns resemble the
well-known original Winchester, but differ therefrom in their oper-
ating breech mechanism, in which the reciprocating breech bolt is
operated by direct connection with an arm of the lever, and is locked

fast when closed by a vertically moving bolt or block, which, in turn,
is opemted by another arm of the same lever. The carrier which
lifts the cartridges from the magazine to the chamber is operated by
this same lever, and thus a single solid lever -directly operates all thcf

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1111

parts, the mechanism as a whole exhibiting great ingenuity. Another
feature of this arm is that the receiver or frame has the opening on
its side instead of on the top, by which rain, dust, etc., is less liable
to get into the operating mechanism. The accompanying illustrations
show the mechanism both in the closed and open positions.

Their later gun diflfers from the former in the means for locking
the breech piece closed, it being accomplished by the front end of the
lever, which engages as a brace against a lug on the underside of the
reciprocating breech piece when closed, and also in the means for
operating the cartridge carrier. Its construction is shown in the
illustration below.

The smaller of these e^uns was shown with the side plate of the
frame removable by loosening a thumb nut, by which the mechanism
is rendered accessible for cleaning, oiling, etc. Their barrels are also
made detachable, which enables the guns to be conveniently packed in
a trunk or case.

These arms are well made, of good material, and are largely used
for hunting and sporting purposes, and to some extent as a military
arm.

THE BURGESS GUN COMPANY'S EXHIBIT.

This company, located at Buffalo, N, Y., exhibited a gun of the
"trombone" style, which is a new departure in that line. Instead of
having the slide operated by the left hand, as in all others of this class,
it is moved by the right hand. The trigger guard, with the trigger,
is arranged to be moved back and forth by the right hand, with the
finger ready to pull the trigger, the advantage of this arrangement

1112

BEPORT OP COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

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REPOBT OF COMMITTEE OK AWARDS.

being that the aim is less liable to be disturbed, as the left hand, which
holds the gun pressed against the shoulder, is not required to change
its position in firing the six shots, and which can be done in three
seconds. The breech mechanism is exceedingly simple and strong,
consisting primarily of a horizontally reciprocating breechblock and
a vibrating brace to lock it closed, and which is released by the back-
ward movement of the trigger guard or handle, as it is termed, which

also opens the breech, at the same
time withdrawing the spent shell and
lifting a fresh one from the magazine
into position to be shoved into the
chamber of the barrel, as is customary
in magazine guns. It is provided
with a safety device by which the
breech is prevented from being
opened until the previous charge has
actually exploded, to prevent acci-
dents in case of a hang fire, it being
so arranged as to be thrown into the
operative position by the recoil. It
is also provided with two extractors,
which grasp the cartridge on oppo-
site sides, and,pulling straight back,
render its extraction easy and certain.
The barrel can be instantly detached
by simply pressing a spring catch and
slipping the barrel downward from
the receiver. The guns exhibited
were shotguns, but it is also made as
a rifle, and of any caliber desired. It
is shown in the accompanying illus-
trations (pp. 1112-1113), both in the
closed and open positions.

THE PABKER GUN EXHIBIT.

This company, which was one of
the first to engage in the manufacture
of double-barreled breecn-loading shotguns in the United States had a
large number of its guns on exhibition of both the hammer and ham-
merless varieties, and of different qualities. The general appearance
of their gun is shown in the accompanying cut.

In the hammerless, the hammers are cocked automatically when the
barrels are dropped, by means of a single slide in the lower part of
the frame, operated by an elbow lever connected to the under side of
the barrels by a pivoted link, the parts being so proportioned and

Ijusted as to work very smoothly and evenly.

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1115

A peculiar feature of this gun is that it has spiral mainsprings, which
it was formerly thought would not be reliable in a gun, but which, as
made and applied in this gun, has proven so reliable that the company
guarantees them for twenty years. One of these springs was operated
1,200,000 times by mechanism arranged for the purpose and remained
unbroken — a most remarkable test — and speaking volumes for the

quality of the steel and its tempering. The same spring, in connec-
tion with a patented device, also causes a rebound of the hammers in
such a manner as to prevent the possibility of the point of the hammer
resting on or sticking in the primer. The mechanism is shown in
the accompanying sectional views. They are also provided with a
"safety" to prevent accidental firing. The barrels are locked fast by
a sliding bolt engaging with the lug under the barrels, operated by a

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REPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

thumb lever on top and by an extension of the rib on the top of the
barreJs, having side projections fitting into a recess in the top of the
breech frame. The finish and workmanship were ver}^ good, espe-

cially the close fitting of the parts, and altogether they were fine
examples of American machine work. They have an established
reputation among sportsmen and are largely used.

THE LK FEVER ARMS <X)MPANY'8 EXHIBIT.

This compan}^, located at Syracuse, N. Y., had a fine exhibit of
their double-barreled shotguns of the break-down style. These are
hammerless guns, automatic cocking, with a safety, and an indicator
to show whether the hammer is cocked or down. They were the first
in the United States to apply an automatic ejector of their own inven-

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1117

tion, which is located in the fore end and operates in a very efficient
manner. The trigger pull can be regulated as desired, and provision
is made for compensating for the wear of the parts so the barrel can

be kept tight on the frame. The locks are rebounding, and both are
cocked by a single lever which engages with a hooked link pivoted to
the under side of the barrels, which are locked by a self -compensating

bolt operated by a thumb lever on top. The mechanism and general
appearance of the gun is shown in the aceompanying illustrations.
They have an established reputation for good shooting, and are a fine
example of American machined guns.

THE SMITH * WESSON EXHIBIT.

This firm, located at Springfield, Mass., had an extensive exhibit of
its specialty, the Smith & Wesson revolvers, of all sizes and styles.
The arm is so extensively and well known that a detailed description
is unnecessary, but it may be stated that the great number of inven-
tions and improvements which they have added since they applied the
Dodge extiactor some years ago makes it to-day the most complete
weapon of its kind in tne world.

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REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

One of the latest and most important improvements is placing the
hammer entirely within the frame and providing an automatic safety
device which prevents the hammer from moving except when held in
the firing position in the hand, thereby preventing the numerous acci-

dents arising from the carrying and careless handling of this class of
arms. It is shown in the accompanying illustration with this improve-
ment applied. The material used is of the best, and the workmanship,
especially in the fine fitting of the machine-made
joints, is believed to be equal if not superior to any
in the world. They also showed a single barrel,
with adjustable sights, which, by the removal of a
screw, can be substituted for the rotating cylinder
and barrel, thereby converting the arm into a
target pistol.

A feature in this exhibit was the new designs
and the high degree of ornamentation shown in
some of the revolvers. Another feature of this
exhibit which was highly instructive and attracted
the attention of foreign visitors was a complete set
of the several parts of the arm in all their stages,
from the block of steel to the finished arm, and
the gauges used to measure all the parts. A better
illustration of the American system of manufac-
ture by which the pai-ts are made interchangeable,
and showing the high degree to which machine
work in this line has been brought in the United
States, has probably never been made.
Among the exhibits of this firm was also a new style of self-
lubricating bullet. It consists of a hollow bullet having several small
lateral holes, through which the lubricant placed in the cavity is forced
out by a plug in the rear part of the cavity by the explosion. This is

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1119

applicable to all arms which use bullets, and is considered an impor-
tant improvement. Its structure will be readily understood by the
illustration, which is a longitudinal section of a cartridge containing
the self -lubricating bullet. A indicates the cavity for the lubricant,
C the holes through which it is expelled, and B the plug which being
forced forward by the explosion forces the lubricant out in advance of
the point where the bullet has its bearing in the barrel.

colt's patent firearms manufacturing company.

The exhibit of this company consisted of a large case of rifles, shot-
guns, and revolvers. In the center of the case was a likeness of Col-
onel Colt, the founder of the company and inventor of the revolver
which bears his name. Around this were arranged the large number
of gold, silver, and bronze medals awarded these arms in various
countries, and around these were grouped the finished arms, and also
the forgings or the various parts, the whole fonning a most instruct-
ive exhibit. This was rendered still more interesting and instructive
by including samples of the various styles of revolvers made by the
company from its beginning at Paterson, N. J., in 1833, down to the
present time. The first was a .34 caliber known as the " Texas pistol,"
and which not unfrequently sold for $100 in those daj^s. Then came
the old model army revolver in 1847 of .44 caliber, and in 1848 the
'^Walker," named after a celebrated Texas ranger, also .44 caliber. In
1861 these were followed by the old Navy revolver of .36 caliber,
and in 1855 by the new model Army, new model Navy, new model
Police, and new model pocket revolvers. All these anns used loose
powder and balls with caps. Then came the army model revolver of
1873, of .45 caliber, and using metalic cartridges. This arm was sub-
sequently adopted by the United States Army ordnance board, who
reconounended it '*as best adapted to meet all the requirements of the
military service."

Their latest are the new United States Army model of 1889 and the
new United States Army revolver of 1892. Both of these are double
action, self-cocking, with a solid fi-ame, and have the cylinder hung to
swing out at the side, with an extractor operated by hand to simultane-
ously eject all the shells, as shown in the accompanying cut* (p. 1120).

The Navy revolver is .38 and the Army .36 caliber. In addition to
these, the exhibit also contained various samples of double-action
house and pocket revolvers, and also Derringer pistols.

*In justice to all concerned, it may be proper to state that in 1866 W. C. Dodge,
of Washington, D. C, designed, had made, and submitted to the Chief of Ordnance
this identical style of army revolver, the idea of the chief then being to convert the
laiige number of Remington revolvers on hand at the close of the war to metallic
cartridge revolvers and apply the Dodge extractor. This fact was unknown to the
Colts Company, as nothing further was done by the Department for some time.

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1120 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

The company also exhibited an arm denominated the "lightning
magazine rifle." This is of "trombone" style, the operations of load-
ing, firing, and ejecting being all accomplished by the left hand mov-
ing a slide back and forward. These are made of various calibers,
the .22 being much used in shooting galleries and for target practice.
They also exhibited double-barreled hammerless guns, which, like all
their other exhibits, showed good material and excellent workmanship.

In this connection, and especially in view of the fact that it has
been claimed by foreign writers that there was nothing new in
Colonel Colt's invention of the ixivolver, it may not be amiss to state
just what he did invent. Revolving arms had before been devised in
which the cylinder was turned b}' hand, another bj'^ a crank, another
by the hammer as it fell to ignite the charge, and still another in
which the cylinder was moved and the hammer cocked by mechanism
operated by a second trigger; but none of these, for obvious reasons,

ever came into general use. Colonel Colt's invention was made while
on a trip from Boston to Calcutta in 1830, and was patented in Eng-
land in 1835 and in the United States in 1836. The distinguishing
features of his invention were, first, providing the rear end of the cyl-
inder with a ratchet and pivoting to the hammer a pawl so arranged
as to engage with the ratchet and thus rotate the cylinder positively
by the cocking of the hammer; and, second, providing a pivoted
detent or catch so an-anged as to drop into a recess in the cylinder and
lock it fast when it had been turned to the exact position required and
hold it there until fired, and which, at the fii*st movement of the ham-
mer in cocking, was instantly withdrawn, leaving the cylinder free to
be rotated by the pawl during the further movement of the hammer
in cocking. There were, of course, numerous minor features neces-
sary to complete the opei^ation of these parts, but these two features,
which had never before been embodied in an arm, were what made it
the great success that it has since proven to be.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1121

SPENCER REPEATING SHOTGUN EXHIBIT.

The Spencer repeating shotgun, made at Brooklyn, N. Y., and
exhibited by the Simmons Hardware Company, of St. Louis, Mo., is
remarkable as being the original or firat of what is termed the ^' trom-
bone " style of gun. It is a magazine shotgun, the magazine tube
extending about half the length of and underneath the- barrel. On
this is mounted a slide, which is connected with a vertically oscillating
block which constitutes both the breechblock and cartridge carrier, so
that a to-and-f ro movement of the slide by the left hand operates the
breechblock and carrier, this to-and-f ro movement of the hand serv-
ing to place the cartridge in the chamber, close the breech, withdraw
the'.empt}'^ shell, and, after the first discharge, to also automatically
cock the hammer. It is capable of being fired six shots in three seconds,
and is specially adapted for the use of prison watchmen, or the police
or military, in case of riots, etc., but is also used for sporting pur-
poses. It is also made with a 2-foot barrel and a sling, as a defense
for travelers.

THE BROOKS ARMS AND TOOL COMPANY'S EXHIBIT.

This company, located at Portland, Me. , exhibited a sample of its
guns, which consist of three different styles — a single-barreled shotgun
or rifle, a double-barreled shotgun, and a double-barreled shotgun
having a rifle barrel above the shot barrels. These guns are all of the
breakdown style, operated by a lever underneath, and are provided
with an automatic extractor which ejects the shell when the barrels
are dropped. The samples shown were handmade, simply to show
their construction, the company having but recently commenced their
manufacture.

EXHIBIT OF THE IDEAL MANUFACTURING COMPANY.

This company, located at New Haven, Conn., made a fine exhibit of
special implements or tools to be used in the prepaitition of ammuni-

A, opening mouth of shell; B, bullet mold; C, recapping; D, loading chamber; R, bullet .si/xir.

tion for various styles of guns. The special feature of these imple-
ments is the combination in one of several different implements,

COL EXPO— 02 71 -^— -y ^l^

1122

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

whereby a single implement is made to answer all the puiposes required.
For instance, their No. 4 tool comprises a bullet mold, a device for
opening the mouth of shells that have previously been used and crimped

A, opening mouth of shell; B, resizing expanded shell; C, recapping; D, loading chamber; E, sizing

bullet.

Double adjustable chamber. (Enlarged view.)

on the bullet, a decapping and recapping device, a bullet sizer, and a
chamber for reloading the cartridge, the whole occupying but little
more space than a pair of good sized pliers. This tool is shown in the

illustration. Their No. 5 tool, designed
especially for use in armories, omits
the bullet mold, but has an adjustable
resizing chamber for shells of different
lengths, as shown below. It has also a
double-adjustable chamber that can be
substituted for the ciamber B by means
of which either round bullets, or elon-
gated bullets of different lengths, can
be properly seated in the shells. This
tool with its double adjustable chamber
is shown above.

Another convenient device was an
adjustable mold for casting bullets of
various lengths, as shown by the accom-
panying cut, which also shows samples
of the bullets that can be cast in it.
The}' also exhibited a mold for casting the plain bullets of ten dif-
ferent lengths, such as are used with paper patches for target shooting.
This mold, as shown in the cut, is made with a solid cylindrical body,

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1123

SO that the bullets are perfectly cylindrical, and without the fins pro-
duced by a jointed mold. The bullets are pushed out endwise by the
central stem, which can be adjusted by the screws to form bullets of
any required length. .

They also exhibited a powder flask adapted to use either the com-
mon or nitro powders, it being graduated to measure from three to
one hundred and thirty -five grains, and from one-quarter of a drachm
to five drachms.

The foregoing are but samples of the great variety of implements
exhibited, and which, taken together, show a wonderful 'degree of
ingenuity and compactness, they being adapted to every conceivable
need of those using either sporting or militaiy arms.

THE UNION MKTALLIC CARTRIDGE CXJMPANY's EXHIBIT.

This company, located at Bridgeport, Conn., had a very extensive
and complete exhibit of metallic cai-tridges, ranging from the smallest
made up to 4-inch solid-headed shells, for rapid-fire guns. They also
exhibited paper shells for shotguns, and indeed everything in the line
of prepared ammunition. Being the first to engage in the business on
a large scale in 1864, their goods are so extensively used at home and
abroad, and consequently so well known, as to require no special
description.

THE BRIDGEPORT GUN IMPLEMENT CX)MPANY.

This company makes a specialty of implements for use in connection
with firearms, including implements for reloading and recapping
cartridge shells of all varieties, implements for cleaning guns, whistles,
calls, and also gun and implement cases in great variety. In short,
the exhibit contained everything of the kind for which the sportsman
has use, and altogether was probably the most extensive and varied
exhibit of the kind ever made. This company also manufactures and
exhibited a remarkably useful tool, known as the Forstner auger bit,
which is not only capable of boring round, square, and oval holes, but
by which spiral rods can also be formed, and other ornamental eflfecta

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1124 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

produced, as was well illustrated by the ornamental work on the case
containing the exhibits. One of the peculiarities of this hit is that
instead of being guided by its center, as most boring tools are, it is
guided by its periphery, and hence while operating can be made to
move laterally in any direction desired, thereby producing effects
which to the ordinary obseiTcr would seem impossible with so simple
a tool.

FOREIGN EXHIBITS.

The foreign exhibitors in group 113 were much less numerous than
were the American exhibitors. The British exhibitors especially were
all old-established manufacturers, whose guns have long been on the
market and are well known. They, however, contained many featurt;s
that are comparatively new, and all were of excellent material and
workmanship, more especially in their ornamentation, some being
most elaborately engraved. They differ from the American guns in
that, with the exception of a little machine work on the breech frame
and the barrels, they are wholly hand made, and consequent!}" are
expensive, whereas the American guns are made almost entirely by
machinery, which enables thein to be sold much cheaper and in much
larger quantities.

The idea so long prevalent that close-fitting joints can not be made
by machinery was demonstrated to be an error by many if not all of
the American exhibits in firearms. To show how finel}' fitted the
joints of the working parts were, a pencil mark was made on some of
the parts, and so close was the tit that a single movement of the bar-
rels completely removed it; and this was a gun taken from the regular
stock, and not one specially prepared for exhibition.

W. AV. GREENER'8 exhibit.

Mr. Greener, whose factory is at Birmingham, England, and who
succeeded his father in the manufacture of guns, had a large assort-
ment of both shotguns and rifles. Among these were double-barreled
shotguns of the breakdown variety, hammerless, and with automatic
ejectors, which he was the first to adopt. Others of the ordinary
style with outside hammers were also exhibited, both of these styles
being shown in great variety of finish and prices. One feature on
which stress is laid consists in having a projection on the rear end of
the barrels fitting into a recess in the breech shoulder or frame, with a
bolt moving at right angles and locking in a hole in the projection, in
addition to the usual lug under the barrels, whereby the barrels are so
firmly locked to the breech as to prevent any spring of the barrels at the
breech and consequent droop at the muzzle at the instant of discharge.

In the Greener shotguns the mechanism for operating the ejectors
is connected with the gun locks, and is operated by the main springs of

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1125

the latter. These guns are also provided with a "safety" to prevent
their being fired accidentally, a feature now used in nearly all guns
which have their hammers concealed.

The exhibit also contained rifles made on the breakdown plan, both
single and double barreled, some with automatic ejectors. Many of
these guns were designed for large game, such as elephants, tigers, etc.,
while there were others of small bore, designed for shooting rabbits
and other small game.

The exhibit also contained two and four barreled pistols, smooth-
bore, of large caliber, and having the Dodge or American extractor
applied. In these the barrels are hinged at their lower rear end to the
frame, an'd are held by a spring catch provided with a thumb lever for
releasing the barrels. These four-barreled pistols have a separate
striker and spring for each barrel, with a single trigger and a vertical
spring with projecting studs so arranged that by pulling the trigger
the strikers are cocked and fired in rotation.

This exhibit was especially good in an instructive point of view, as
it contained samples of the iron and steel used for gun barrels in all
its stages, complete sets of gun actions and lock mechanisms used in
the modern hammer, hammerless, and ejector guns, from the rough
forgings to the finished articles; section of barrel showing the Greener
choke bore; a case containing various specimens of locks for hammer
guns; working model showing the action. of the parts composing the
automatic ejector; wooden models of hammerless guns, illustrating
their action; complete set of the pails of the Martini rifle and model
of the finished action; model of the Mauser action or gun action of the
Lee-Speed gun, and numerous sections of barrels illustrating various
styles of rifling, varying from two and one-half to seven thousandths
of an inch in depth. Altogether it was a very complete exhibit.

THE LAN^^ASTEK EXHIBIT.

This concern is also of long standing, having been established in
1826. It is located in London, England, and the Lancaster rifle is
known far and wide because of the peculiar form of its bore, which
is oval in cross section. The exhibit contained a great variety of guns,
including a fine assortment of double-barreled breech-loading shot-
guns of the breakdown style. These latter are made in various styles,
the principal ones being hammerless, self-cocking, both with and
without automatic ejectors, the latter being located in the fore end of
the stock, in front of the hinge joint. Others were made with outside
hammers, and both with a slide or bolt engaging with two lugs which
lock the barrels to the frame below, the locking bolt being operated
by the usual top lever. They were also provided with a "safety" to
prevent accidental firing.

The exhibit also contained a fine assortment of single and double

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1126 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

rifles of all sizes, from the large bore for hunting elephants, tigers,
and other large game, to the smallest for small game — rooks, rabbits,
and the like. Some were made wi£h the top lever and automatic
ejectors and others with the locking lever underneath the trigger
guard and arranged to swing laterally, like the original Lafaucbeux
French gun.

This exhibit also contained a four-barreled gun, with concealed fir-
ing mechanism, so arranged that when two barrels had been fired the
movement of a lever set the mechanism to fire the remaining two. It
was a smoothbore, designed to fire either bullets or shot. There were
also samples of two and four-barreled hammerless pistols, smooth-
bore, of large size, using metallic cartridges, and designed as a sub-
stitute for the revolver, especially in hunting the large game of India
and other eastern countries. The lock work in these is similar to that
of the four-barreled gun mentioned above, but which, in the absence
of any illustration, can not be clearly described.

This exhibit also contained a variety of gun cases, cartridge hold-
ers, and similar articles for sportsmen's use, which were made of the
best material and very, strong and durable.

With this exhibit there was also shown a lot of revolvers made by
Webley, but as they were of the ordinary style, and had nothing pecu-
liar except the American or Dodge extractor, they require no special
description.

8COTT A SONS* EXHIBIT.

This well-known firm of London, England, had a fine exhibit of the
double-barreled shotguns, for which they have long been celebrated.
These guns were exhibited in various styles, the latest being of the
hammerless variety, automatic cocking, and with automatic ejectors,
the operating mechanism of which is located in the foreend. * They
are also provided with a ' ' safety," to prevent accidental firing. These,
like the Greener guns, have a cross bolt for locking the barrel exten-
sion to the breech frame, and in the better class this bolt is rectangular
instead of round, and fitted to work with great accuracy. Others
were shown with outside hammers, and some with ejectors operated
by the mainsprings of the locks.

The catalogue of their exhibit described no less than 35 different
guns made by this firm, the difference, however, in some cases con-
sisting only in the difference in the stock, bore, and finish. The
elaborateness with which some were ornamented by hand engraving
was remarkable, while the material and workmanship were unexcelled.

RUSSIAN EXHiBrrs.

The Fuse Instrumental Works of St. Petersburg, Russia, had four
exhibits classed in group 113, which consisted of a variety of instru-

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WOBLD's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1127

ments designed for use in connection with the manufacture of artillery
and munitions of war. One of these was an universal instrument for
measuring the bores and chambers of guns, 35 calibers long, and from
6 to 12 inches caliber. In general terms, it consists of a tube having
an interior tubular rod which moves an interior wedge or cone, which,
as it is moved, forces outward a series of lateral rods or spires, the
ends of which touch the walls of the bore. The uniform pressure of
the spires or measuring 'parts is attained by means of a spring. For
counting off the divisions, the handle is supplied with a small scale,
the vernier of which gives one six hundred and twenty-fifth of an
inch, and, at the falling of the rod, which is 0.05 inch by 1 inch
long, the degree of the exact measure will be expressed by the figures
one six thousand two hundred and fiftieth of an inch. The length
of the implement, which is made in sections to screw together, is 38.6
feet, and on the exterior tube are divisions up to 360 inches.

The second exhibit, termed Mechanic Brauer's optic instrument, is
for measuring the chambers of 9 and 11 inch guns. It is provided at
one end with three spires, two for measuring horizontally or laterally,
and the third for centering. On the side of the head, facing the
observer, is a scale and vernier lighted with an electric lamp with a
reflector. At the outer end of the instrument is a telescope for count-
ing the divisions on the scale, which are 0.0001 of an inch. The cen-
tering spire is movable, for which purpose it is supplied with a pinion
engaging in a steel rack passing along the instrument to its opposite
end. The measuring spires are regulated by a spring, while the pres-
sure of the centering spire is secured by a counterweight attached
to the head of the instrument. By means of this instrument one is
enabled to find in every vertical section of the gun the largest dimen-
sion or diameter.

The third exhibit comprised a series of instruments for verifying
the various dimensions of shells for field guns, and others for testing
and verifying the dimensions of cases for shrapnel. The fourth was a
spherometer, or instrument for finding and measuring any unevenness
on plane surfaces, the curvature of surfaces, etc., adjusted to read to
the ten-thousandth of an inch.

These instruments have been adopted by the Russian authorities,
and, altogether, form an interesting exhibit.

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GOVERNMENT EXHIBIT OF GUNS AND AMMUNITION.

By Capt. Andrew II. Russbll, United Slates Army.

Introduction,
scope and arrangement of ordnance exhibit.

The model for an ordnance exhibit was established by Capt. Henry
Metcalfe, of the Ordnance Department, in the remarkable display made
under his supervision at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in
1876. The lines there laid down were believed to be the best possible,
and no marked departure from them was made in arranging the present
exhibit. The only difference consists in the introduction of many new
and important machines and devices that have come up since that time,
and in some modification in the order and classification in the catalogue,
to adapt it to the new requirements arising from the increased impor-
tance given at the present day to certain classes of arms. Descriptions
of many instruments and most of the earlier cannon, machine guns,
and small arms have been taken from Captain Metcalfe's catalogue or
condensed from descriptions given there.

The development of heavy guns now requires a more marked dis-
tinction between the new types and the old. Machine guns have been
placed in a separate class, as new forms have been introduced. The
rapid-fire guns are a new development in. war, demanding separate
treatment. In small arms the increased importance of magazine guns
requires for them a separate classification with several subdivisions,
their arrangement depending more on the peculiarities of the maga-
zine than on the special features of the breech mechanism. In general
arrangement of the catalogue the same system has been followed as
was adopted in the report on the War Department exhibit at the expo-
sition in Cincinnati in 1888.

In the classification of firearms an attempt has been made to show
as far as possible the historic development from the earliest period,
and to give the latest improvements, whether American or foreign.
In the class of hand firearms the collection is particularly full, espe-
cially in relation to the latest magazine guns. Among cannon, speci-
mens of almost the earliest make are to be seen. A very full exhibit
of small-arm cartridges is made. Examples of range finders and test-
ing instruments are given. Many relics of the Revolution, Mexican

1129
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1130 REPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWABDS.

war, and the war of the rebellion are exhibited. In a special shooting;
gallery many ballistic instruments are shown, operated practically, for
determining the velocity of projectiles.

It is worthy to note that in recent years the greatest improvement
in military weapons has been due to American inventors, but that
the advantage of the inventions has been chiefly developed by foreign
nations from the want of public interest in this country. This is true
of powder, shot, cannon, machine guns, and small arms, and many
things of American invention now used in our service have been reim-
ported — for example, Rodman's perforated cake powder, the slotted
breech screw for large guns, etc.

In regard to firearms, the very remarkable point is illustrated that
the earliest cannon made were breechloaders, and that all nations have
returned to this principle after long abandonment of it and use of
muzzle-loaders. The collection of hand firearms comprises nearly 150
varieties. It is shown that some very early forms were breechloaders,
but that it was only by the American development of metallic shell
ammunition that breechloaders, now general, became eflScient. Maga-
zine guns were also made practicable by the above improvement in
cartridges, and the first effective guns of this class, the "Henry " and
"Spencer," used in the war of the rebellion, were American inven-
tions. The more recent forms of magazine gun adopted by foreign
powers, those fitted with detachable magazines or with fixed magazines
made to fill rapidl}' by prepared packages, also owe their inception to
American inventors. In machine guns the influence of American
invention is very prominent, and automatic recoil guns were invented
here, though developed abroad. The history of small firearms in the
last two centuries shows a decrease of caliber from 0.81 inch to 0.25
inch, or even less.

As at the Centennial Exposition, an exhibit is made of the char-
acteristic practical operations of cartridge making as conducted at
Frankford Arsenal, and of the manufacture of the rifled musket as
carried on at Springfield Armory. These branches acquire a new
interest from the recent adoption of a magazine gun of small caliber.
Some of the operations connected with the new manufacture are
shown, though most of the machines are necessarily adapted to the
old type of Springfield breechloader.

One valuable addition to the exhibit consists in the display of test-
ing machines in actual operation, illustrating the methods used by the
Ordnance Department at Watei-town Arsenal for the mechanical test
of materials for building purposes and for ordnance construction.

The ordnance section is shown on the accompanying plan in the
central and northeastern parts of the exhibit of the War Department
which occupied the southeastern corner of the Government building.
Outside the building, along the east or lake front, are placed a 10-inch

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1131

steel rifle, two 12-inch breech-loading mortars, an 8-inch converted
rifle, and a few siege and field pieces. Flanking the eastern doorway
of the building are old muzzle-loading bronze mortars. Passing into
the building by this doorway, the entrance to the ordnance exhibit
appears on the left hand, an 8-inch breech-loading steel rifle, mounted
on its carriage, in the middle of the aisle, forming the central object in
view. Passing down the aisle, the shooting gallery comes first on the
left, and on the right side the field gun and carriage are placed, with
horses, showing the harness. Farther down the aisle, on either side of
the 8-inch rifle, various machine guns are shown, and still farther on
are placed the testing machines. On the right of the aisle, beyond the
machine guns, is placed the 12-inch breech-loading steel rifle, and on
line with it are found i-apid-fire guns and the field mortar. Directly
in front of the 8-inch rifle are placed the ancient cannon. Beyond
the testing machines are the machines from Springfield Armory and
Frankford Arsenal, and farther on to the left is the exhibit of small
arms.

PREPARATION AND MANAGEMENT OF EXHIBIT.

In the arrangement of the arms in the exhibit effort was made to so
place them that the separate classes could be easily picked out by the
visitor, and the guns examined or even handled under the superintend-
ence of men specially detailed for that purpose. Throughout the
exhibit every effort was made to give all facilities to visitors to see the
actual operation, not only of the machines displayed, but of the machine
guns and larger breech-loading guns in the collection.

The main diflBlculties encountered in the installation of the exhibit
arose from the short time allowed for preparation. My assignment to
this duty was made July 19, 1892, less than ten months before the
opening of the Exposition. This made it impossible to arrange for
the delivery of the heavy guns and carriages before winter set in, and
many of them had to be put in place outside the building in very
inclement weather. The diflSculties were also increased by the want
of continuous expert assistance. Two oflBcers of ability and experi-
ence were at different times assigned temporarily to duty with the
exhibit as assistants, but were soon relieved. Capt. H. D. Borup
reported January 11, 1893, but he was relieved March 1, just as ship-
ments were beginning to arrive for installation. Lieut. Charles B.
Wheeler, Ordnance Department, reported April 21, 1893, ten days
before the Exposition opened, and he was relieved July 1. His assist-
ance was invaluable. His practical experience in mounting heavy
guns and carriages made him a most efficient assistant during the
installation, and his services were of the greatest value in the early
part of the Exposition. During my absence on sick leave, from July
24 to August 24, Capt. Frank Heath, of the Ordnance Department,
took charge of the exhibit.

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1132 BEPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

In the preparation of exhibits thanks are particularly due to the com-
manding oflScers of Springfield Armory , Sandy Hook proving ground,
Watertown Arsenal, and Frankford Arsenal for responding so cor-
dially to the hurried demands made upon them. Acknowledgments
are due to the superintendent of the United States MUitary Academy
and to the instructor of ordnance and gunnery there for furnishing
many interesting articles for the exhibit; also to the commanding oflBlcer
of Fort Monroe for contributions from the Artillery School. Every
effort was made to have the exhibit on time and up to date, and the
opening of the Exposition found it ready.

In the early days of the installation a valuable assistant was found
in Sergt. Joseph W. Warwick, Ordnance Department, who was sent
here from Sandy Hook proving ground to assist in mounting the heavy
ordnance. He was killed April 17, 1893, by the slipping of a mortar
carriage on which he was working. His loss was greatly deplored.
At the close of the Exposition Sergt. Robert Johnston, Ordnance
Department, was sent out from Sandy Hook proving ground to super-
intend the dismounting of guns and carriages and their loading upon
cars for transportation. He conducted this work with marked ability
and dlspatt'h.

The greatest diflSculty encountered in transferring articles to and
from the exhibit occurred in the transportation of the 12-inch rifle
and the spring-return carriage for the 12-inch mortar. For the 12-inch
rifle, weighing 52 tons, it was necessary to obtain the car built by the
Pennsylvania Railway for transporting one of Krupp's guns to the
exhibit; and in returning the gun the same car had to be used to transfer
it over the bridge across the lagoon which separates from the mainland
the island on which the Government building stands. It was then
transferred to another car for shipment to its destination. Thanks are
due to Messrs. Gilhausen, Lauter, and Von Drebber, the representa-
tives of the Krupp exhibit, for allowing this car to be used, as well as
for many friendly attentions. A ti'ack laid through the War Depart-
ment space assisted materially in bringing the 12-inch rifle into the
building. Every preparation was made by Sergeant Warwick for its
reception, to avoid detention of the car, and the trestles of the Laidley
gun lift were placed across the track so that the car containing the gun
was run directly under them. The car was detained but two hours.
The gun was then lowered and swung round across the track. Besides
the 11-inch rifle, for which no carriage was provided, an 8-inch breech-
loading steel rifle, mounted on its carriage, was placed inside the build-
ing; the other large cannon — 12-inch rifle, 8-inch muzzle-loading con-
verted rifle, and 12-inch breech-loading rifled mortars — ^being placed
outside along the front of the building.

The foundation of the spring-return carriage consists of two large
rings, 14 feet in diameter, which had to be brought out on edge, on a

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WOBLD's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1138

special car which allowed the rings to sink neariy to the track. At
the time of installation there was but one car of this nature to be
found. This was engaged in shipping moiiar carriages from Alliance,
Ohio, and it was obtained through the courtesy of the Morgan Engi-
neering Company, which had charge of the manufacture of some of
these carriages. As, however, the car could caiTy but one ring at a
time, it had to make two special trips to Jersey City, so that the base
plate for this carriage was not received until April 18, 1893. The
whole carriage was set up and the mortar was mounted on it by
May 1, the opening day of the Exposition. In returning this carriage
a car was furnished which would take both rings at once, and by that
time a special derrick had been obtained by which the handling could
be done with greater facility. Proper machinery for handling heavy
ordnance was lacking when the guns and carriages arrived.

In breaking up the exhibit the early snows in November interfered
seriously with the work.

In the conduct of the exhibit most eflScient assistance was received
from Mr. C. S. Rogers, superintendent of the machines from Spring-
field Armory; Mr. J. S. Gilmore, superintendent of the machinery
from Frankford Arsenal; Mr. James E. Howard, from the department
of tests, at Watertown Arsenal; Mr. G. B. Preston, and Mr. H. H.
Tracy, in charge of the testing machines. As general assistant in the
superintendence of the exhibit Mr. Edward Schlesinger, of Cincin-
nati, performed valuable services, and Mr. Paul W. England, in gen-
eral charge of the oflSce work, and expert in the electrical department,
proved a valuable assistant.

CANNON OF THE PAST.

This collection serves to indicate the progress made in the construc-
tion of cannon from the earliest forms — breech-loading smooth-bore
guns of light weight, of date of the fourteenth century — to the rifle
guns of to-day, which appear under the next heading. The forms of
field-gun carriage illustrate the progression of construction from the
Gribeauval system, used in the Napoleonic wars, and the stpck trail
system (wooden carriage), used during the rebellion, to the steel gun
carriage now used.

EAKLY CANNON.

1. Chinese cannon^ hronze^ hreech-loader^ foxvrteentK ceiitary. — ^This
gun was captured from the Koreans, June 10-11, 1871, by the United
States naval squadron, commanded by Rear- Admiral John Rodgers,
United States Navy. Presented to the museum of the Artillery School,
United States Army, by Maj. W. F. Randolph, Third Artillery. The
charge was contained in a hollow block, with a handle at the top, by
which it was placed in position. This breechblock had projections at
the lower part of the rear end, and these, with the assistance of a

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1134 EEPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWASD6.

key driven above them, through mortises in the side of the breech,
held the block in place for firing. The early guns in Europe were
made of wrought iron, like the next gun described, and cast guns were
unknown until 1378. This gun was contributed to the exhibit from
the Artillery School, through the courtesy of Col. Royal T. Frank,
commanding Fort Monroe. Other such guns, belonging to the same
capture, are at the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis. (For an
extended notice of these guns, see Proceedings of United States Naval
Institute, 1892, Vol. XVIII, No. 2.) This gun is supposed to be the
oldest of all. It is a bronze wall piece, with a caliber of 1.44 inches.
The barrel is 18.62 inches long, and the breech-loading cavity 10.04
inches. Upon one side of the barrel is an inscription composed of fifty-
one Chinese characters of an ancient style. This inscription gives the
name of the official superintending the casting, of the officer of the
artillery depai-tment, of the district magistrate, and of the smith who
manufactured the gun, together with its official designation, '*4th
class fu ran chi, number 194," and its weight, 100 catties, or about
133 pounds. The date is inscribed as the kwei ch'au year, but as the
characters kwei ch'au only indicate a particular year, the fiftieth, of
the cycle of sixty years, and no regnal period is given, they are not
sufficient to fix the age of the piece. The Chinese minister, in a com-
munication to Secretary Bayard under date of July 26, 1886, states
that the titles of the military officials upon the casting are those created
during the Yuen dynasty, during which the year indicated by the
cyclical characters corresponded with A. D. 1312 .

Mr. Stewart Culin, of Philadelphia, states that the characters fu
ran chi on the breech simply designated it as a Frangee, or Frank gun,
and that the titles of the military officials of the Yuen dynasty, upon
which the opinion as to its remote antiquity was based, are still used,
on the eminent authority of Mr. Satow, in Korea, where the gun was
captured. These facts, with those already elicited, were considered
by Mr. Culin to establish a comparatively modern period for the gun.
He also states that the Chinese encyclopedia refers to such guns as of
late introduction, and he mentions that many such guns are in the naval
museum at Madrid. It is to be noted, however, that in the museum
at Darmstadt there is a Chinese bronze loading block of the year 1340,
apparently made for use in such a gun; and foreign authorities refer
to the early use of guns in China. Several guns shown in the Korean
exhibit are represented as also about five centuries old. The two
larger ones are of coiled bronze, and the spiral junction of the surface
is evident outside and in. The smaller piece, a species of bombard, is
of wrought iron. These guns are muzzle-loaders.

^. Old hreech'loading gun^ J^-poxmder, mrought iron^ similar form^
found in the Hudson River. — Brought up by a dredging machine from
the bed of the Hudson River, at Albany, in 1879. Though the date of
the manufacture of this piece is not known, its form is precisely that

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WOKLD^S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1135

of the earliest English cannon of- the fourteenth century, and similar
guns were used by Columbus in 1492. It is made of wrought iron
with projecting bands around the barrel. It has a short handle extend-
ing to the rear from the cascabel. The bore runs from a caliber of 2
inches at the breech to 4 inches at the muzzle. The exterior increases
in diameter toward the muzzle, but the iron is so badly rusted that the
original dimensions can hardly be determined. The breech-closing
arrangements, which are lacking, were evidently the same as in the
Chinese gun described above. This gun, with many other articles
mentioned below, was sent from the museum of the Military Service
Institution at Governors Island, through the courtesy of Maj. W. L.
Haskin, First Artillery. A similar gun shown in the East India exhibit
has the movable loading chamber complete.

CANNON OF THE REVOLUTION, MUZZLE-LOADING.

3, Small hrcbsa howitzer^ American^ caliber 2i i/ncJiea. — ^This gun
bears the inscription, "D. King, Germantown." From West Point.

^. French S-pounder h'ome gun^ presented hy General Lafayette. —
The ornamentation of this gun is very elaborate and amply repays
examination. From West Point.

6. English cannon^ 12-pounder^ hrome, — This piece was taken by
General Lafayette in person at the storming of a redoubt at Yorktown,
in which battle he bore a conspicuous part. When the General was
on his tour through the United States in 1825 he called to visit the
Watervliet Arsenal, West Troy, N. Y., and while the salute was being
fired he recognized this cannon by a conspicuous indentation made by
a shot in its side. He is said to have approached and embraced it as
the companion of his youth. At the death of Lafayette the Govern-
ment order was received at Watervliet Arsenal directing the half -hour
gun to be fired in his honor. The order was executed with this same
gun, which had been so prominently identified with his early history.

6. English fieldplece^ flintlock^ hronze^ caliher 3 inches^ from Frank
ford Arserval, — The gun is a smooth-bore muzzle-loader. The flintlock
mechanism is carried by a bronze plate screwed to the breech of the
gun with four large screws. To this plate is attached, also, a handle
projecting to the rear, for use in sighting and pointing the piece. The
flintlock is horizontally placed across the face of the breech. The
flint hammer turns to the left and the powder pan is centrally placed
on the gun. The piece is fired from the left-hand side by a trigger
opei'ated by a lanyard. Length, 3 feet 5^ inches.

CANNON OF THE MEXICAN WAR.

7. United Stales G-pounder hrome gun^ caliber 3,67 inches^ Ihrn-
cam? s Battery. — This gun is marked "Palo Alto, Resaca, Monterey,
Molino, Churubusco, Mexico." From United States Military

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1136 EEPOBT OB' COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

8. United States G-jHrnnder bronze gun^ caliher 3.67 inches^ Hing-
goW% Battery. — This gun is marked ''Palo Alto, Resaca, Monterey,
Buena Vista."

The above guns were used by United States troops during the Mex-
ican war. For further notice of these batteries see "Carriage wheel
of Duncan's Battery," among ''Relics." These guns are shown in the
side view of the shooting gallery. From United States Military
Academy.

9. Mexican 17 -inch hrrm^e mortar., on hed. — This piece was surren-
dered by the Mexicans at Perote, April 20, 1847. It is of irregular
form on the exterior, highly ornamented, and it has a handle running
crosswise on top. It is a chambered piece, and its trunnions are at
the rear, instead of being placed at the sides as in the mortars of the
time of the rebellion. The mortar l)ed is a solid block of cast iron,
and the piece is held at the desired angle by a wedge, or "quoin,"
placed under the muzzle.

10. Uinted States 16-inch hronze inortar^ on hed. — This represents
the type of mortars used by us during the Mexican war. This piece,
like the Mexican mortar, has a small powder-chamber in the bottom
of the bore, and its trunnions are also in rear, the quoin being used
for elevation; but it is nearly cylindrical in exterior form, with but
two fillets and no ornamentation. It has one handle set crosswise on
the top. The mortar bed is of iron, with cheek pieces l)olted together.

11. United States 12-j)ounder hronze field gun^ hea}yy^ with handles^
caliber 4..62 incites. — This piece is one of the heavy 12-pounders for-
merly used in our service. It is of plain exterior, with a few fillets,
and with two longitudinal handles side by side on top. The Napoleon
gun described below took the place of this piece and of the 6-pounder
gun just described. Representations of this gun appear in views of
projectiles and of the north entrance to the ordnance exhibit.

12. Model of 6'pounder gun (m GribeavvaZ carriage. — ^This repre-
sents a light field piece used in the United States service before the
war of the rebellion. At the commencement of the late war this piece
was practically set aside with the heavy 12-pounder described below,
and replaced by the light 12-pounder smooth bore, called the Napo-
leon gun. The carriage is a representative of the type of carriage
introduced into the French service by General Gribeauval, and gener-
ally used for all field guns until 1827. It was a wooden carriage,
made with two cheeks extending to the rear to form the trail, and
united by transoms and bolts. It was replaced by the stock-trail sys-
tem, also of wood, in which the stock of the trail was of solid timber,
carrying at its front end cheek pieces bolted on each side, to hold the
trunnion beds in which the gun was supported. The new steel car-
riage for the field guns is made more in the style of the Gribeauval
than of the stock-trail system, the sides being continuous and sepa-
rated by transoms. i

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1137

CANNON OK THK WAR OP THE REBELLION.

IS, FouT-pouTider muzzle-loading gnn^ fired first shot of the r^d-
lion, — ^This gun fired the first shot in the cause of the rebellion.
It was fired at a steamer passing Vicksburg for New Orleans, sup-
posed to have on board ammunition belonging to the United States.
This occurred before the attack on Fort Sumter. The authenticity of
this occurrence was confirmed by an eyewitness who visited the
exhibit. The following letter gives the record of this gun.

Headquarters Department of the Mississippi,

Vicksburg f Miss.j July 5 y 1866.
Hon. Edwin M. Stanton,

Secretary of War:
I have the honor, in compliance with authority from you of May 16, to forward in
charge of a detachment oi the Fifteenth United States Infantry a small 4- pounder
cannon, formerly the property of the city of Vicksburg, with the following history
of the gun as furnished to me by a citizen of Vicksburg, Miss. :

"This was the first gun fired in the cause of the rebellion. I fired it myself at the
steamer passing Vicksburg bound for New Orleans, supposed to have arms and
ammunition on board belonging to the United States. This firing took place several
days before any guns were fired at the United States forts or troops either at Charles-
ton or Pensacola."

I have the honor to request that it may l^e placed among the relics of the rebellion
preserved at Washington.

I have the hbnor to be, respectfully, your obedient servant,

Tn. J. Wood,
Major-General Volunteers^ Commanding.

The gun was presented to the Military Academy, West Point, N. Y.,
July, 1873.

14' 27iree-in<jh wroicght-tron rifle ^ viuzzle-loader. — ^The piece exhib-
ited here fired the last shot against Lee's army at Appomattox. It
was at this time the left piece in Elder's Battery B of the First United
States Artilleiy. This is a type of the gun used extensively during
the war, and it was one of the earliest of modern wrought-iron guns.
These guns were made at Phoenixville, Pa., by wrapping boiler plate
around an iron bar so as to form a cylindrical mass. The whole was
brought to welding heat in a furnace, and then passed between rollers
to unite the bar and layers solidly together. The trunnions were then
welded on, and the piece finish to the proper size. The bar forming
the core is large enough to leave some metal outside the bore and add
longitudinal strength to the gun. It fired a 10-pound shell. This gun
was too small in caliber, and it took too light a charge for the best
effect. The adoption of a larger caliber for rifled guns was urged
by C)olonel Laidley early in the war. Rifled guns for field service
are now made of larger caliber. Loaned to United States Military
Academy.

15. United States 12-po\inder Napoleon gun and ^^-poiindef hmoit-
zer. — Model with carriage and limber. This illustrates the stock trail

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1138 REPORT OF GOtfHXTTEE ON AWARDS.

system of wooden gun carriage, used during the war of the rebellion.
The 12-pounder gun was adopted in 1866, and modeled after the gun
designed by Napoleon III to take the place of the variety of calibers
used before in the French field service. It was used more extensively
than any other field gun during the war of the rebellion, and it was
particularly effective where the character of the country required the
fighting to be carried on at short range. Weight of gun, 1,226
pounds; weight of shot, 12 pounds; weight of charge, 2i pounds;
velocity, 1,495 feet per second; extreme range, 2,090 yards; elevation,
10 degrees; weight of carriage, 1,175 pounds. Contents of chest,
packed: shot, fixed, 20; spherical case, 8; canister, 4; spare cartridges,
2; friction primers, 48; slow match, yards, 1.5; portfire, 2. The
same carriage c-ould be used for the 24-pounder howitzer, which, how-
ever, was little used in the late years of the war. After the battle of
Gettysburg the Napoleon guns were even used in horse batteries,
and they were readily moved with 6 horses. The 3-inch rifle was,
however, more frequently used for horse batteries.

16, Coifs revolver gim; caliber 2 inches^ old modd. — ^This gun in
general appearance resembles very much the ordinary hand revolver,
with cylinder and one long extension barrel. The trunnions are near
the breech, below the axis of the gun. The revolving cylinder is just
in front of these. The chambers in the cylinder are muzzle loading,
evidently fired by a percussion cap. The gun was captured from the
Confederates. From the United States Military Academy.

i7. Georges cast-iron revoVoer gun^ caliber 1,^5 inches^ 18 horizordaZ
chwnyheTH, — This represents a tyf)e of revolving cannon used by the
Confederates during the time of the rebellion. The cylinder, or disk,
revolves about a vertical axis, and it has 18 horizontal radial chambers.
These had to be loaded in the same manner as the ordinary muzzle-
loading guns, and they were fired by a hammer near the center of the
disk, this hammer striking a percussion cap when the corresponding
chamber came opposite to the extension barrel. The gun was cap-
tured from the Confederate army. Loaned from the United States
Military Academy.

18, Clay breech-loading gun^ caliber 3.1 inches^ Eiiglish, — This gun
was captured from the Confederate army at Danville, Va. It is closed
by a cylinder at the breech turning about an axis parallel to the axis of
the bore, but below the >x)re. This cylinder is large enough in diam-
eter to cover the end of the bore, and it is perforated longitudinally
on one side of the axis, so that when the cylinder is turned by means
of a projecting handle the hole can be brought opposite the bore for
loading. The cylinder is then turned back to close the breech. A
continuous screw thread is cut in the exterior of this cylinder, fitting
a corresponding thread in the breech housing, so that in opening the
breech the breechblock is slightly drawn away from the barrel, and,

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1139

on closing, it is pressed firmly up to close the breech. The piece has
three sets of sights — one center sight, front and rear, and two side
sights, on each side of the gun, at the rear and on the trunnion. Length,
7 feet i inch.

19, Three-mch Whitworth hreechrloading steel rifle^ captn/red from a
Uockdde Thinner. — ^The breechblock is in form of a cap with a continuous
screw on the inside, and it screws on the outside of the breech, instead
of screwing into the breech, as in the modem guns. The block is
turned by a lever with a double handle, and it is carried in a collar,
which can be swung around on a vertical axis to the right when the
breech is unscrewed. The piece has an axial vent, and it was fired b}'^
a friction primer. The rear sight is placed on a lug projecting to the
right from the breech of the gun, and the front sight is placed on the
right rim base. This gun has the peculiar hexagonal rifling of the
Whitworth system, and samples of the projectile are shown. The
special feature is the fine workmanship and fit of the projectile in the
bore, no sabot being required on the projectile. Length of gun, 8
feet 7i inches. From United States Military Academy.

W. Twelve-pownder hreech-loadmg^ mi/x)th-iore gun^ cast iron^ found
out Fort liichmond^ N. Y. , caltier Ii^G inches. — ^The breechblock is conical
in shape, and it slides into the breech of the gun. It is supported by
a carrier piece, which hinges on a rest bolted to the left-hand side of
the gun, and, by means of a handle on the right-hand side of the
block it may be swung back and out of the breech, horizontally.
The manner of securing the breechblock, when in position, is not
apparent The gun is provided with front and rear center sights.
Weight, 1,717 pounds. From United States Military Academy.

21. Model of 13-mch muzzle-loading^ smooth-hore inorta/r. — A center
pintle chassis replaces the old wooden platform protected by iron
plates formerly used with this mortar, and this saves much time in
pointing. By means of the eccentric axle at the center of the chassis
the weight is thrown on the traversing wheels while pointing. Before
firing the chassis is thrown out of gear. Weight, 17,120 pounds;
weight of shell, 200 pounds; weight of maximum charge, 20 pounds;
extreme length, 54 inches; length of bore, 2.7 caliber; range, 45
degrees elevation; maximum charge, 4,200 yards; time of flight, 304
seconds; weight of chassis, 2,000 pounds; length of rail, 190 inches.
The mortar can be elevated and depressed, either by a single handspike
working in the ratchets cut in the breech, or by two handspikes fitted
onto the arms attached to the trunnions, which are central on the
piece. These mortars were used during the war of the rebellion, with
8-inch and 10-inch mortars of similar type. Compare 12-inch breech-
loading rifled mortar.

9&. Model ofWO'pounder Parrott rifle. — This is a cast-iron muzzle-
loading gun, reenforced by a coiled wrought-iron jacket, shrunk on

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1140 BEPOBT OF COMMITTEB ON AWARDS.

over the seat of the charge; 10, 20, 30, 100, 200, and 300 pounder Par-
rott rifles were used during the war of the rebellion. The larger
calibers were cast hollow on the Rodman principle. Though never
adopted as a part of the systeno of our artillery, they were largely
used. They were the first high-power rifled guns used extensively in
war, and they attained a range of over five miles. They are interest-
ing as early examples of guns formed of two metals. The larger cal-
ibers had but short life. The brass base ring of the projectile for
giving rotation by expansion into the rifling was liable to strip and
tear off, jamming the projectile in the bore.

RODMAN MUZZLE-LOADING GUNS AND CONVERTED RIFLES.

Some of these guns are still retained in service for defense of nar-
row channels.

23. Model of IB-inch rnuzzle-loadlng Rodnian gun on carriage, — The
great improvement in the manufacture of cast-iron smooth-lx)re guns
was due to the introduction of Rodman's method of casting, by cool-
ing from the interior, coupled with the well-conditioned outside lines
which he adopted for his gun. The first trial of a gun made on this
plan was in 1849. Two 8-inch Columbiads were cast at the same time
from the same iron. One was cast solid in the usual manner and the
other according to Rodman's plan. The first was burst at the eighty-
fifth round and the second endured 251 rounds. An even greater
degree of superiority was evidenced in succeeding trials. The object
sought to be obtained by Rodman finds application to-day in what we
consider the highest principles of gun construction. Rodman pointed
out the injurious effect of exterior cooling in causing the metal to be
drawn away from the interior and thus weaken the part near the bore,
or actually assist in the rupture of the gun by tearing apart from
within outward, the outer metal not assisting that in the interior. He
also showed that the effect of cooling from the interior would be to so
dispose the metal that, in resisting an interior pressure, each concen-
tric lamina of metal throughout the wall might be strained nearly to
its limit to resist tangential rupture, all acting together to sustain the
strain. The 15-inch Rodman gun weighs 49,000 pounds, and it is about
16 feet long. It fires a projectile weighing 450 pounds, and its powder
charge is 130 pounds of hexagonal powder, which gives an average
pressure of about 25,000 pounds per square inch in the }x)re. With
this charge the range with 20^-^ elevation is 3.75 miles. The projectile
is capable of piercing 10 inches of iron at 1,000 yards. The initial
velocit}' of 1,700 feet per second imparts a muzzle energy of 9,000
foot-tons, but so rapidly does this fall off that at 1,000 yards the
energy is considerably less than that of the projectile from the 8-inch
steel rifle, which starts with an energy of 7,900 foot-tons. The car-
riage on which the gun is mounted bears close resemblance to the

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1141

carriage for the 8-inch converted rifle described below, the buffers
being pneumatic instead of hydraulic.

^4- Model of Hodman^ 8 casting plant for guns, — ^This model shows
the construction of the mold for casting cannon according to the Rod-
man process of cooling from the interior by means of a current of
water flowing through a hollow core. This process is now used only
for making the body of 12-inch mortars. The mold forms a cylin-
drical cavit}'^ about 16 feet deep, and the usual hollow core of the Rod-
man process runs down through the center, this cone being a cylinder
of wrought or cast iron, fluted on the exterior, wound with small rope
and plastered with molding clay. A pipe from above runs down
within the core nearly to the closed bottom, and supplies a stream of
cold water which flows up within
the core, outside the pipe, and off
by an escape pipe above. The
metal stiffens enough in about
twenty-four hours to allow re-
moval of the core. The water is
then admitted into the hole itself,
though the metal of the casting
is still at a red heat. The clay
cover of the core is left in when
the core is drawn out, and this
seems to be essential, as it forms
a protecting lining to the cavity
to prevent excessive chilling of
the metal. The model illustrates
the construction for muzzle-load-
ing guns, cast breech down, and it
shows the core extending only part
way to the bottom, with the mold
following nearly the contour of
the cannon; but the present
practice is to make the casting cylindrical, to secure an approximately
uniform strain of cooling throughout the casting; and as the mortars
are breech-loading, the core extends clear through to the bottom of
the mold, where it is stepped into a depression, a pot of cast iron being
sunk in the sand at the bottom of the mold, with the edge slightly
projecting, so that the molten metal comes in contact with the edge,
and forms a joint tight enough to keep the water from escaping after
removal of the core. When the water is turned into the bore, after
removal of the core, it is conducted by a pipe nearly to the bottom,
and thence it flows upward, escaping by an overflow pipe at the top.
The former practice was to have this overflow pipe embedded in the
sinking head of the casting itself, but it was found that this produced

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1142 REPOBT OF OOMMITTEE ON AWABDB.

unequal casting there, inducing cracks, and the overflow pipe is now
set in the side of a cast-iron extension drum surrounding the core at
the top of the casting, this drum being lowered soon after casting, so
that its bottom edge dips slightly below the surface of the molten
metal and becomes united to the gun casting like the pot at the bot-
tom. The metal flows down through runners in the sand of the mold,
and runs in first at the bottom, side gates from the runners admitting
it higher up as the mold fills. These openings are set oblique to the
radius, to give a swirling motion to the metal in the mold, this making
it easier to keep the impurities from sticking to the sides. Al)out 20
tons of pig iron and scraps of former castings are melted and poured
in this operation, the reverberatory furnace being used. The cooling
takes from 70 to 80 hours. A fire is kept up in the pit outside the
mold to check the cooling of the exterior. A length of about 3 feet
is cut from the top, and 5 to 9 inches from the bottom, or breech end,
leaving room between for the body. This middle part is bored out
and turned down to the proper size, tapered off at the muzzle, the
weight being reduced to about 8 tons. The effect of cooling from the
interior is to produce a compression of the metal near the core, and
an extension of that near the outer surface, this effect depending on
the rate of cooling, or the rate of flow of water through the interior.
Exactly at what stage of cooling this effect is produced most exten-
sively is not yet determined; but experiments are in progress to deter-
minethis, and to find by means of a new thermo-electric pyrometer
the time when the molten metal stiffens. It is probable that the
greatest effect is produced soon after the metal stiffens, when the water
flows into the hollow itself, the surface exposed .to cooling being much
greater than when the flow is through the core. The. theory is that
the metal nearest the core stiffens first, and that the outer layers, form-
ing later, and having to contract more in cooling than the partly
cooled metal within, must compress the interior layers. Evidently it
will be impossible for the outer layers to shrink the normal amount,
and they will be stretched like the outer hoop of built-up guns. The
metal close to the exterior, however, which may stiffen earlier from
radiation of the heat to the outer walls of the mold, seems to show a
reversal of these strains. This outer skin is turned off, and measure-
ments of tension are made only on the layers corresponding to the
inner and outer ones of the finished body. Test disks are cut from
the castings close to the top and bottom ends of the body; and three
rings, having a section of one square inch, are removed from the disks,
the diameters of these rings being measured before and after removal.
The inner ring at the breech must expand enough to indicate an orig-
inal compression at the bore of from 5,000 to 9,500 pounds per square
inch; and the outer ring must contract, the sti'uin of the exterior iron
usually being about 4,000 pounds per square inch. Only a small ring

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1143

is removed from the muzzle end, and this must indicate a compression
lying between 5,000 and 13,000 pounds per square inch, the initial ten-
sion being usually greater near the top than near the bottom. The
reason for this diflference is not clear; but it may be due to greater
heat at the top of the pit, outside the mold, than at the bottom, allow-
ing les? exterior cooling of the casting at the top.

To show the strains produced in Rodman castings, illustration is
given of a disk taken from the muzzle end of one casting and cut into
eight successive rings. At the right the curve of strains is shown,
the distances below the horizontal line indicating compression and
those above indicating extension, the neutral point being just outside
the third ring from the bore. It is to be noted that the outmost ring
shows the reduction of strains mentioned above. It appears unde-
sirable, therefore, to leave
the outer skin on a finished
gun casting, as a line of
weakness may be expected a
little below the surface. The
old method of determining
initial tension was to cut the
entire disk through radially
at one point, as at the hori-
zontal line, for instance, and
to calculate the tension by
the variation in the opening
from the width of the origi-
nal cut. Inspection of the
strains indicated in the dia-
gram shows that the variation
}.n the radial slit in the old
method gives merely the re-
sultant effect of many vary-
ing strains throughout the disk, and no data for calculation of the
strain at any particular point of the disk. The old theory was that
the strain of extension on the exterior was equal to that of compression
at the bore, but new results show that the former is much less than
the latter, and that proper measurement would give about half the
compression supposed to exist at the bore in castings tested only by
the old method. The new method is due to (.aptain Crozier, of the
Ordnance Department of our Army, who, a few years since, at Water-
town Arsenal, removed a full disk from a casting and cut it into rings,
measuring the expansions and contractions, applying to csist iron the
methods used by General Mayevski m Russia, and later by Noble in
England, for determining strains in steel hoops.

By making measurement of the rings, not only before removal of

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Strains in Rodman casting. Distances below horizontal
line indicate compressions; distances above horizontal
line indicate extensions.

1144

BBPOBT OF OOICMITTEE ON AWARDS.

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Is

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a a

8 8

o o

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OC 30

5 5

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1145

any from the original disk and after the separation of the rings, but in
the disks of different sizes left by cutting off exterior rings, it was
possible to determine the tensions in disks of varying diameters, cor-
responding to the sizes at different points of the tapering muzzle.
The illustration of this result shows how the compression of the inner
metal decreases as the outer rings are removed. Also, how the neutral
point, when the fifth ring is removed, shifts to a point between the
second and third rings, while the third ring becomes stretched instead
of compressed. A reversal again takes place when the third ring
is removed and the second ring becomes stretched, the neutral point
lying between the two remaining rings. These recent results of care-
ful and suitable measurements bear out fully the theory of Rodman
respecting the advantage of cooling cast-iron guns from the interior,
and confirm his genius. Observing the opposite effect in solid cylin-
ders, necessarily cooled from the exterior, where the inner metal
tends to become spongy, being drawn outward by clinging to the outer
layers, which stiffen first, he introduced the new method to secure
sound metal near the bore, and to produce advantageous strains, the
old method producing directly opposite strains. The effect of cooling
from the exterior is particularly apparent in chilled rolls, which often
break apart under the strains produced and show cavities within.
Even cooling from the interior may be carried on so rapidly that exces-
sive stra^'ns will occur, causing rupture at the outer surface; and this
has been illustrated in many gun castings, which have burst asunder
in the lathe, or even in the mold.

£6. might-inch converted imvzzle-loading rifle vKnmied on harhette car-
riage.— ^These guns are the result of the recommendations of the heavy
gun board, which met in New York City in 1872. They were proposed
as an expedient for converting the comparatively useless 10-inch
smoothbores into rifled guns, to meet the increasing thickness of
armor carried by vessels. When this system was inaugurated the
8-inch caliber was seen to be a gun that would equal in power the
existing English guns of like caliber, and it was hoped that the exten-
sion of the system to guns of larger caliber would prove a success. As
an additional reason for the adoption of the system our forts were
constinicted with casemates adapted to accommodate a gun of about the
dimensions of the 10-inch Rodman smoothbore, and the conversion of
this gun into a rifle afforded at that time the best and the only avail-
able means for increasing the efficiency of the casemated forts to a
maximum. The conversion of guns of larger caliber was not carried
on to any great extent, and the 8-inch converted rifle was the only
caliber adopted and manufactured for issue to the service. One very
important element in causing the abandonment of the change was the
great increase in length ol bore demanded for modern guns, the con-
verted rifles being too short for full efficiency. Compare velocity

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1146 BEPOBT OF COMMITTEE QN AWARDS.

obtained with 8-inch steel rifle and the length with these points for the
8-inch converted rifle. The piece is composed essentially of two parts,
viz, the case, which is the old Rodman 10-inch smoothbore bored up
to a diameter of 13.5 inches, and a lining tube of steel or of coiled
wrought iron. The tube consists of two parts. One part extends the
entire length of the bore and contains the rifling; the other is shrunk
on the inner tube, which has its exterior portion cut away for that
purpose. A double tube is thus formed, extending 32.75 inches from
the rear end. The compound tube thus formed has the same exterior
diameter throughout the entire length, and it is made to fit accurately
to the bore of the cast-iron casing. The bottom of the tube is closed
with a wrought-iron cup-shaped plug screwed into the inner tube.
The tube is inserted into the c&sing from the muzzle, and is secured
from working out by a muzzle collar screwed in at the face of the
piece, and from turning in the casing by a steel pin tapped through
the casing into the tube. A gas escape or indicator is bored obliquely
through the breach of the casing opposite the vent. Should the inner
tube split under the action of firing, the fact would be indicated by
the escap)e of gas through this hole. There was no chamber proper
to the gun. The rifling stops at a point 10 inches from the bottom
of the bore, the diameter of the unrifled portion being equal to that of
the rifled portion across the lands. The piece weighs 16,160 pounds,
and has a counter preponderance of 630 pounds, which is corrected by
an eccentric ring of bronze attached to each trunnion. Five hundred
rounds were fixed as the number necessary to prove the endurance of
these guns, and some have been fired 817 times, remaining still service-
able. These rifles have 14.7 calibers length of bore. The charge is
35 pounds of hexagonal powder, and the projectile weighs 180 pounds.
The result of the latest trials with the charge gave an average pressure
in the bore of 30,500 pounds per square inch and an initial velocity of
1,385 feet per second. From trials made at Sandy Hook in 1883,
using chilled-iron projectiles, it was shown that the power of the
gun was suflicient to more than penetrate 8 inches of iron armor at
1,000 yards, thus making it an efl'ective weapon to defend narrow
channels against the passage of vessels carrying iron armor of about
8 inches or less.

A specimen of the wrought-iron tube used for converting smooth-
bore cast-iron guns into rifles is shown in the exhibit.

The Butler shot used for this gun was invented by Capt. J. G.
Butler, Ordnance Department, United States Army. It has for sabot
a soft metal ring screwed on the base, the ring having a groove in the
rear surfaces, forming a narrow lip on the outer edge and a wider one
on the inner. The powder gases acting on the outer lip, force it out
into the rifling to give rotation to the shot and check the flow of gas
past the shot, at the same time tending to press the inner lip more

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1147

fiiinly on the shot and prevent stripping of the sabot. It was the
first base sabot fully answering the conditions for muzzle-loading rifles
of large caliber, as all others proposed before had worked irregularly,
resulting in great variation of the powder pressures in the gun.
Americans have taken the lead in inventions for giving rotation to a
shot in muzzle-loaders by means of sabots. The English used studded
projectiles (represented in the exhibit by an Armstrong 8f -inch shell),
and long after the sabot had been used by the United States adopted
a sabot merely as gas check in addition to the studs, finally abandon
ing the studs and relying on the sabot alone.

The Eureka sabot is another form sometimes used \dth our large
muzzle-loading guns. This sabot is a soft metal cup placed on the
base, concave side to the rear, fitted with a ring lip projecting forward
over the sides of the projectile, which is beveled off to receive it. The
gas pressure flattens the cup, pressing the lip forward and outward
into the rifling. With large shell difficulty has been experienced from
weakness at the base where the sabot is fastened by an axial screw.
The use of such sabots was rendered unnecessary by the adoption of
breechloaders. Since the projectile does not need to be small enough
to slip in from the muzzle, a forcing or swedging system is followed,
the accepted practice being to let into the rigid projectile, in an under-
cut groove near its base, a ring of soft metal, copper or composition,
making the diameter slightly larger than the bore, this ring being
forced into the lands of the rifling to give rotation and prevent the
escape of gas past the seat. Captain Butler also suggested this new
system here, though it at the same time appeared independently abroad.
A lead coating had previously been used abroad, but that leaded the
bore, and the projectile could not be used with rifling which had an
increasing twist. Dr. W. E. Woodbridge is recognized as having
suggested the firet expanding projectile for muzzle-loading rifled can-
non, his invention dating back to 1850, about which time it was tested
before a board of ordnance officers. Many forms embodying this
principle intervened between this original projectile and the Butler
form, which fully satisfied the required conditions. The carriages-
formerly used for the 10-inch smooth bores were not strong enough
for the converted rifles, so these had to be altered and strengthened.
The carriage consists essentially of two parts, a bottom and a top
carriage. The bottom carriage contains the chassis rails on which the
the top carriage runs; the hydraulic buffer for checking recoil, and
the ti-averse circle wheels on which, together with the pintle, the whole
carriage rests. The top carriage carries the gun and the elevating
apparatus.

The gun is elevated and depressed by means of a circular toothed
rack, to which motion is transmitted by simple multiplied gearing
worked by a hand wheel on the left of the top carriage. The pro-
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1148 BEPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

jectile is raised by means of a crane attached to the front part of the
lower carriage, and the gun is loaded when *' from battery." A
wedge-shaped incline is bolted to the top of each chassis rail near the
rear end, and this materially assists in checking the recoil and per-
mitting the carriage to run into battery. The hydraulic buffer is
securely fixed in the front part of the lower carriage. It consists of
a cawt-iron cylinder 78 inches long, with an interior diameter of 8
inches. A wrought-iron piston rod passes through the rear cylinder
head, and it is secured to the rear of the top carriage by a wrought-
iron cross head. The piston head is pierced near its circumference
on opposite sides of the rod with 2 holes seven-eighths of an inch in
diameter; these holes flare out both ways, allowing free passage to
the fluid, permitting the top carriage to run back slowly without
undue stmin. The top carriage is provided with two sets of wheels,
those in rear having eccentric axles. In recoiling, the carriage starts
on sliding friction, which becomes rolling friction when it accom-
plishes part of the rise, the ascent absorbing a considerable portion of
the recoil. To prevent the carriage running into battery after strik-
ing the counter hurters, couplings are attached to the bottom tran-
som of the top carriage and to the sides of the chassis rails. The top
carriage is released by means of levers and permitted to run into bat-
tery. Attached to the rear end of the chassis is a geared windlass for
the puipose of drawing the gun from batter}'.

In the English Vavasseur carriage the hydraulic buffer is composed
of two cylinders, filled with liquid and arranged so that the piston of
one is being drawn out while that of the other is being pushed in, con-
nection between the cylinders allowing compensation of the amounts
of water in each. The piston heads are composed of two parts, Iwth
perforated, one fixed to the rod and the other turning on it, the motion
being controlled by a projection on the circumference working in a
spiml groove on the inner surface of its cylinder. This motion is so
adjusted as to close progressively the openings and graduate the
resistance of the liquid in its flow to the decreasing velocity of recx)il
as the gun runs back. (See reports of Chief of Ordnance for 1877 and
1886; report of Board on Fortific«,tions and other Defenses, 1885.)
The double piston head here described is of American invention. A
device used on the carriage for the 100-ton cast-iron Italian gun
accomplished this graduation of resistance without double piston
heads by means of wedge-shaped bars fixed longitudinally on the inner
surface of the cylinder. Slots on the outer edge of the piston head
run along these bare, which fill the openings more and more as the
recoil progresses. A variation of this principle has tapering rods,
with round holes in the piston head, producing the same effect. The
Italian method has been applied to army carriages of recent construc-
tion, the outline of the bars being such that a uniform resistance is

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WORLD S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1149

produced during the variable motion of recoil. In the navy the same
principle is applied, but instead of bars fastened on the inside of the
cylinders, grooves of varying width are cut in the interior surface,
the piston head being circular, so that the flow of liquid is regulated
in a similar manner.

MODERN BREECH-LOADING CANNON.

SBACOAST CANNON AND CARRIAGES.

^6. United States 12-inch hreech-loading steel rifle, — The description
of this rifle will serve to give a general idea of the method of making all
built-up guns. The gun, instead of being made in one piece, is com-
posed of many pai*ts of steel, all forged, and properly tempered and
annealed. By "built up"
is meant surrounding the
central tube, which extends
nearly through the gun, with
concentric rings or hoops.
These hoops are arranged
in one layer or more. The
hoops are so made that
their interior diameters are
slightly less than the exte-
rior diameter of the sur-
face to be covered. In
assembling the gun, the
hoops are expanded by heat
until their interior diame-
ters are great enough to per-
mit their being slipped over
the tube or hoops to be
covered, and they are then allowed to cool in place. By this con-
struction the tube is under a strain of compression, and the exterior
hoops are under a strain of extension, the neutral line, or line of no
strain, lying between the two.

A diagram illustrates Barlow's law of the unequal strains produced
in a solid ring of homogeneous metal by expansion from within, and
indicates the advantage of substituting the built-up construction.
The inner ring (shaded heavily) represents the section of a tube
with walls equal in thickness to the bore. Suppose this to be enlarged
by pressure from within until the bore gains the size of the original
exterior. Assuming that the metal maintains the same volume, the
exterior shaded ring shows the new section; and while the inner cir-
cumference is enlarged three times, the outer circumference is
enlarged but little more than one and one-third times, showing that

Expansion of hollow cylinders,
law.

Illustration of Barlow's

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1150 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

the strain on the inner metal is much greater than on the outer, as is
evident from mere inspection of the figure. The outer ring in the figure
represents the size-to which the outer layer of metal would need to be
stretched to produce the same proportional enlargement as the inner
layer and therefore the same strain. This would involve an absurd
enlargement of volume of the metal. The actual result would be to
slightly reduce the area of the cross section. The law deduced is that
the strain communicated to the metal varies inversely with the square
of the distance from the axis. The inmost layer, therefore, might
reach its breaking point before the outer metal^ and a crack might be
started within which would tear outward so that the tube would rup-
ture before the full strength of the outer metal had been brought into
play. If, however, each layer progressing outward were originally
stretched slightly more than the one within, it is evident that the
inner layers would be more supported by the outer layers against
internal pressure, and the full advantage would be obtained when
these strains were so proportioned that the layere would reach their
limit of elasticity at the same instant. Then the tube would stand a
much higher internal pressure than before. A tube so constructed
with walls half a caliber thick (indicated by the dotted circle) would
be one and one-half times as strong as a ring of homogeneous metal
a full caliber thick. Such a construction will evidently bring the inner
layers into a state of compression; and this is a decided advantage,
as they then can be expanded more before bi*eaking than if in their nor-
mal condition. In practice, the law of variation of strain is more com-
plicated than that given by Barlow. Its application to United States
army gun construction has been ably made by Captain Birnie, of the
Ordnance Department of the Army; but the old law, approximately
correct, gives a striking illustration of the disadvantage of the solid
gun; for, though such initial strains as are described can be produced
to some degree in cast iron by the Rodman process of casting, yet
they can not be as fully controlled as in the built-up guns, to develop
the full strength of all parts of the gun when fired. While the ideal
of tangential strength is secured more fully by wire wrapping, in
which each layer is very thin, difficulties encountered in giving
sufficient longitudinal strength by this method of construction have
delayed its adoption, and the usual practice is to secure the desired
condition, approximately, by the use of suci^essive layers of hoops,
made as thin as the conditions of manufacture allow, the great multi-
plication of very thin hoops being found undesirable.

To Dr. W. E. Woodbridge the credit belongs of having first sug-
gested wire-wound guns. He presented his plans to the Ordnance
Department as early as 1850, and a gun of 2i inches caliber was made in
1862 and fired 1,327 rounds; the charge being 1 pound of powder, and
the projectiles weighing from 7.8 to 10.2 pounds. The subject was
afterwards taken up in England by Longridge, and in^Francye by

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1151

Captain Schultz, the inventor of the Schultz chronoscope, shown in the
exhibit. Two wire-wound guns are now undergoing tests by the
Ordnance Department, one devised by Dr. Woodbridge, and the other
by Captain Crozier, of the Ordnance Department.

The forgings for the 12-inch steel gun were made at the Bethlehem
Steel Works, South Bethlehem, Pa. In constructing the 12-inch steel
rifle the tube is enveloped at the rear end by a long hoop or ''jacket,"
extending beyond the trunnions, and at the front end by 7 shorter and
thinner hoops from the jacket to the muzzle. Outside these muzzle
hoops, slightly overlapping the front of the jacket, and extending for-
ward nearly half way to the muzzle, is a row of 2 larger hoops, the rear
one abutting against the shoulder on the jacket, and locking the jacket
to the rear hoop of the inner row over the muzzle. This locking is
accomplished by having a recess in the inner surface of the larger
hoop, to fit over corresponding fillets on the jacket and the rear muzzle
hoop. A split filling ring is set in between this locking ring and the
shoulder on this jacket, to compensate for any reduction in length in
the hoop after heating it and shrinking it on in place. A row of 5
large hoop envelopes the jacket throughout its length, the front hoop
partly overlapping the rear hoop of the outer layer of the muzzle
hoops. The rear hoop of this row is extra long, and it is provided
with an interior recess which locks over two shoulders on the jacket,
the object being to increase the longitudinal strength of the jacket
where the pull of the breech mechanism is sustained. The front hoop
is enlarged on the interior, near the front, and the shoulder in the
hoop abuts against a corresponding shoulder on the front part of the
jacket. Outside this row of breech hoops, extending a little beyond
the rear end of the front hoop, is another row of 4 hoops. The front
hoop of this outer row, made thicker than the others, carries the trun-
nions. The jacket projects to the rear of the tube to hold the breech
screw. The thickness of the tube over the powder chamber is 3.9
inches and at the muzzle 2.55 inches, the tube being gradually reduced
in exterior diameter from 22 inches under the jacket to 18.1 inches at
the muzzle, forming a series of cylindrical steps under the muzzle
hoops, which vary in interior diameter to correspond. The front
muzzle hoops are each bored to two different diameters to fit over the
steps on the tube, and are locked together by lips and recesses. The
other joints in the envelope of the tube are plain abutting joints.
Under the front end of the jacket the tube has a projecting fillet 0.25
inch high, while the exterior at the rear is reduced in diameter by two
steps, the interior surface of the jacket conforming to this shape.
The tube and jacket are coupled together with 2 steel coupling pins,
which are driven into holes drilled partly in the tube and partly in the
jacket near the front end of the latter. The pins are inserted tangen-
tially instead of radially as formerly.

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1152 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARD8.

In the interior of the gun, at the rear, the screw thread to hold the
breechblock is cut on the jacket, which is reduced in interior diameter
in rear of the tube. A space of 0.05 of an inch is left between the
rear end of the tube and the coiTesponding surface of the jacket, and
a small conical lip on the rear end of the tube projects over this open-
ing. A copper calking ring is inserted between the lip of the tube
and the corresponding surface of the jacket. At the rear end of the
tube is formed the gas-check seat with its taper entrance, the total
length of the two being 4.55 inches. The powder chamber is 14.2
inches in diameter and 63 inches long, breech closed, measured from
the front of the obturator. This chamber is joined to the rifled bore
by a conical slope 18 inches long. The front part of this slope forms
the seat for the band of the projectile. From the front of this slope
the tops of the lands of the rifling are beveled for a length of 48
inches, giving a diameter in rear of 12.06 inches and in front of 12
inches. The rear ends of the lands have the same slope as that of the
shot chamber. The rifling is a semicubic pai*abola, diminishing from
1 turn in 50 calibers at the origin to 1 turn in 25 calibers at 24
inches from the muzzle, and then remaining uniform to the muzzle.
The breech plate is of steel, and it is intended to carry the gears neces-
sary to give rotation to the block and to cover and protect the smaller
movable parts from the weather and from accident. It also supports
the swinging tray which carries V g breechblock when drawn from the
gun. This plate is bolted to the rear of the gun by screw bolts. The
De Bange gas check is used, and the breechblock has 4 threaded sec-
tors corresponding to 4 longitudinal slots in the screw threads within
the breech. When the breechblock is pushed in, an eighth of a turn
engages the threaded portions of the screw. The breechblock is trav-
ersed by a spindle, terminating in front in a head shaped like a mush-
room. The head receives the pressure of the powder gases, and it is
supported by a plastic ring surrounding the spindle and intei-posed
between the mushroom head and the face of the breechblock. This
ring is composed of asbestus, graphite, and tallow, contained in an
envelope of canvas, and sustained by 2 cup-shaped steel rings. The
pressure on the head forces out the gas-check pad against the walls of
the gun chamber, preventing the escape of gas. The total length of
the gun is 36.6 feet and it weighs 52 tons. The charge of powder for
this gun is 450 pounds of brown prismatic powder, the projectile
weighing 1,000 pounds. The initial velocity is 1,975 feet per second
and the penetration in steel at the muzzle is 25 inches.

27, Uiiited States 10 -inch hreech-loadmg steel rifle ^ mounted on free-
recoil carriage. — This gun is very similar in design to the 12-inch rifle,
and it consists of 1 tube, 1 jacket, and 27 hoops. The total length Is
30.6 feet, and the maximum diameter of the breech is 38.5 inches.
The projectile weighs 575 pounds, and the charge of powder, weigh-

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1153

ing 260 pounds, gives to it a muzzle velocity of 1,976 feet per second.
The pressure in the powder chamber is 37,000 pounds per square
inch. The penetration in steel at the muzzle is 20.4 inches. The
total weight of the gun is 30 tons. The free-recoil carriage on which
this gun is mounted consists principally of two horizontal chassis rails
with hydraulic buffers attached to the top of the rails at the rear.
Two cheek pieces, supporting the trunnions of the gun, move on
rollers along the rails. The gun moves freely to the rear for a short
distance before the buffers are reached. The space passed over during
the ''free recoil," allows measurements to be made of the acceleration
produced by the action of the powder. The Sebert recoil velocimeter
is used in connection with this carriage for determining the various
circumstances attending the free recoil of guns, and it has given
valuable data regarding the designs of guns and carriages. This
instrument is described among ballistic machines under the head of
shooting gallery.

S8. United States S-inch hreech-loading steel rifle^ mowntedon service
hariette carriage, — ^This gun resembles very generally the two preced-
ing guns. It consists of one tube, one jacket, and 18 hoops. Its total
length is 23. 21 feet and it weighs 14i tons. The pressure in the powder
chamber is 37,000 pounds per square inch, the same as in the other
seacoast guns, and the initial velocity is 1,976 feet per second. It
requires a charge of powder of 130 pounds, and fires a projectile
weighing 300 pounds, capable of penetmting 16 inches of steel at the
muzzle. This gun, as well as all of the United States steel guns on
exhibition, was built at the Army Gun Factory, Watervliet Arsenal,
West Troy, N. Y. The carriage on which this gun is mounted is the
type of carriage to be used for all seacoast guns. It consists essentially
of three parts: a base plate, a revolving carriage of gun iron, and a
top carriage of bronze, made to move lengthwise on the latter — the
whole weighing about 28 tons. The base plate is circular in shape and
considerably broader at the bottom than at the top, to form a stable
support. It holds a center pintle which keeps the lower carriage from
moving under the shock of discharge. The lower carriage fits over
the pintle and rests on conical rollers of steel, which in turn rest upon
the base plate. A circular frame holds the rollers in place, with small
ends toward the pintle. These rollers permit the carriage to be ti*av-
ersed with great facility, the bottom circular surface of the lower car-
riage and the top surface of the base plate being coned off to form
contact with the rollers. The top ot the lower carriage is formed into
two longitudinal rails, containing a number of rollers, on which the
top carriage is constrained to move. The top carriage is made of
bronze, in one casting. It contains the hydraulic cylinders by which
the recoil of the gun is checked. The trunnions of the gun rest on this
carriage in beds formed at the top. The piston rods for the recoil
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1154 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

cj'linders are firmly fixed in front to projections on the lower carriage.
This carriage permits a recoil of about 3i feet. The cylinders, one on
each side, have two throttling bars varying the area of orifice in the
piston in such a manner that the resistance on the piston is constant
throughout the recoil. After the gun has recoiled it returns into bat-
tery by the action of gravity, the top rails of the lower carriage being
inclined to the rear and upward at an angle of about 4 degrees. The
h^'draulic buffers prevent any shock as the gun runs into battery.

The carriage is traversed by means of a sprocket wheel in front,
properly geared, and a chain firmly attached to the bed plate. Two
men working on the handles in front can move the gun and carriage
with comparative ease. The gun is elevated by a small hand wheel at
the rear. A rack is attached to the gun, and a small gear engages
in this by means of a friction wheel. There are two wheels in front,
one on each side of the carriage and connected to the wheel in the
rear, to be used in elevating the gun in case of necessity, but the guns
are so nicely balanced about the trunnions that one man standing on
the platform can elevate and depress the gun with ease. A platform
with railing is built on at the rear of the lower carriage for the men
in charge of the gun.

The shot is i-aised to the bench by a long lever arm which projects
from the rear of the lower carriage. This lever is operated by a worm
gear. The rear end of the arm is forked, and a notch is made in the
end of each fork, these corresponding to two pins projecting like trun-
nions from the sides of the shot tray. The shot is brought to the gun
on a small truck, the tray containing the shot being supported by its
trunnion pins on the sides of the truck at such a level that the pins
will slip into the notches at the end of the lever arm when the latter
is lowered. Raising the lever lifts the tray and shot from the truck
to the breech, and the shot is pushed in from the tray. Two men can
i-aise the shot with ease.

^9. 3/odd of United States S-inch hreech-hadivg steel rifle ^ slhowing
construction, — This is a wooden model about 2 feet long, showing the
general method of constructing the gun. It consists of the tube, jacket,
and hoops so arranged that they can be assembled or taken apart, and
this serves to counteract the general impression that the large guns
are " cast" solid instead of being composed of many pieces of forged
steel. Loaned from Military Academy.

SO. United States l^-inch hreech-loadiJig rifled r/wrtar. — These mor-
tars are short rifled pieces intended for high -angle fire and especially
adapted for the defense of seaports. They weigh about 14i tons and
throw a very heavy elongated shell, containing a large bursting charge,
to a distance of 5f miles. The shells weigh 800 and 1,000 pounds, and
they are capable of piercing the armored deck of any vessel afloat.
The pieces will be placed on shore in sunken batteries in groups of 16,

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1155

and so trained that any desired number of the pieces in the battery
can be fired in the same line of direction against a single ship. The
most serious question raised concerning the employment of rifle-mortar
fire has been in regard to its accui-acy. Their employment in gi'oups
will do much to overcome this difBculty by greatly increasing the
chances of hitting, but the results of experiment show a remarkable

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LoDKitudinal section of 12-inch breech-loading rifled mortar.

improvement in accuracy as well as range with these moitars over the
old smooth-bore mortars. The old 13-inch seacoast mortar, with full
charge of 20 pounds, gave a range of only 4,200 yards, of which only
2,200 yards would be effective against a 3-inch deck, and its accuracy
could not be depended upon. Unlike the high-power rifle, the effective
blow from the mortar shell gains in power with the lunge, as the
striking force depends on the dis-
tance the mortar shell falls, and it
must mount higher to gain the
longer ranges, while the power of
the rifle projectile depends pi*in-
cipally upon the velocity of pro-
jection and the striking velocity
diminishes with the range.

One great advantage with mor-
tars for seacoast service is that
they can be protected from the
direct fire of high-power guns,
while similar mortars could not be
used accurately on shipboard to
give high-angle fire that would pass over the parapet into the moiiar
battery. The relative cost of mortars is less than that of guns of the
same caliber. The 12-inch rifle costs about $50,000, to $8,000 for the
mortar; and the cost of emplacement is $225,000 for the rifle, to $10,000
for the mortar.

The modern mortar, shown in longitudinal section, presents little

Old 13-inch mortars.

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1156

REPOBT OF OOMKITTEE ON AWARDS.

likeness to the apothecaries mortar, which suggested the name for the
old type, illustrated on the same scale by the old muzzle-loading oast-
iron mortar of 13-inch caliber used during the rebellion, and by the

old mortars of the time of the
Mexican war. The new mortar
has more the size and proportions
of a gun, as is seen by the outline
of a 15-inch Rodman gun, drawn
to the same scale. Its right to the
name of mortar comes only from
its similarity of use for throwing
shells high into the air to reach,
from above, objects like the deck
of a vessel that could not be hit by
the direct fire of high-power guns,
the latter being effective only
against the sides of the vessel. In
shape it is a large howitzer, rather
than a mortar; but being used like
the old mortar for firing at much
higher angles than was common
with the old shell cannon called
howitzers, it is called in this coun-
try a mortar, though often desig-
nated a howitzer abroad, where
rifled mortars have been used for
some years.

Col. T. T. S. Laidley, Ordnance
Department, United States Army,
recommended the use of rifled
mortars long before they were
used in Europe.

While the old mortar was a short,
smoothbore, muzzle-loading piece,
throwing a spherical shell, the new
mortar is a breechloader 129 inches
long, rifled in the bore to make it
possible to throw an elongated pro-
jectile. The rotary motion given
to the projectile by the twist of the
rifling is necessary to keep the
point of the shell in the direction of
flight, much as the spinning of a top is necessary to keep it balanced
on its peg. Going point on, the shell encounters less resistance from
the air than if moving sidewise, and presents to this resistance a section

15-lnch Rodman grun.

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Google

world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1157

no greater than the caliber, as with a round ball, while the added weight
due to its length gives it greater inertia to maintain its velocity, and
causes it to carry farther than the round ball. A 12-inch round shell
would weigh only 216 pounds. A closer fit in the bore, too, is prac-
ticable with the long shell, as a copper band encircles the hard metal
of the shell and wedges into the rifling grooves, securing greater uni-
f ormit}' of motion in leaving the piece, and thus greater accuracy of fire.
In these mortars we have almost the only remaining example of the use
of cast iron as a part of the system; for, while the modern high-power
rifled gun is made up wholly of steel, the inner tube or body of the
mortars is of cast iron. The high pressures and sti*ains in the larger
guns put the use of cast iron out of the question for them; and even
for mortars the all-steel construction presents some decided advantages,
since by it a more powerful piece of less weight can be obtained.

The shape of the cast-iron body is shown in the figure, with bore
extending through and fitted at the rear with slotted screw threads to
hold the screw breech piece. This body is cylindrical at the rear for
over half its length, with a slight shoulder at the front of this portion to
prevent slipping backward through the hoops, and a taper thence to the
muzzle. Over this cylindrical portion the figure shows, first, a row of
seven hoops. The front hoop has a shoulder at the front, corresponding
in use to the shoulder on the body. Outside this row of hoops is another
row of six hoops, completing the envelope. One of these outer hoops,
the second from the front, carries the trunnions, as shown in the figure.
The hoops of each row are shrunk on, so producing the desired strain
on the inner metal. DiflSculties of construction make it desirable to
use several short hoops in place of one long hoop or jacket.

The steel hoops and other steel parts are made at the Midvale Steel
Works, Philadelphia, and sent, roughly shaped to size, to the con-
tractors for finishing. Besides the steel hoops there are steel parts
furnished which go to form the breech mechanism. This is of the
interrupted-screw type, commonly known as the French, but really
the invention of Chambers, an American. A full screw is cut on the
cylindrical breechblock, and then the screw threads are cut away
parallel to the axis of the block at three points, leaving three spaces
plain and three threaded, equal in width. The recess in the breech
has screw threads similarly cut and slotted, so that when the threaded
sections of the block are opposite the slotted sections of the breech the
block can be pushed in. Then one-sixth of a turn engages all the
threads. The threaded portion, of course, has to be longer than if the
full thread were used, but in the latter case the block would have to
be turned a great many times to screw it home. When pulled out che
breechblock rests on a hinged tray, which swings to one side, uncov-
ering the breech for loading. The hoops are bored to a definite size,
then the cast-iron tube or body is turned to a diameter about five one-

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1158

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

hundredths of an inch larger than that of the interior of the small
hoops. These hoops are expanded by heat until they will slip over
the body. They are put on from the rear, singly, and cooled in place,
then they are turned oflf on the exterior with reference to the larger
hoops, and the latter are applied in like manner. The front hoop of
each row is forced forward to the shoulder, and the rear hoops are
forced as close as possible to those in place, in order to make a con-
tinuous envelope. The application of each row of hoops contracts the
bore of the cast-iron body six to eight one-thousandths of an inch,
although the thickness of the walls is 9i inches. By means of the star
gauge the original diameters of the bore are measured at short inter-
vals throughout the length, and remeasurements are made after each
row of hoops is applied. The hoops are heated in a gas furnace to a
temperature not greater than 500^ to 600^ F. above the tempei-ature of

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the shops, higher temperature being avoided in order to prevent all
formation of scale on the interior. This expands the hoop enough to
give a play of about five one-hundredths of an inch in slipping on the
mortar. When the hoop is in place it is clamped securely to the front
of the piece by long side bars, drawn up powerfully by hydraulio or
screw pressure, and a spray of cold water is at once driven against the
outer surface to cool it. The hoop is cooled at the front first, in order
that it ma}" nip there before it nips at the rear, as otherwise it might
shrink away from the front hoop in cooling and leave a wide joint.
The clamps are drawn tighter and tighter as the hoop cools, and they
are released only when the hoop is firmly shrunk in place. Then
another hoop is heated and put on, the mortar being horizontal during
the operation.

A figure illustrates the '' effect of hooping." In the portion to the

Digitized by VjOOQIC

world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1159

right the figure shows the sizes of the body and the hoops before they
are assembled; in the portion to the left, the effect produced by apply-
ing the hoops. By the application of the small hoop to the body the
body is compressed and the hoop enlarged. By the application of the
larger hoop the body is still further compressed, the small hoop is
reduced in size, but not quite to its original dimensions, and the outer
hoop is enlarged.

Two of these mortal's are shown in the exhibit, outside the building,
on two kinds of carriage described below.

In this connection it may be said that the old idea of the importance
of great weight in cannon to lessen recoil does not apply particularly
to mortars since the methods for checking recoil and reducing the
shock on the carriage have been so fully developed. On the other
hand, since the moilar has to be restored to its firing position by
means of springs which are not required to bear the full effect of the
recoil, advantage in reduced length of springs can be obtained by
having a lighter mortar. This would be given by the all-steel con-
struction now proposed, and at the same time a more powerful piece
would be obtained, throwing a heavier shell farther.

31, Canet carAage for 12-inch rifled mortar, — ^This carriage is one
of those made abroad for trial in this country, but it was not con-
sidered so peculiarly well adapted to the wants of our service as the
spring-return carriage described below. The Canet carriage haa
hydropneumatic cylinders for the pui'pose of checking recoil. The
operations of traversing, elevating, and loading are done by hand.
The carriage consists mainly of a revolving cari-iage resting on rollers,
which run on a circular bedplate essentially as described for the
8-inch rifle carriage, and supporting what may be called a '' rocker
carriage," which in turn carries the slides on which the mortar rests.
The '^rocker carriage" is of peculiar form. Its cheeks are half -moon
shape, with the curved part down, and the sides of the revolving car-
riage are hollowed out at the top to correspond in curvature, so that
the cheeks of the rocker carriage rest in these hollows and turn in
them on a horizontal axis like trunnions in trunnion beds. The trun-
nions of the moiiar rest on slides which move along the rails formed
by the flat top of the rocker carriage. A curved transom connecting
the slides holds the nlortar with the axis of the bore parallel to the
mils. Hence, the mortar turns up and down with the trunnion car-
riage, and has no independent motion except along the rails. The
pieces which form the slides are bored out to form the hydraulic cyl-
inders, the pistons being attached in rear to projections from the rails.
The rocker has teeth on the curved edge, and a toothed wheel turned
by a winch engages these teeth for elevating and depressing the muz-
zle of the piece. Under the gun is an ''accumulator." This is a third
cylinder, which has a piston in it with oil on one side of the head and

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1160 REPORT OF COMMITTEK ON AWARDd.

air on the other, the oil compartment communicating with the
h^'draulic cylinders. When the gun is ready for firing the slides are
run forward, and this brings the center of gravity of the gun near the
center of the rocker carriage. In this position changes in elevation
can be made with ease. To hold the gun in this position for firing,
the air in the accumulator is compressed by an auxiliary air pump to
about 900 pounds per square inch, and when once compressed it is
supposed to last for a considerable period. In recoiling, the cylin-
der are pushed over the pistons and the oil is forced into the accumu-
lator cylinder, further compressing the air in it and checking the
recoil. A check valve prevents the fluid from returning, so that the
gun is held in the position it had when it came to rest. In order to
load, the gun must be brought to a horizontal position, and as the
center of gravity of the gun is now considerably lower than the center
of the "rocker carriage," this operation requires the raising of the
weight of the gun for a foot or more, a rather slow and tedious opera-
tion. The gun must recoil a certain distance in order to allow the
breechblock to be opened, and in case the recoil from the firing is not
sufficient, a small hand pump, attached to the carriage for this purpose,
can be used. The projectile is raised by means of a pulley at the side
of the carriage and is swung around to the breech of the gun.

The object of the peculiar construction of the carriage is to bring
the movement of recoil in the direction of the axis of the piece; and
in this respect the system is superior to that of the spring-return car-
riage, both to prevent strain on the carriage and deflection of the pro-
jectile upward; but the construction of the Canet carriage is faulty
in not allowing the breech to be opened in the firing position. Wei'e
the cheeks of the carriage wide enough in rear, the accumulator could
be allowed to act immediately, after firing, to at once push the slides
forward, and then the elevation of the breech for reloading could be
accomplished without the preponderance above noted. The use of the
hand pump would then be avoided.

32, Spring-return can'ldge fcrr 12-incJi hreech-loading rifled jrwr-
tar. — ^This carriage is the one that has been adopted for use in the
service of the United States, and it was cast from gun iron at the
Builder's Iron Foundry, Providence, R. I. The carriage consists of a
base plate, or lower roller path, secured by wrought-iron bolts to the
platform. This base plate is cast in a solid piece. Upon the base
plate rests a ring of 24 forged steel conical rollers, protected from
dust inside and out by easily removable guard plates. Upon the
rollers rests the supporting plate of the carriage forming the upper
roller path, and cast in one piece. Upon the supporting plate are
bolted two side frames and a cross transom. These side frames carry
the trunnion carriages with the recoil and spring-return apparatus.
Cylindei's for holding the springs to return the gun to battery are cast

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1161

as a part of these side frames, and continued down to the proper length
by cylinder of gun iron bolted to the lower extremity by flanges.
These cylinders are inclined at an angle of 60 degrees with the hori-
zon. The trunnions of the gun rest in bearings formed in trunnion
carriages of cast steel. These carriages embmce and slide upon guide-
ways, formed upon the inner sides of the cylinders in the side frames.
On the upper ends of the trunnion carriages are brackets projecting
right and left into the spring cylinders and resting on the top of the
springs. Piston rods are keyed to the lower ends of the trunnion
carriages, and these work in two hydraulic recoil cylinders. The cyl-
inders are bolted to the side frames and to the extensions of the spring
cylinders. The elevating apparatus is attached to the trunnion car-
riages, and the gun is elevated and depressed by gearing acting on a
circular rack. The mortar is held up in a firing position by the
springs, filling the spring cylinders, and when it is fired it recoils
down the sides until it is brought to rest by the action of the recoil
cylinder. The springs then return it immediately to the firing posi-
tion. The projectile is brought up for loading in the same manner
as described for the 8-inch barbette carriage. Both car springs and
Belleville springs have been used. The former are short and strong
spiral springs of steel, experimented on with much success. The lat-
ter, tried with less success, are also of steel, saucer-shaped, but per-
forated in the center, and arranged in sets of two, base to base. They
fill the cylinder, forming a column long enough to permit without
injury sufficient compression to correspond to the recoil allowed by
the hydraulic cylinders, on which the work of resistance comes, the
springs being intended merely to return the mortar to its highest
point, though incidentally they sustain some of the recoil.

It will be seen that the movement of the piece under recoil is in the
direction of the axis of the bore only when the piece is fired at an ele-
vation of 50 degrees, but the variation from this angle 15 degrees to
20 degrees on either side is not great enough to cause undue strain on
the carriage.

S3. Model of Sutcliffe's mechamspi for hreech-lodding rifles, — Disk-
shaped breechblock, supported by a pin attached to the front end of
hollow breech screw, by the half revolution of which the block is low-
ered into a mortise in the body of the gun and the chamber exposed.
On closing the screw sets up firmly against the block and transmits the
strain to the walls of the breech. This has been applied to field as
well as seacoast guns.

3^. Model of Krupp^s mechanism for hreech-loading rifles. — The
breech block moves transversely through a horizontal slot in rear of
the chamber. The front face of the block is flat, and the rear sur-
face a convex semicylinder whose axis is slightly inclined to the plane
of the face. This avoids the sharp reentrant angles, and it has also

Digitized by VjOOQIC

1162 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

been found expedient to round the angles in front of the slot. The
upper and lower surfaces of the slot contain guides which are parallel
to the elements of the cylindrical sui*face, and which enters correspond-
ing grooves in the block. The block thus receives a slight oblique
motion which prevents friction between the Broadwell ring and the
obturator plate, and also assists somewhat in pressing the cartridge
home. A hole through the block permits the gun to be loaded when
the block is withdrawn to the proper position. It is prevented from
passing this point by a stop bolt screwed through the l)ody of the gun
and having a blank end projecting into a groove on the upper surface
of the block. To secure the fermeture a revolving latch is employed.
For small cannon using metallic ammunition this may be a simple turn
])utton operated by an exterior handle and entering a recess in one of
the faces of the slot. With a less perfect gas check means must be
provided for pressing the obturator plate linnly against the obturat-
ing ring, so that in large guns the latch consists of a short, powerful
screw. In order to facilitate the operation of the feniieture the fillets
on one side of the newel of the screw are removed so that a half turn
of the screw may engage or disengage the remaining fillets. For field-
pieces the })lock is withdrawn directl}' by hand, but heavy pieces are
provided with a long screw contained in a groove in the upper part of
the block and turning in two cylindrical collars, one at each end. The
rotation of this screw in a half nut attached to the gun causes the block
to move sidewise. The screw is cut with a considerable pitch to give
rapidity of motion, but the auxiliary screw above described is used to
start the block from its seat and to close it firmly.

35, Model of I)e RussifH depi'essing gun cai^iage^ 1835. — This car-
riage wtis devised about the year 1835, by the late Brig. Gen. li. E.
De Kussv, Corps of Engineers. The top carriage rests in front on the
eccentric axle of a pair of large wheels, the rear end resting on small
wheels running on curved wooden braces. In the firing position the
axle is in its highest position, and the small wheels on the highest point
of the braces, the gun pointing over the parapet. As the gun recoils
the wheels roll backward on cogged i*ails, carrying the axle to its lowest
position, and the tmck wheels move to the bottom of the braces, the
recoil being partly taken up l)}^ a counterpoise of metallic spokes on
the main wheels, opposite the axle, and partly by f rictional appliances.
The depression of the gun in recoil brings it under the shelter of the
parapet from direct tire of the enemy and protects the gunners in
loading. The gun is run Into battery by a windlass and chain, the
counterpoise assisting. It will be seen this carriage embodies the
principle which Colonel Montcrieff employed later in the construction
of his depressing carriage. Though this is a tieldpiece the model
serves as a type of depressing or disappearing carriage, of which
several samples have been tested, the King carriage, and the more

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1163

recent caiTiages for heavy guns, the Gordon and the Buffington-
Crozier. From West Point.

36. Pneumdtic dynamite gun, — ^This is represented only by its
projectiles.

SIEGE GUNS AND CARRIAGES.

37. Five-inch hreech-lodding steel rifle tnmmtcd on siege carriage. —
The gun consists of a central tube 138 inches long, a jacket 59.3 inches
long, a trunnion band, which Ls shrunk over the recessed end of the
jacket, 11.6 inches long, a tapering sleeve 16.2 inches long, and a screw
or locking ring 5 inches long in front of the sleeve. In front of this
for a distance of 65 inches the tube is unsupported to the muzzle. A
Ijaso ring is screwed into the rear end of the jacket tightl}^ against the
end of the tube. The inside of this base ring is threaded and slotted
for the breechblock. The whole length of the gun is 145.5 inches;
weight 3,660 pounds, with some preponderance at the end of the
breech. The rifling is uniform in twist, one turn in 35 calibers. The
number of grooves and hinds is 32. The powder chamber is c^'lin-
drical, terminated in front b}' a curved surface. The shot chamber,
composed of a cylindrical and a conical surface, furnishes a place for
the rear banded portion of the shot to rest, the forward part extending
into the grooved portion of the bore, the band bringing up against the
lands, which are beveled at their rear termination. The vent is axial
through the obturator spindle. This siege gun is constructed very
much like the field guns, the number of parts being the same and
their arrangement nearly identical. The De Bange obturator is used
as in the large guns and already described. The charge is 12i pounds
of spherohexagonal powder, and the projectile weighs 45 pounds.
The muzzle energy is 1,045 foot-tons, which makes the projectile cap-
able of penetrating 6 inches of steel at the muzzle. The usual pres-
sure per square inch in the bore is 35,000 pounds. One shot a minute
can be fired. The carriage is without a limber, and it is intended to
embody the more desirable features of the modern metal siege car-
riage, having the trunnions at a greater height from the ground and
the weight as small as possible consistent with strength and durability.
To insure the latter characteristic steel is principally ased in the con-
struction. The axis of the trunnions is 72 inches above a horizontal
plane, upon which the carriage is supported when unlimbered, and
the same axis is 10 inches in rear of the vertical plane containing the
axis of the axles. When the carriage is limbered the center of gravity-
of the gun is directly over the axle, so that the center of gi'avity of
the gun and carriage combined is between the two axles and a little
above them. The length of the flasks is such that the distance from a
line joining the points of support of the wheels to the line of support
of the shoe plate is 100 inches. The carriage consists essentially of

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1164 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

two flasks, parallel throughout, connected by bottom and top plate and
transoms. The parts of the flasks immediately under the trunnion
beds are reenf orced by two braxjes. The lower edges of the flasks and
braces are flanged and connected by bolts with the axle plates, two in
number. These plates embrace the axle closely, and are riveted
together so as to form with the axle a strong, solid-built beam. The
wheels, like those used on the field carriages, are of the Archibald
pattern. They are 5 feet in diameter, with 16 spokes 3 inches thick,
having a dish of 1.5 inches. The steel tire is 4 inches wide and five-
eighths of an inch thick. The nave box, of malleable iron, is 16.5
inches long. The wheels weigh about 350 pounds each, and they are
secured by linchpins with drag washera. The elevating apparatus is the
double screw similar to those used with the field carriage. The recoil
brake consists of a hydraulic cylinder, with throttling bar, attached to
the trail and to a pintle fastened to the platfoim directly under the
center of the axle. The total weight of the carriage is 2,820 pounds.
38, Seven-inch hreech-loading steel hmoitzer, — The gun consists of a
tube, base ring, jacket, trunnion band, split key-ring sleeve, and it
has the De Bange breech mechanism. The tube is 86.9 inches long
and it has a thickness of 2.23 inches over the powder chamber; for-
ward of that to the extremity of the sleeve, 2 inches, except under the
key ring, where it is but 1.6 inches; from the sleeve to the muzzle it
tapers to a thickness of 1.5 inches. The chamber, including the seat
for the De Bange gas check, is for 10.64 inches cylindrical, 7.2 inches
in diameter. Thence for 2.4 inches it is conical, narrowing to 7.15
inches. A second cone, one-fourth of an inch in length, in which the
bore contracts to 7 inches over the lands and 7.12 inches in the grooves,-
constitutes the beveled ends of the lands and the surface for centering
the banded projectiles, and serves to connect the chamber with the
rifled portion of the bore. The rifling is uniform, one turn in 35
calibers. A shoulder locking in the jacket prevents a thrust of the
tube to the front; a key ring in front of the trunnion band under the
sleeve, in addition to the friction due to shrinkage, prevents the
jacket and tube from being thrust to the rear b}^ the action of the
powder on the breech block transmitted through the base ring to the
jacket. The jacket is cylindrical on the exterior, with a thickness of
2.42 inches for a portion of its length, and for the remaining portion
2.75 inches. The trunnion band is cylindrical on the exterior, except-
ing the rim base and trunnions, with a thickness of 3.25 inches. The
sleeve is 2 inches thick except over the key ring and in front for 4i
inches, when it is reduced gradually to prevent an abrupt change in
the form of the exterior of the piece. The gun weighs 3,710 pounds,
the charge of granular powder is 10 pounds, and the weight of the pro-
jectile is 105 pounds. The muzzle velocity is 1,085 feet per second
and the extreme range is about 6,000 yards.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1165

The carriage for the 7-ineh howitzer (not exhibited) is in appear-
ance somewhat similar to that of the 5-inch siege gun. The trunnions
of the gun are carried in small independent slides, which are constrained
to move on the rails formed by the edges of the flasks, these rails being
inclined to the rear and downward at an angle of 20 degrees. Pistons
attached to the front of these slides work in cylinders fixed to the
front of the rails. In re»r each slide is suppoi-ted by a course of Belle-
ville springs, which return the gun into battery after the energy of
recoil has been absorbed by the recoil cylinders. The gun is elevated
by means of a circular rack with properly arranged toothed gearing
operated by a hand wheel in rear. The recoil of the carriage is taken
up by a recoil cylinder attached to the trail, similar to that used with
the siege carriage.

FIELD OUN8 AND CARRIAGES.

89, 3.64nch hreech-loading sted rijle onjidd carriage. — ^This gun is
built up of a tube extending through the whole length of the gun and
a jacket over the rear part, the jacket having the trunnions forged on
at the front end, a locking ring held in place by a sleeve securing the
front of the jacket to the tube. The tube is 83.7 inches long. The
jacket is shrunk on the tube, extending forward 34.6 inches and abut-
ting at its front end against a shoulder on the tube. The locking ring,
split in halves, fits in recesses in the tube and the front of the jacket,
and over this is shrunk a sleeve 6.2 inches long, abutting against a
shoulder near the front of the jacket. From the sleeve to the muzzle,
a distance of 43.9 inches, the tube is unsupported. The chamber is
cylindrical, very similar to that of the 3.2-inch field gun described
hereafter, and the breech mechanism is the same. The rifling is a
semicubic pai'abola, from one turn in 50 calibers to one turn in 25 cal-
ibers. The charge of powder is 4i pounds and the projectile weighs
20 pounds. The muzzle velocity is about 1,550 feet per second. The
gun weighs 1,181 pounds and the total length is 7.79 feet. This gun
is shown on a 3.2-inch gun carriage of steel, strengthened for the pur-
pose. A description of this carriage is given below.

J^O. S,'2'inck hreech-loading sted rijle on field ca/rriage^ toith limber^
hm^ses^and Iiamess, — ^This gun is built up with a central tube, 85.2
inches long, varying in exterior diameter from 6 inches to 4.6 inches
near the muzzle; and a jacket, length 25.9 inches, maximum diameter
9.56 inches, which is shrunk over the rear part of the tube, a shoulder
on which prevents the jacket from working forward. The rear end of
the tube abuts against a base ring, screwed inside of the jacket, which
projects beyond the tube at the rear. The French, or " slotted screw,''
breechblock works in this base ring. In front of the jacket, and bound
to it by an overlapping locking joint, is the trunnion hoop shrunk on
to the tube. Its width between rim bases is 9.5 inches, and its length

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1166 REPORT OP COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

8.8 inches. In front of the trunnion hoop, and bearing close against
it, is the '"sleeve," shrunk on to the tube — maximum diameter, Q.S
inches; minimum, 6.6 inches; length, 13.3 inches — ^and in front of that
is the key ring, which is screwed on to the tube, and set firmly against
the sleeve; diameter of key ring, 6.5 inches; length, 3 inches. In
front of that the tube is unsupported for a length of 38.7 inches to the
muzzle. All the parts are thus bound secul^ly together by shoulders
and screw threads in a manner which presents no greater difficulty of
construction than the shrinkage of plain, superposed clinders usually
offers. The powder chamber Is cylindrical; the shot chamber, com-
posed of two inclines and a straight surface, furnishes a plac^. for the
copper band at the rear end of the shot to rest, the forward end of the
shot extending into the groove part of the bore, the band bringing up
against the lands, which are beveled at their rear termination. The
vent is radial over the middle of the chamber. A sliding vent cover,
extending to the rear and operated by the hinged handle of the breech
screw, prevents insertion of the primer except when the breech is
closed securely. The rifling is a semicubic pambola, with a twist of
from one turn in 50 to one turn in 35 calibers, or an angle of 6 degrees.
There are twenty-four grooves and lands. The total length of the
piece is 90.7 inches; weight, 805 pounds; preponderance at end of
breech, 57 pounds.

Breech mechanism: The breechblock, 6.45 inches long by 4.47 inches
in diameter, is threaded and slotted, three sections being plain and three
with threads. The base ring in which it works is threaded and slotted
correspondingly. One-sixth of a turn, therefore, serves to lock or
unlock the block when in its place. The last or rearmost thread on the
block is not cut away, and this serves the purpose of closing the rear
face of the breech against dirt and wet, and acts as a stop for the block
when it is pressed into place. The block is held in a swinging carrier
ring, l.ii inches thick, hinged at the left side, which allows the block
to be swung to the left when drawn out, and guides the block in enter-
ing the breech on closing, allowing the block to be freely turned. It
serves, when closed, to fill the space between the jacket and the block.
This i-ing is automatically locked to, and unlocked, by the motion of
the block acting on a key -pin. The lever handle for turning the block,
and the bronze handle for withdrawing it, are fastened to its rear end.
When the lever handle is turned down, after closing the breech, it
locks the breechblock from turning.

The De Bange (French) gas check, described under the 12-inch
breech-loading steel mortar, is now used with this piece, having replaced
the Freyre (Spanish) obturator formerly used. For convenience of
reference the Freyre gas check is here described.

The Freyre obtumtor, or gas check, placed in front of the breech-
block, terminates in a head shaped like a truncated cone, small end

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1167

toward the rear. A gas-check ring of highly elastic steel, formed to
fit the cone surface on the inside, but nearly cylindrical on the outside,
surrounds this head and rests against the breechblock. The head is
not in contact with the block, but nearly so, and the distance can be
increased or diminished by the nuts screwed on to the rear end of a
spindle which passes through the center of the breechblock. A strong
spring intervenes to keep the head away from the face of the block,
except when the great pressure of the powder gases presses it home,
expanding the elastic ring against the walls of the powdiu- chamber,
and effectually cutting off all escape of gas. When the pressure is
removed the spring forces the head forward and the ring is allowed to
contract. The expansion of the gas check can thus be regulated to suit
the character of the steel in the gas-check ring. The Freyre gas check
closely resembles that used in the Williams rapid-fire gun, elsewhere
described. The latter differed only in having a split ring instead of a
continuous ring, the conical rear surface of the head acting in the same
manner to expand the ring. The Freyre system may therefore be con-
sidered an American invention, as is the case with the slotted screw
breechblock itself.

The record of the gun is as follows: Initial velocit}'^ of projectile,
1,685 feet; extreme range, about Si miles; charge of powder, 3f
pounds; weight of shell, 13i pounds; pressure of powder gases in
gun, 35,000 pounds per square inch. Some firings have teen made
with the 3.2-inch gun at the proving ground, using French smokeless
powder. A charge of 1 pound and 14 ounces of this powder with a
13.5-pound shell, gave a velpcity of about 1,680 feet and a pressure
of only 21,000 pounds. The charge with blacR hexagonal powder is
3i pounds for the same velocity and the pressure about 35,000 pounds.
Some firings have also been made with a smokeless powder of Ameri-
can manufacture, and the results, for a first attempt, are considered
promising.

41. Carriage^ limber^ a7id catssonf 07* field gmis. — A steel carriage
of the following construction is used for both the 3.6-inch gun and the
3.2-inch gun: The principal parts are the two flasks, connected by
transoms and the lunette; the two axle plates, upper and lower; the
axletree; the wheel brakes; the wheels; the elevating apparatus, and
the seats and steps. Each flask is formed by riveting together two
plates with curved margins. The cross section of the margin from
the vicinity of the trunnion beds to the tool box is approximately
semicircular; the center of the semicircle being in the plane of the
inner surface of the plate. The cross section varies for the inner and
outer plates, as the margm of the latter is prolonged in a direction
tangent to the circle until it envelops the margin of the former for a
portion of its length. The formation of this curved margin by a sin-
gle stroke illustrates a remarkable use by Colonel BuflSngton of the

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1168 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

drop hammer for very heavy work. Two large cast-iron dies are
used, shaped to give the outer and inner curves required. The plate,
cut to proper shape and heated, is placed on one die, and the other is
dropped upon it by means of a steam hammer. The trunnion beds
are reenforced by bai's of steel, which are inclosed between the mar-
gins of the flask plates and riveted to them. There are three front
transoms — upper, lower, and rear — in the vicinity of the trunnion beds
and axle plates, and three trail transoms at intervals between the axle
plates and the lunette. The axle plates, two in number, which envelop
the axletree, are made from plates formed by dies under a steam
hammer. To insure an accurate fit these plates are planed, bolted
together, and bored out. The axletree having been turned to a true
cylinder, the plates are riveted about it. The shoulder washers are
octagonal in form; to each is fitted a collar or band containing a stout
eye, to which the brakes are attached. These collars have projections
that embrace the axle plates above and below to prevent the turning
of the axle within the plates. The brakes supplied with this 3.6-inch
carMage are formed like a double-bow spring, and furnished with a
device for detaching them, if necessary, when the wheel is locked.
The brakes on the 3.2-inch carriage have spiral springs concealed
within. One end of the brake is attached to the eye on the axle
collar, and the other end has a projecting shoe which hooks over the
tire of the wheel. The elevating apparatus for the 3.6-inch gun is
that which was used with the carriage constructed at Watervliet Arse-
nal. The elevating screw guide is secured to the under side of the
upper front transom. A later form, introduced by Colonel Buffing-
ton, gives the elevation by means of lazy tongs, operated by a vertical
screw. This form, used for the 3.2-inch gun, does not require any
projection below the carriage, and the carriage is so constructed in
other respects as to leave a clear space below the level of the axles to
pass over obstructions without touching. The total weight of the car-
riage complete, including steps, wheels, and brakes, is 1,304 pounds.
The limber has a steel body with wooden ammunition chest opening
at the top like the present ammunition chests, steel chests opening in
rear being found by experiment to be undesirable. The inside dimen-
sions of chest are: Length, 42i inches; width, 24 inches, depth, 9
inches. It is divided into three compartments, the end ones 10 inches
wide, for 21 projectiles in each; the middle one for cartridges, 42 in
number. Projectiles stand on their bavses, in square compartments,
separated by copper plates. The points of the projectiles are held in
place by the cover when closed. A chest filled with dunmiy projec-
tiles and cartridges is shown with the gun and carriage. The caisson
body will be of steel, and will serve also for the traveling forge, chests
for the forge being of the same dimensions as the ammunition chest.
A portable forge is made of dimensions to fit in this chest. Instead of
hollows, a blower is used, operated })y a crank.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1169

4^. New harness for lixfJit-artillery and inachine guns.—^A full set of
wheel and lead harness, devised by Brevet Lieut. Col. E. B. Williston,
major Third Artillery, is shown on lay horses. It differs materially
from artillery harness previously used. The saddle and equipment of
cavalry are adopted in place of the old, and the harness is made to con-
form more closelj^ to the ordinary draft harness used for wagons.
It is constructed with a view to celerity and ease in harnessing and
unharnessing. The pole yoke is given up, and a neck yoke is adopted.
In place of the rigid splinter-bar, a swinging doubletree is used, with
singletrees attached, to equalize the draft of the two horses. The.
singletree is placed above the pole for light draft, and below it for
heavy loads. To unhitch, it is only necessary to unhook the singletrees
from the doubletrees, and ^lip the ring of the neck yoke off the end
of the pole. The singletrees can be then (attached to hooks on the
cantle of the saddle. Instead of a single lead line for the off horse the
bridle has two reins which unite in a single strap passing over a roller
on the saddle and hanging on the side toward the driver, where he can
readily grasp it. Wide and thin traces are used instead of the present
thick, narrow trace. The collar is hinged at the top and fastened at
the bottom by a spring fastening. Martingale and side straps are used
to hold the neck yoke down and relieve strain in holding back. A
woven-hair pad is recommended. The new harness is much lighter
than the old s^^stem. It is claimed that this harness is much more con-
venient in harnessing and unharnessing, and that it can be manufac-
tured more cheaply than that now in use; also, that its adjustment can
be more readily learned by civilians called to act as teamsters.

4^. Wlllistori^s sectional picket rope f(yr light artillei'y, — This con-
sists of several lengths of rope, each length provided with steel shoes
at the ends, one holding a link and the other a hook. The link is made
thin enough at one side for the hook to slip on, the rest of the link
being large enough to keep the hook from slipping off. The lengths
can be readily joined by these fastenings, each wagon carrying one
length, enough for the horses belonging to it when detached from the
rest of the battery. The rope is laid along the ground and secured to
it bj' iron picket pins having two hooks at the end to overlap the rope
from opposite sides. Any section can be used as a prolonge, if desired,
for the gun carriage.

^. S. 6' inch hreech-loadituj ste^il mortar and carriage on mortar plat-
form,— This is a short rifled piece intended for vertical fire, chiefly
against the personnel of the enemy, to reach troops protected by
intrenchments or inequalities of the field from the direct fire of field
guns. It takes the place in service of the Coehorn smooth bore
mortar, being much more powerful, accurate, and far-reaching than
that piece. The mortar weighs 244 pounds, and it is 24.8 inches long.
The maximum charge of powder is 1 pound, and with this charge the
COL EXPO— 02 74 ^ T

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1170 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

range of the 20-pound projectile is 3,500 yards. It fires the same
projectiles as the 3.6-inch field gun. The total length of bore is 18.9
inches, and of the rifled portion of the bore HA inches. It is rifled
with 24 grooves, having a twist varying from one turn in 40 calibers
to one turn in 25 calibers at the muzzle. The field of fire with shell
and shrapnel will embrace all ranges from about 300 to 3,500 yards,
using reduced charges of powder for the shorter ranges. The initial
velocity with the maximum charge is about 677 feet per secx)nd, and
the pressure in the bore is about 18,000 pounds per square inch. In
construction the mortar is made of a single piece of steel, forged, oil-
tempered, and annealed, and having the trunnions forged solid with
the piece. The breech mechanism is in general similar to that of the
field piece, except that the vent is axial anc^ that in the locking arrange-
ment the lever handle of the field-gun mechanism is replaced by a bolt
which is turned by a T handle. This bolt carries a vent cover, which
keeps the vent closed when the breech is unlocked. This is the only
piece now fitted with the Freyre obturator, the De Bange being
adopted for all other guns not using metallic cartridge cases. A pro-
jecting stud in the base of the breech actuates the locking piece of
the carrier ring. The carriage or mortar bed, with transoms and soles
complete, is cast of steel in one piece, and it weighs about 275 pounds.
In firing this carriage rests upon a wooden platform, which is secured
to the ground with a slight inclination upward to the rear, and the
carriage is attached by ropes to a post set into the ground, so that the
piece can not recoil from the platform. There is a pintle in the plat-
form against which a front recess on the carriage is brought to bear
before each round, merely giving a center of motion for traversing
the carriage in aiming. A pointing scale is also used for giving lateral
variations and making corrections for each shot from data furnished
by the preceding shots. This scale is a square rod of hard wood
having a side pivot at one end, which can be inserted in a socket let
into the platform on the axial line in the rear, and can be swung to
either side to meiisure the distance on a scale of cords to the rear end
of either cheek of the carriage for the purpese of fixing the direction
of the mortar with great accuracy to correspond with any desired
lateral change in aim. The scale is gmduated on one side, the unit of
the scale being one one-thousandth of the range, and each division one
five-hundredth of the range. A brass index slide moves with friction
along the length of the scale, and it is clamped b}^ a screw when regu-
lated. For reference marks a brass screw is placed at the end of each
cheek of the carriage. The carriage admits of a motion around its
pintle of about 15 degrees on either side of the axis of the platform.
The elev ation is given by a quadrant. Trials at the 1,000-yard target
show that the mortor can be pointed with considerable precision to give
a lateral variation of 15 vards in tiring:.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1171

^5. HotcKldss hreech'lodding mountain gun^ caliber 1*65 inches^ and
carriage packed on pack mules. — This gun having been devised especially
with reference to mountain service, it is made as light as practicable.
It weighs only 116 pounds, and one man is able to place it upon the
back of a mule. The weight of the carriage being but 220 pounds, the
packing, unpacking, and mounting of the gun and ite carriage require
only two men. For transportation, the material is distributed as fol-
lows: The first animal carries the gun and wheels; the second animal
carries the gun carriage, draft harness, pole or shafts, splinter bar,
pole yoke, and gunner's pouch; the third animal carries 6 ammunition
boxes containing 72 rounds. The weight on the first animal, including
saddle and fastening, is 291 pounds; on the second animal, 237^ pounds;
and on the third animal, 309i pounds. The exhibit illustrates the con-
struction of the pack saddles and the method of packing. The construc-
tion of the gun is based upon the use of a metallic cartridge, by which
the obturation of the breech is accomplished. The extraction of the
cartridge case is eflFected automatically by the opening of the breech.
The gun is made of Whitworth steel compressed in the fluid state. The
mechanism of the breech consists simply of a prismatic bolt with a cam,
entering a cavity recessed in the breech. The cartridge extractor is a
simple prismatic piece of metal, bearing at its forward extremity a
hook; it is guided in a cavity in the upper part of the breech, parallel
to the axis of the piece. On its lower face is fitted a tenon, which slides
in a groove cut in the upper face of the breechblock. The groove is
stmight on the side toward the handle, but curved at the other extremity,
so that in withdrawing the breechblock the tenon of the extractor
slides for a time in the straight part of the groove; but as soon as the
block is so far withdrawn that the opening for charging comes against
the face of the chamber the tenon becomes engaged in the inclined
portion of the groove, and is suddenly drawn backward, by which
motion the empty case is thrown out of the gun. The powder is con-
tained in a metallic cartridge case made either of wrapped metal or with
a soldered joint. Through the center of the iron head of this case is a
flame hole, closed with an internal valve, which is lifted by the flame
from the friction primer, but is closed by the pressure of the gas within
the bore when the cartridge is fired. The friction primer is inserted
in a vent in the rear of the breech housing, and the vent is prolonged
obliquely through the breechblock. A wide band of thin brass encircles
the projectile and this is forced into the rifling to give rotation. The
carriage is of steel and of simple construction, the cheeks being two
flanged plates, joined together by the trail plate, an inclined plate
through which the elevating screw passes, and an inclined plate under
the body of the piece. Capt. Frank D. Baldwin, Fifth United States
Infantry, has devised an ingenious carriage for this gun. It is fashioned
aomewhat like a mortar bed with cheek pieces but no chassis. The

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1172 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

lower parts of the cheeks can be turned outward, swinging on a hori-
zontal hinge, to fit on an aparejo, so that the gun and carriage can be
packed together on one mule for transportation. This saves the use of
one mule in semce where it is not intended to haul the gun. The
charge of powder is 269.5 grains and the shot weighs about 2 pounds.

A 3-inch breech-loading Hotchkiss mountain gun has been made and
tested with satisfactory results. This piece was designed to fire fixed
ammunition; but to meet the needs of service requiring the use of full
and half charges, it is proposed to separate the projectile from the
cartridge case, and load them separately into the gun. The cartridges
will then be put in the case in two half charges, one of which can be
readily removed when it is desired to fire with one-half charges only.
The charge is ignited by a friction primer. The piece is mounted on
a two-wheel carriage and provided with a limber for traveling pur-
poses and for transportation of ammunition. The weight of the
charge is 11 ounces, and the projectile weighs 12 pounds.

4^, YatcJi hreech-Ioading field gun^ fwt mounted, — The principal
feature of this gun is the breech mechanism, which was invented by
Colonel Yatos, a retired officer of the Army. It is novel in principle
and in application. It consists of a couple of concave clamps (half
sections), which, when closed, embrace the breech of the gun exteri-
orly, and are intended to aflFord longitudinal support to a solid head
cartridge case, or whatever may be used within the breech end of the
tube for the actual gas sealing device, which is entirely independent
of the breech-loading mechanism, and not to be understood as forming
a pai-t of it. The clamps form a shell or envelope for the entire
breech of the gun, divided into two equal parts or sections, which meet
in a vertical plane through the axis of the gun. The two clamps are
hinged in common, well forward on the reinforce of the gun, and
grooves or shoulders are cut circumferentially on the interior of the
clamps. These shoulders, when the clamps are closed, hook upon
corresponding shoulders cut around the reinforce of the gun, and
afford longitudinal support to the clamps. A hinged shutter, flat in
front and rounded in rear, forms an inner cover to the breech, to
serve as a support to the cartridge shell, and it carries a shell extractor
to extract the shell in opening. The clamps come to a close bearing
over the breech end of the tube, to support the shutter, and they open
wide enough to uncover a little more than the diameter of the bore nt
the breech and allow the shutter to be swung downward. The open-
ing and closing is done by means of a lever attached to the under side
of the breech of the gun, pins on either clamp working in grooves cut
in the lever. The vent is axial through a tube projecting through
the clamps from the rear of the shutter.

,^7. Models of Gerdxmi hreech mechanis^n for field gu7W, — These mod-
els show a new form of interrupted screw breech mechanism, with

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WORLD^S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1173

only two threaded sections on the breechblock. One model has the
mushroom head with gas check pad and cups of the DeBang system
for checking the gas, while the other has the front of the breechblock
flat, and has an extractor for use with metallic cartridge cases. The
breech of the gun is slotted on the left side for a distance equal to
about the length of the breechblock, and in this slot, hinged at the for-
ward extremity, swings a carrier block, to which is rigidly attached
a carrier ring in which the breechblock turns. The breechblock is
planed off on two opposite sides, and is threaded between these sur-
faces to engage, when closed, with threads cut at top and bottom in the
breech of the gun. To open the breech, the breechblock is rotated
for a quarter of a turn, disengaging the screw threads and bringing
the flat surfaces horizontal. Then the carrier block is swung to the
left out of the way of the bore. This saves one of the motions of the
ordinary screw mechanism, that of drawing back the breechblock. The
mechanism with mushroom head has an axial vent and a safety vent-
closing device worked automatically in the closing of the breechblock.
The other device hasa firing pin, which is cocked ready for firing when
the breech block is opened, and is fired by a lanyard. There is an
extractor sliding in grooves on the left side of the bore of the breech,
which is engaged by a lug on the hinge of the carrier block when the
block is about three-quarters open. The former mechanism has been
successfully tried on a 3.2 breech -loading field gun.

The following table gives data concerning all the breech-loading
guns adopted in the United States service for land defense:

United States Army breech-loading cannon^ 189^,

Mountai

Hotch-
kiss 1.65-
inch B.

L. rifle,

steel.

a artillery.

Hotchlciss
3-inch B.

Field artillery.

Weights, dimensions, etc.

3.2-inch
B. L. rifle,

3.2 inch
B. L. rifle,

3.6-inch
B. L. rifle.

3.6-inch
B. L. mor-
tar, steel,
model
1890.

L. rifle,
steel.

steel, mod-
el 1885.

model
1890.

steel, mod-
el 1891.

weight {^^i^-:

121

218

829

805

1,181

244

Total length feet..

Length of bore calibers. .

Maximum diameter of breech,

8.83*

3," 76*

7."66"

7."3i'

7.* 79"

i'os

25.33

13.48

26.0

25.2

23.5

5.19

inches

5.03
2.66

6.7
3.94

9.56
6.1

9.0
5.0

9.8
6.0

7.8

Diameter of muzzle . . .inches. .

5.4

Diameter of trunnions. . .do —

1.8

2.56

3.8

3.8

3.8

3.8

Length of trunnions do —

1.8

2.44

2.25

2.7

3.0

2.5

Distance between rim bases,

inches

4.7

7.09

9.6

9.5

9.5

9.5

Distance of axis of trunnions

from muzzle inches..

Rifling:

Number of grooves

27.3

26.6

60.4

57.719

57.25

14.0

10.0
0.36

24.0
0.276

24.0
0.3

24.0
0.3

26.0
0. 3162

20.0

Width of grooves . .inches. .

0.4454

Depth of grooves — do —
Width of lands do ... .

0.012

0.026

0.05

0.04

0.04

0.045

0.167

0.117

0.1188

0.1188

0.1188

0.12

fl in 50.0

1 in 50.0

1 in 40.0

Twist of rifling. . .calibers. .

1 in 29.83

1 in 26. 69

lin30

\ ^0
|l in 25.0

to
1 in 25.0

to
1 in 25.0

Powder chamber:

Diameter inches. .

1.8

3.161

3.8

8.6

3.9

3.8

Length do

4.6

3.73

11.508

10.7

12. 275

2.835

Capacity cubic inches. .

11.71

27.12

109.7

110.3

149.2

33.2

Total capacity of bore, cubic

inches

93.6

292.0

714. 7

689.3

894.5

200. 2

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REPORT OF OOMMITTEB ON AW ARM.

United States Army breech-loading cannon, ISBiS—Contmned.

Weights, dimensions, oto.

Mountain artillery.

Hotoh-
kiss 1.66-
inch B.
L. rifle,
steel.

Hotchkifls

&-ineh B.

L. rifle,

steel.

Field artillery.

3.2-lnch
B. L. rifle,
steel, mod*

ell885.

a.2-inch

B. L. rifle,

model

1890.

Powder charge:

Kind of iK)wder !| Mortar.

Weight of charge. pounds. . •h.b

Density of loading I 0.8127

Projectile:

Weightof projectile (filled)
pounds 1.95

Ratio of weight to weight
of piece

Weightof bursting charge,
pounds "!•«

Length of projectile, cali-
bers 3. 5

Sectional den.sit v-^ 1 0. 71G3 ,

d« I

Travel of projectile, in bore,

calibers 22.56 '

Muzzle velocity., foot-seconds.. 1,298 |
Pressure jx^r square inch In

powder chamber . . .pounds

Muzzle energy foot-tons. . 22. 8 I

Penetration In steel at—

Muzzle inches. . 1. 3

1,000 yards do —

2,'500 yards do —

. 3,600 yards do —

Forglngs:

Total weight pounds. .

Weight of tube do

Weight of jacket . . . .do. . . .

IK Gran-
ular.
•14.0
0.9

12.0

A.
•fi.:j

URsphero-l URsphero-
hex. hex.

3.6

3.5
.3:m

12.243
870

14,660
63.0

1.4

0.8832 1
13.5

•7.25
3 0

l.3is:i

22.5

36,000
265.7

3.6
0.8783

3.8

13.5

•7.25

3.0
1.3L83

21.81
1,686

35,000 I
265.7 ;

3.6-inch
B. L. rifle,
steel, mod-
el 1891.

I 3.6-inch
B. L. mor-
I tar, steel,
1 model
1890.

URsphero-
hex.
4.1875
0.7769

3.8

20

•14.6

3.25
1.6432

20.08
1,660

35,000
8S3.1

3.9

1,397

622
426

1,292 I

624
683

1,803

838
866

URspheio-
hex.
•16.0
0.8339

ao

•14.6

3.25
1.6IS2

4.47
650

16.000
68.6

1.1

319
277

Weights, dimensions, etc.

weight {^^1-

Total length feet

Length of bore calibers. ,

Maximum diameter of breech,

inches

Diameter of muzzle inches. .

Diameter of trunnions . . .do

length of trunnions do

Distance between rim bAses,

inches

Distance of axis of trunnions

from muzzle inches. .

Rifling:

Number of grooves ,

Width of grooves . .inches. .

Depth of grooves do

Width of lands do

Twist of rifling . . .calibers. .

Powder chamber:

Diameter inches. .

Length do....

Capacity. . . . cubic inches. .
Total capacity of bore, cubic

inches

Powder charge:

Kind of powder

Weight of chaise, .pounds. .

Density of loading

Proiectile:

Weightof projectile(filled),
pounds

Siege artillery.

Seacoast artillery.

6-inch B. L.
rifle, steel,
model 1890.

7-iuchB.L. ,

howitzer, I

steel, model I

1890. I

7-inch B. L.

mortar,

steel, model

1892

8-lnch B. L.

rifle, steel,

model

1888, M.

3,660 ;

3,710 I

1,716

12. 15 1
27.0

15.0 I
8.0
5.8
3.3

15.0

96.25

30.0

0.3736

0.05

0.16

[ 1 in 50.0

to

1 in 25.0

5.7
15. 15
395.6

2,824.5

IB sphero-
, hex.

12.5
0.8746

8.475
12.67

16.7
10.0
7.0
4.0

18.0

04.87

42.0

0.3736

0.06

0.15

1 in 50.0

to
1 in 25.0

7.2
7.465
315.7

3,620.1

7.0

13.8
10.6
7.0
4.0

14.3

34.16

28.0

0.6354

0.065

0.150

lin40

to
linl6

7.25

4.18
182.8

1,950.9

IK gran- IB sphero-

ular.

10.0
0.8768

45 '

1W>

hex.

5.5

125

32,480

14.6

23.21

32.0

30.0
14.0
10.0
6.0

32.6

183.0

48.0
0.3736

0.06

0.160

lin60

to
lin26

9.6
60.76
3,697

14,126

UR brown
pris.

126.0
0.9619

300

10-inch B,L.

rifle, steel,

model

1888, M.

67,200

90.0

90.60

d4.0

38.6
16.8
12.0
6.76

42.0

243.6

60.0
0.3736

0.06

0.160

linSO

to
lin26

11.8
65.09
7,064

28,977

VU brown
pris.

260.0
0.9797

676

» Ounces.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

WORLD 8 COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.
IMited States breech-loading cannon, 189iS — Continued.

1175

Weight, dimensions, etc.

Siejfe artillery.

Wneh B. L.
rifle, steel,
model 1890.

7-inch B. L. 7-inch B. L.

howitzer, | mortar,

steel, model , steel, model

1890. 1892.

Projectile— Continued.

Ratio of weight to weight
of piece

Weight of bunting charge,
pounds

Length of projectile, cali-
bers

Sectional densitv=?*

ds
Travel of projectile, in bore,

calibers

Muzzle velocity. .foot-seconds. .
Pressure per square inch in

powder chamber pounds. .

Muzzle energy foot-tons. .

I*enetration in steel at—

Muzzle inches. .

1 ,000 yards do

2,600 yards do

3.600 yards do

Foigings:

Total weight pounds. .

Weight of tube do. . . .

Weight of jacket do. . . .

1^ ,

2.58

1.8000

1.830

35,840
1,045.0

6.2
4.6
3.0
2.5

5,543 .
2,421 I
2,031

9.8
3.0

2.142S

11.6;
1.0S5

28,224
866.9

3.8
8.2

2.7 '
2.4

5,722 1

1,224 I

Seacoast artillery.

8-inch B. L.

rifle, steel,
model
1888, M.

12.5
3.6'

2. 1428
6.40 i

18,000
412.5

2.2

2,206
1,982 ,

3.5
4.5

4. 6875

25.66
1.950

37,000
7,907.5

16.0
14.2
11.9
10.6

39,674
9,632
9,712

10-inch B. L.

rifle, steel,

model

1888, M.

ar

3.5
4.5

5.7500

27.51
1,975

37,000
15,548

20.4
18.5
16.0
14.6

82,664
18,946
18, 115

Weights, dimensions, etc.

Seacoast artillery.

12-inch B.L.

rifle, steel,

model

1888, M.

Weight {^^_-

Total length feet..

Length of bore calibers. .

Maximum diameter of breech,

inehes

Diameter of muzzle. . . .inches. .

Diameter of trunnions. . .do

Length of trunnions do

Distance between rim ba.ses,

inches »

Distance of axis of tni unions

from muzzle inches. .

Rifling:

Number of grooves

Width of grooves. . inches. .

Depth of grooves do —

Width of lands do. . . .

Twist of rifling . . .calibers. .

Powder chamber:

Diameter inches. .

Length do

Capacity cubic inches. ,

Total capacity of bore, cubic
inches

Powder charge:

Kind of powder

Weight of charge .pounds. .

Density of loading

Projectile:

Weight of projectile(filled)

pounds

Ratio of weight to weight

of piece

116,480
52.0
S6.66
34.0

46.2
20.2
14.5
8.0

60.2

291.10

12-inch B. L.
rifle, steel,
m^xiel 1891.

16-inch B. L.
rifle, steel,
model 1892.

128,719
57.6
40.0
37.83

46.4
19.8
14.5

8.0

60.2
318.1

280,000

125

49.67

35.0

62.0
27.0

72.0

0.37:«J

0.06

0.160

1 in 50

to
1 in 25

72.0

0.3736

0.06

0.150

1 in 50

to
1 in 25

96.0

0.3736

0.07

0.160

1 in 50

to
1 in 25

14.2
77.33
12, 114

14.5

78.58
12.798

18.8
106.06
29,341

50,049

56,829

121,487

VP brown
pris.

Brown pris.

Brown pris.

450.0
1.0285

487.0
1.0535

1,060
1.000

1.000

1,000

2,370

ih

ih

ikn

396 '

12-inoh B. L.

mortar,

cast iron,

hooped with

steel.

31,920

14.25

10.75

9.0

41.75
22.5
12.0
6.0

44.0

79.1

68.0

0.379

0.07

0.175

1 in 40

to
1 in 25

12.4
15.75
1,990

12,554

VM brown
pris.
80.0
1. 1128

, f 800
■••- t 1,000

12-inch B. L.

mortar,

steel.

29,120

13.0

11.76

10.0

38.0
21.0
12.0
8.0

40.0

90.125

72.0

0.3736

0.06

0.150

1 in 40

to
1 in 20

12.5
20.8
2,636

13,947

VM brown
pris.

105.0
1.1026

800
1,000

• The 1,000-pound 12-inch mortar shell may
the 800-pouna shell will be used for greater
^ For 800-pound shell.

be used for ranges up to 2| miles, with reduced charges;
ranges and the maximum charge.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

1176 REPORT OF COMMITTKE ON AWARDS.

rnited Siateif Army breech-loading rannoti, 189^ — Continued.

Seacoast ardller}'*

Weighta, dimcnaionH. etc.

12-lnch B, L.

rifle. sU'ol,

model

1888. M.

12-inch B. L.
rifle. 8U»el.
model 1891.

I

rrojoctile— Con ti nucd .

Weight of burytinK charge.

poiindH

Length of projectile, eall-
iK'n*

Seetional clenHity -- "

Travel of projectile In Ixire,
ciiliberH

Muzzle vel<K*ity. .foot.wconds. .

Prewiire per square inch in
ix)wder chamljor iKmnds. .

Muzzle energy f(K>t-ton8. .

Penetration in Hteel at^ i

Muzzle inches. . I

l.(JOO yanls do....

2.f)00 ynnlH do

iJ.riOO yardH do

Forgings:

Total weight pounds.,,

Weight of tube do....

Weight of jacket do. . . . '

3.5
4.5 ,

•27.58 I
l.'.i7.->

37,001)
27, WO I

24.9 '

23.0

20.4

18.7 I

140,578 I
'^'\ 490
31.2i9 '

• For 800-pound shell.

Ordnance Office, U. 8. K.,

Wtifthinrjtnn, I). (\, May ^5. 1H9S.

16-inch B.L.
rifle, steel,
model 1892.

12-inch B. L. .
mortar, 12-lnch B. L.
cajit iron, mortar,

hooped with ! steel,
steel.

3.5
4.5

6.9445

31.29
2.100 I

38.000 I
30,570 '

27.1 I
•25.1 I
22.3 I
'20.6 <

152.860 I

34,374 j.

3.5'

4.5 I

9.2578

28.37
1.975 I

37,000 ,
61,0S4 I

33.8 '

31.9 '.
29.2

27.5

3:%. 000

J 30.8

■ \ S7.5

3.0

8.8 I

» 5. 5556 ;

.020

27,500
5,769.7

•8.2 I

b 36,220 I
21,178

*> Includiug cast-iron body.

37..=»
:lo

3.H

•1.140

30,000
7.206.9

•9.7

:M.8S4
7.64J6
9. MO

RAPID-FIRK GUNS.

4B. Willlnnw raptd-fire gun^ rljltd^ caliber 1.56 inches. — Though
used in the war of the rebellion, this corre.sponds to the class of quick
lojiders, now exemplified by the Hotchkiss, Seabury, or Driggs-
Schroeder rapid-tire guns, the latter, however, having the great
advantages of using self- primed metallic-case ammunition, to which
the Williams gun might readily })e adapted for use with moderate
calibers. The Williams gun has a breechblock moving back and forth
in the line of the barrel. It is openited by turning a crank on the
right side. Upon the crank shaft, which is perpendicular to the axis
of the bore, is an eccentric which alternately withdraws and pushes in
the breechblock to open and close the breech. A worm at the end of
the shaft w^orks on the end of the lever at the left side of the piece,
the lever having a hammer at the other end. When the end of the
worm is reached, the hammer thus raised is released and forced by a
epring against a nipple on which a percussion cap is placed. The
mechanism is so arranged that just after the breechblock is closed the
hammer falls and tires the piece. The breechblock is supported
against the shock of the discharge by the eccentric, which transfers
the strain to the shaft upon which it revolves. The gas check used in
the Williams gun closely resembles the Spanish Freyre gas check used
in the new United States breech-loading field mortar, and formerly used
with the 3.2-inch field piece. The inventor, Mr. D. li. Williams, of

Digitized by VjOOQIC

world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1177

Covington, Ky., took the gun South at the beginning of the rebellion,
and it was adopted by the Confederate Government. Some of the
batteries are said to have done much execution. The inventor claims
to have tired 65 shots per minute. In operation of breech mechanism
it most nearly resembles the Grardner gun described under machine
guns.

Jfi, Ilotchkiss 6-pounder rapid-fire gun. — The body of the gun con-
sists of three pieces of oil-tempered steel — the tube, extending from
the face of the muzzle to the front face of the breechblock, compris-
ing the whole length of the bore; the jacket, which is shrunk over
the rear part of the tube and which carries both the trunnions and the
breechblock; the locking ring, a screwed collar connecting the tube
and jacket and which carries the fore-sight mass. By this construc-
tion the tube bears the main traverse strains, the jacket bears all the
longitudinal strains, and the locking ring insures against the displace-
ment of the tube and jacket. The bore is rifled with an increasing
twist, and the lands, 24 in number, are very narrow in proportion to
the grooves. The breechblock is a square hollow steel block with
rounded comers, having a vertical motion in a mortise, cut com-
pletely through the jacket. The front face of the block is pei'pen-
dicular to the axis of the bore, while the rear face is slightly inclined.
The front upper comer is cut back to allow free movement to the
extractor. In the hollow part of the block is contained the firing
mechanism. That part of the front face of the breechblock which
covers the bottom of the bore consists of a removable face plate of
hard steel, dovetailed into the face of the block and secured by two
screws. By the downward movement of the breechblock the breech is
opened, the empty cartridge case is extracted, and the firing mechanism
is cocked. The breechblock is moved, and also held fast when closed,
b}^ a crank arm, which has a small stud in its end, traveling in a groove
in the block. The crank shaft is journaled in the right cheek of the
breech, carrying the crank handles at its outer end and having a small
spring catch to hold the breech closed. The hammer is mounted in the
middle line of the breechblock, and it carries a detachable firing pin
which passes through a hole in the face plate to strike the primer of
the cartridge. A loose trigger is carried in a pistol grip secured to
the rear of the breech; when the breechblock is closed, this trigger
is brought in contact with the sear, so that by pulling it the hammer is
allowed to fly forward and fire the gun. The extractor is a single
piece of steel working in a longitudinal groove in the left cheek of the
breech. Its forward end is shaped into a hook to grasp the head of
the cartridge. On the same side of the extractor as the hook is a small
stud, which travels in a curved groove in the breechblock, thus giving
motion to the extractor. When the breechblock is run down it is
prevented from dropping clear out of its mortise by a stout stop bolt

Digitized by VjOOQIC

1178 REPORT OF COltMlTTEE ON AWARDS.

screwed through the left cheek of the breech, its end traveling in a
gi'oove in the left face of the breechblock.

60, Seahm^ 6-poundei' rapid-fire gun. — The gun proper is verv sim-
ilar to other rapid-fire guns of the same caliber, the diflFerence l)eing
confined to the breech mechanism. In this gun an interrupted-screw
breechblock is used, and by the continuous movement of a lever hinged
to the right side of the breech it is rotated, withdrawn until it rests
upon a swinging carrier tray in rear, and then swung to one side,
leaving the breech open for loading The rotation of the ))lo<*k is
accomplished by means of a yoke projecting rearward from the block,
and having a curved slot within which the lever moves backward and
forward. As the lever begins to move it rotates the yoke and breech-
block, and when the threads of the block are disengaged the lever
brings up against the end of the slot and withdraws the block until it
rests on the carrier tray and unlocks it from the breech. Then, con-
tinuing the motion of the lever, the block is swung around to the
right. The opening of the breechblock operates the extractor to force
out the cartridge shell, and cocks the firing pin. There is a safety
device, so that the gun can not be fired before the block is completely
locked. A reversal of the movement of the lever swings the carrier
tray back, then pushes in the breechblock and turns it. The piece is
fired by a trigger as in the other guns.

51, D^rUjgS'Schroeder S-pounder gun^ on cri^noUne mount, — The gun
is ''built up," and it consists of a tube, jacket, and hoop. The breech-
block engages in the jacket. The hoop, the first piece to be shrunk on
the tube, is slipped on from the muzzle end until the shoulder on its
interior is close against a corresponding shoulder on the tube. The
jacket is then put on from the breech end. This method insures per-
fect contact at the shoulders between the tube and hoop. On the
exterior of the gun is cut a screw thread, part of which is on the hoop
and part on the jacket, and on this is screwed the trunnion band, thus
locking the entire system and preventing any longitudinal motion
between tube and jacket or hoop. The breechblock, which is a single
piece, has first a motion downward, to disengage it from its support,
and then a rotary motion to the rear. This support is effected by
bands upon the top and sides of the block. The sides taper slightly
toward the top, so that the bands, which engage in grooves in the
interior of the breech, are released from these grooves by the down-
ward motion of the block. These grooves are inclined about 2^ 30'
to the front and upward, so that the block when pushed up into
position in closing is also pressed forward, forcing the cartridge case
home, and the block in opening readily detaches itself from the head
of the case. There is a spring lock on the operating handle, and this
lock, when the breech is closed, prevents the block from moving under
stress of any kind except that applied directly to the handle. The

Digitized by VjOOQIC

WOKLd's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1179

handle turns a shaft which forms the hinge of the breechblock, but
this shaft is formed with a cam which forces up the breechblock in the
final operation of closing, the hinge hole in the breechblock being
elongated to allow this motion. In opening, the cam as it turns with-
draws the axial firing pin and forces down the block, so engaging with
the block that a further rotation of the cam carries the block with it.
The extractors, one on each side, lie flat against the face of the tube of
the gun and in recesses in the front face of the block. The bearing sur-
faces on the extractors are so arranged that the motion is at first slow,
with a powerful leverage. During the latter part of the rotation of the
block the motion is quick. The breechblock can be opened and closed
with ease by the left hand, and it is claimed that the best service is
obtained by having the operating handle on the left side.

The gun is mounted on a crinoline nonrecoil mount, which consists
of two main parts — the pivot and the stand. The pivot is a single gun-
metal casting, having the upper end forked like the letter Y and the
lower end shaped to fit the socket in the stand. The upper part of the
Y is fitted to the trunnions, which are secured in place by cap squares
held down by screw bolts. In order to clamp the gun at any angle of
elevation the bolt heads have holes to receive the end of a small lever,
by means of which they are screwed down hard and the cap squares
forced down so as to bind the trunnions. The stand is a single steel
casting with eight legs and socket, all being in one piece. The shoulder
rest is attached to the right side of the gun and the gun is fired by
means of a trigger.

The total length of the gun is 107.3 inches and the length of the
bore is 100.98 inches — that is, 45 calibers. The projectile weighs
6 pounds and the powder charge is Si ounces of cubical powder.
The initial velocity is about 1,900 feet per second and the range for
13-degree elevation is about 5,500 yards.

VOLLEY GUNS AND MACHINE GUNS.

Even in the days of matchlocks examples are found in which several
guns of small caliber were attached to the same stock and fired succes-
sively by the same man, and the accompanying print shows a revolving
cannon of the sixteenth century. This had one barrel, through which
shots were fired successively from ten chambers in a cylinder revolving
in rear. In each chamber two charges were placed, one behind another.
The front charge was first fired, and then the rear one, a slow match being
used, applied to vents over the powder. The vents were provided
with sliding covers. The first systematic employment of guns of this
class in war, however, was that of the French mitrailleuse, now obso-
lete. It is illustrated in the exhibit by description and drawings.
The machine gun possesses the advantage over volley guns of giving
a constant succession of shots by automatic reloading, and some guns

..gitized by Google

1180 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

combine the advantages of both sj^stems. These guns are usually of
comparatively small caliber, firing small-arm cartridges, and they are
either mounted as wall pieces or placed on carriages like field guns.
They are here classed, therefore, as intermediate between cannon and
hand firearms.

A remarkable development recently made in machine guns consists
in the utilization of the recoil of the barrel to opei'ate mechanism for
reloading. These guns were at first too startling in action to be fully
acceptable. Devices for making the breechblock fire the piece auto-
matically in closing appear in several of the modern magazine guns,
and other examples of automatic arms are described among hand fire-
arm— sthe Pitcher automatic and the Freddi automatic recoil guns.
Rec^ent improvements in positive feed, to replace the gravity feed for
machine guns, seem to offer great promise.

6^^. French mitrailleuse^ represented in the exhibit hy description and
drawings. — This gun had 25 barrels grouped in parallel rows of 5, all
terminating at the rear in one slot in the breech casing for the recep-
tion of a movable breechblock, having short cartridge chambers cor-
responding to the different barrels. Several of these blocks could be
loaded up in advance, and after the shots were discharged from one it
would be removed and another substituted. Each barrel had a sep-
arate firing pin, and these pins were released in succession by mechan-
ism operated by a crank.

63. Vandefiburg volley gun^ with carriaye,^ obsolete. — Said to be of
English manufacture, and to have been captured from the Confederates.
It consists of 86 barrels, caliber 0.46 inch, grouped in a cylindrical
casing of bronze. A breech piece, with corresponding muzzle-loading
cartridge-chambers, copper lined, fits in rear, this piece being attached
to a hinge and slide, and having an independent screw block at the
outer end to screw into the casing from the rear. After firing, the
block had to be unscrewed, pulled out, and swung down. The cham-
bers were then separately reloaded, the breech closed, and all the
charges fired at once by a percussion cap in rear. The copper lining
of the chambers projects a little from the block to fit into the barrek
and serve as gas check.

5Jf.. liefjua battery gun^ with carriage^ caliber .53^ obsohte. — For
simultaneous discharge of 25 barrels. The barrels are placed side by
side in the same plane, and loaded successively at the breech with paper
ammunition. The breech action gives a very firm supp)ort against the
shock of discharge. All the barrels are closed by a single sliding plate,
which is supported by another plate hinged to its rear edge, the free edge
resting against a shoulder on the frame of the gun when the breech plate
is pushed forward. The hinged plate is operated by a lever working
in a vertical plane paiullel to the hne of fire. The lever is hinged to
the frame and to the rear end of the hinged plate, so that pulling

Digitized by

Google

world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1181

the lever backward raises the plate over the supporting shoulder, and
pulls it to the rear. The breech plate and hinged plate constitute prac-
tically a broad breechblock and locking cam, like that used in the
Springfield breech-loading rifle, except that the breech plate, instead
of being hinged to the barrels at the front, like the breechblock of the
Springfield, is made to slide backward and forward. The gun failed
with paper cartridges for want of a proper gas check, but for metallic-
case cartridges the breech system would answer for guns of the type
of the Nordenf eldt. The barrels can be brought together at the muzzle,
or spread apart, as desired, by a lever below. Used at the siege of
Fort Wagner, S. C.

56, Guthrie and Lee machine gun^ caliher .70^ obsolete. — Two barrels
are fixed to the frame. At right angles to their length travels a
breechblock, to which a horizontal hand lever gives a lateral reciprocal
motion. By this movement chambers in the block are brought firat
opposite the barrels, and then opposite loading troughs fixed at the
side of the barrels and in front of the block. Cartridges are placed
singly by hand in these troughs, and pistons force the cartridges auto-
matically into the chamber. When the chambers come opposite the
barrels, the (charge is fired by a concealed lock. The loading troughs
and pistons are interesting pieces of mechanism. No record of this
gun is accessible.

56. Union repeating rifle or coffee-mill gim, with carriage^ single barrel^
caliber .58, obsolete. — Short, muzzle-loading barrels or chamber pieces,
with an axial nipple at the rear, are used to hold the charges. A
number of these are loaded and capped and fed by means of a hopper
upon a fluted cylinder, which revolves and brings the charges in suc-
cession in rear of the long barrel, pausing long enough to allow the
charge to be fired. A wedge-shaped block, moving vertically in rear,
forces each small chamber piece in turn forward against the rear of
the barrel to prevent escape of gas, and serves to support the recoil.
But one lock is used, working through a slot in the block. After
firing, the chamber pieces are carried round to an opening which allows
them to fall out. They can be reloaded and used again indefinitely.
A crank at the side operates the breech mechanism. This gun was
used at the siege of Petersburg.

57. Lmnell machine gun, caliber .JtB. — Cartridges are fed from above
by means of a vertical feed guide, grooves in the guide catching the
flange and leaving the rest of the cartridge free. They fall on a block
revolving about an axis parallel to the barrel, and drop successively
into grooves in the outer surface. Turning a crank revolves this block
and brings one cartridge after another opposite the barrel, the block
remaining stationary long enough for the sliding breech bolt to push
the cartridge into the chamber and draw out the shell after firing.
One lock only is needed, and only one bolt. A firing pin worked

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1182 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

by a spring is released when the gun is loaded. This is the first gun
here described using metallic ammunition. The gun has not stood the
tests of seiTice. The action is jerky and irregular. Four parallel
barrels are provided with this gun. They are arranged to be turned
around an axle. When a barrel gets heated up by firing, a new barrel
is moved up, and so on.

68, Gardner gun^ improved^ with carriage. — This gun has two bar-
rels side by side, to be fired alternately. A bolt is placed in rear of
each barrel, and these bolts are actuated by cams on a horizontal
shaft pei-pendicular to them. This shaft is turned by a handle at the
side, and the cams are so placed as to draw out one bolt while pushing
in the other, releasing a firing pin on each bolt when the cori"espond-
ing barrel is loaded. The feed case, similar to that on the Lowell, is
double, containing a row of cartridges for each barrel, a swinging
plate closing openings below alternately. The Imrrels are inclosed
in a hollow sheath of bronze, intended for holding water to prevent
heating the barrels too much in firing. The water is poured in at the
top at one end and allowed to flow oflF through the bottom at the
other end.

59. Gatling guns^ 10 barrels.^ caliber .i5. — Two of these guns are
shown, one of model 1890, and the other of earlier model. They are
both mounted on their (carriages. The barrels are fixed on a revolving
frame, parallel to the axle of the gun, and they are revolved by turn-
ing a crank, which can be placed at the side or rear of the breech casing
at pleasure. The frame projects to the rear of the barrels in the form
of a drum, longitudinal slots in the outer surface holding opposite each
barrel a sliding breech bolt with a spring firing pin. A curved lip on
the interior of the stationary breech casing which envelops the drum
engages the bolts and wedges them forward and back as the barrels
revolve. When a bolt is well drawn back, its firing pin catches in
another lip, which holds it back as the bolt moves forward. This com-
presses the firing spring, and the revolution carries the pin to the end
of the lip, where it is released when the bolt is pushed home, and so
the cartridge is fired. Cartridges fall successively from the feed case
into the slots of the dinim in rear of the Imrrels, through a mouth in
the casing near the top, over the position of a barrel when the corre-
si)onding bolt is drawn back. By the forward and back motion of the
bolts, as the barrels revolve, first the cartridges are pushed into the
barrels, and then the empty shells are drawn out, a spring hook, which
projects beyond the front of each bolt at the side, acting as extractor.
The operations of loading, firing, and extracting the shells are going
on in different barrels at the same time while the barrels are revolving.
The gun has a universal-pivot mounting, which allows it to be turned
in any direction by the pointing lever. Clamps secure it in any posi-
tion. Cartridges are supplied to the gun of earlier model by means of

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WOBLD's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1183

the Bruce feed frame, or by the Accles feed drum, the gun being fitted
to receive either form. The old straight feed cases are practically
abandoned.

The Bruce feed: In this a vertical frame over the mouth in the cas-
ing holds a swing plate, on the front face of which are two channels
with undercut sides to catch the flanges of the cartridges. This plate
can be shifted so as to bring these channels altenately over the mouth
and allow the columns of cartridges to fall down by gravity. The
ordinary paper boxes in which the cartridges come from the arsenals,
holding 20 cartridges in two rows, can be used in the Gardner gun for
filling the feed channels. The cover oflf the box, the flanges of all the
cartridges can be slid into the channels, and pulling the box forward
leaves the cartridges behind.

The Accles feed drum: This holds the cartridges in spiral guides
within, a series of mdial arms revolving together and pushing the
cartridges toward the orifice. Projections on the revolving frame of
the gun engage the ends of the arms and turn them by a positive
motion without the use of an actuating spring in the drum. The
drums hold about 100 cartridges, and with this attachment shots can
be fired at the rate of 1,200 per minute. The drums can be readily
filled from the cartridge boxes by an ari-angement similar to the Bruce
feed. The attachment for the Accles drum is omitted in the gun
of model 1890, as that feed has been given up for the army service.

Recent changes in the method of feeding cartridges to Gatling guns
are claimed to give great advantages in rapidity and sureness of action,
and to involve less additional weight in feed cases. It is proposed to
change the position of the handle to a point in the axis of the trunnion,
so as to produce less liability to deflection of aim in turning the handle.
It is also proposed to apply an electric motor for operating this
handle, with an attachment for cutting off the connection with the gun
at any moment without stopping the motor. One form of feed case is
here illustrated.

The new Gatling feed cases consist of tin or brass strips of any
desired length. Two rows of V-shaped slots are cut each side of the
center, lengthwise of the strips, and opposite to a small rectangular
recess which is punched in the edge of the plate. The tongues of
these slots are bent upward, forming circular prongs of a diameter
slightly smaller than the cartridges. When the cartridges are thrust
into the clasp of the prongs the rims settle into the recesses to prevent
endwise movement. Instead of having the vertical feed slot for the
gun in the top of the casing a horizontal slot is made,"passing over
the carrier cylinder of the gun just in rear of the barrel. Through
this slot the feed strips are pushed in from the left side, cartridges
downward. The cartridges are caught successively by the edges of
the grooves in the carrier cylinder and pushed along until released

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1184 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

from the prongs on the strip by a finger which wedges in between the
strip and the cartridges. The cartridges are fed into the barrels in
the usual manner. This device has been adopted by the Gatling
company.

Another device is the new Acclas feed. The feed case of this system
is also a strip of tin or brass, but instead of having fingers clitsp the
cartridges the strip is corrugated so that the cartridges lie in successive
hollows in the tin. These tins are set in pasteboard boxes, which are
placed vertically on the gun a little to one side of the carrier cylinder.
The box once in position, the lowest cartridge is caught by a toothed
wheel turning about a horizontal axis on the left side of the piece, and
it draws the cartridge down, pulling with it the corrugated strip of
tin. The tin passes on and drops out at the bottom while the cartridges
are carried around by the toothed wheel until they are pushed into
position to be caught in the slots of the carrier cylinder, and fed into
the gun in the usual manner.

60, Ilotehkiss hiachluegun^ or revolving cannoii^ caJiher 1,^57 inclieH^
With carriage, — There are 5 barrels grouped around a common axis
revolving in front of a fixed breech cylinder. For smaller calibers 10
barrels are sometimes used. The barrels, of the finest oil-tempered
cast steel, are held in two disks on a central shaft, the rear end of the
shaft passing through the face of the breech cylinder to receive a
rotary motion from the driving gear within. A rectangular frame,
which is attached to the breech, passes forward around the front of
the barrels to support the front end of the shaft. The breech cylinder
is a single piece of cast iron weighing 385 pounds. This absorbs the
greater part of the recoil. There is a cavity at the rear end closed by
a door which can be easily opened, so that the mechanism in the cavity
is accessible. The mechanism can, if necessary, be taken out and put
in place in a few minutes without the aid of any special tools.

A peculiar feature in this gun consists in the intermittent revolu-
tion of the barrels, which remain stationary during the discharge, so
that there is no movement of any kind to impede the accuracy of the
fire. This stop, or lost motion, is obtained by the shape of the driv-
ing worm, which is so constructed that the inclined driving thread
only covers half of the circumference of its shaft, the thread being
straight on the other half. The effect of this is that the barrels
revolve only during half a revolution of the worm and stand still dur-
ing the other half revolution. The combination of the mechanism is
so arranged that the loading, firing, and extracting take place during
the pause, ^his feature is of great importance for the accuracy of
the fire and the durability of the system. The worm shaft projects
through the breech on the right side and it is turned by means of a
hand crank. On the left side of the worm shaft a small citmk is
attached and this operates the mechanism for loading and for extract-

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ing the cartridge shells. Two openings are made in the front face of
the breech, one above for loading and another below for extraction.
A loading bolt reciprocates in rear of the first in a trough within the
cylinder, and an opening in the wall of the c\^linder admits the cart-
ridges. The cartridges, fed from a hopper through a feed opening in
the wall of the breech cylinder, fall successively in front of the load-
ing bolt, which, while a barrel is stationarj'^ in front of it, pushes a
cartridge in. The revolution of the barrels brings them successively
opposite a solid part' of the breech which supports the base of the
cartridge. During the pause of the barrel here the cartridge is
exploded by a firing pin working through the breech. The shell is
carried on down opposite an extractor which draws it out and lets it
fall to the ground. The operations of loading, tiring, and extracting
are performed in different barrels at the same time, during the inter-
mittent pauses, by a single set of parts answering for all the barrels
in succession. The system is hardly rapid enough for the smaller
calibers. The solid support of the cartridge at the moment of firing
is a great advantage and the pause of the barrel at the same time
insures greater accuracy. To obviate the difficulties of feeding, when
the cartridges are piled one upon the other, the feed opening is closed
by a hinged gate, which turns down by the weight of the cartridges,
the first of which drops into the trough; then the piston moving for-
ward raises the door and allows no more cartridges to enter until the
proper time. Should rapid firing be required, the gun is supplied
with feed cases, containing ten cartridges each. In this manner 60 to
80 rounds per minute can be fired with only three men to work the
gun. The carriage is made of steel and all the fixed parts, except the
fellies and spokes, are of metal. The gun is supported on the car-
riage by an iron turntable which has two forks projecting upward at
the sides to hold the trunnions. The bottom of the turntable is pivoted
to the top of the carriage, thus allowing the piece to be swung laterally.

The rifling is one turn in 4 feet; the weight of the shell with fuse
is 16.05 ounces; charge of powder, 4.3 ounces; weight of piece, 1,047
pounds; weight of carriage complete, 1,092 pounds. The extreme
range is about 5,140 yards.

61, The Nordetifeldt machine volley gun, — This is represented in the
exhibit only by drawings and descriptions. From 2 to 7 barrels are
arranged side by side on a frame, as in the Requa battery above
described. These barrels are all loaded at once by means of breech
plugs attached to a sliding plate in rear. This plate is moved forward
and back by a lever working horizontally on the right-hand side.
E^ch breech plug contains a firing pin, and behind the plug is a ham-
mer operated by a spring. Wheii the lever is drawn back and the
breech plate is brought to the rear, the hammers engage in a sliding
comb on the -frame, and at the forward movement they are held back

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1186 REPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

and cocked. When the breech ia closed, the lever still moving for-
ward secures the breech piece by operating a swinging plate, which,
by means of cam surfaces, pushes locking bolts on the breech plate
into mortises in the side frame. Further motion of the lever slides
the comb which holds the hammei's, and releases them one after
another. For eac'h barrel a feed case is required, placed in rear and
a little to the left. A slide plate carries the cartridges to the right, in
front of the breech plugs when dmwn back, and a forward motion of
the plug pushes the cartridges into the barrels. All the barrels are
loaded at the same time, but fired separately, though in mpid succes-
sion, the interval of fire from the different barrels depending on the
i-apidity of motion of the lever. The effect is, therefore, pmctically
that of a volley; but the shock of recoil is not so great as if all the
barrels were fired at once. Man}' of these guns are used in England,
but none are used in this country. They are shown in the Maxim-
Nordenfeldt exhibit.

62. Maxim automatic recoil machine gun^ caliber .Ii5, — This gun
ma}' properly be described as automatic, the recoil of the barrel at
discharge being utilized to reload — that is, to open the breech — thus
extracting the empty shell, withdrawing a cartridge from the cartridge
belt, dropping the cartridge into position to load, and cocking the
piece; then to close the breech, thus inserting the cartridge into the
chamber, shifting the ])elt, and seizing a cartridge for use at the next
round. Opening the breech, with its attendant operations, is per-
foraied directly by the recoil of the barrel, this at the same time
stretching a heavy coiled spring. The spring, b}^ its reaction, returns
the barrel to its original position and closes the breech, thereby insert-
ing the cartridge and grasping a new one. Screwed to the rear of the
barrel is a frame extending to the rear, and reciprocating in a rectan-
gular case which envelopes the breech mechanism. In this frame the
breechblock, containing the firing pin and other parts of the lock,
reciprocates by an independent motion. This frame consists of two
vertical plates and a connecting end piece. By a very ingenious
arrangement, a single spring serves to check the recoil and to operate
the breech. This spring, instead of being fixed to the sliding frame
itself, is fixed to the projecting end of a shaft, which passes horizon-
tally through journals in the sides of the frame in rear of the breech-
block. One end of the shaft has a cam on which a chain from the
spring can wind, and the other end of the shaft has a vertical lever,
which strikes a fixed arm on the case when the barrel recoils, and
causes the shaft to turn. This shaft has a crank arm between the
walls of the frame, and the breechblock is connected with the ci'ank
arm by a link. This breech link branches at the front and passes on
both sides of the block nearly to the front, where it is pivoted, lon-
gitudinal slots in the case allowing the shaft to move back and forth

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world's COLUMBIAN EXrOSITION, 1893. 1187

with the frame. When the frame moves back, the crank arm bends
down, carrying with it the rear end of the link and drawing the
breechblock back from the breech; the breech being closed when the
crank arm and link are horizontal. The recoil spring is fastened in
front to the outside of the case. The recoil of the barrel stretches the
spring, and the turning of the crank stretches it still more, so that
the reaction of the spring turns the crank and closes the breech, while
at the same time pulling the barrel forward to firing position.

The gun is supplied with cartridges from a belt. The cartridges lie
side by side across it, the belt being made of two pieces of tape riveted
together with intervals for single cartridges. Each belt holds 334
cartridges. This belt passes from right to left through the feed slot
on the top of the gun. In the feed slot is a slide moved to the right or
left by a lever, as the barrel, moving backward or forward, strikes the
other arm of the lever which is pivoted to the case. The slide carries
two movable pawls which hook over one cartridge after another and
draw the belt to the left, carrying the cartridges successively over the
barrel, the flanged end of the cartridge projecting far enough to the
rear of the barrel to be caught by an undercut or flanged plate which
moves vertically on the face of the breechblock. This plate serves as
an extractor. It is slid up and down by levers pivoted to the breech-
block, and moved by arms projecting from the front branches of the
breech link. The lips of the extractor groove fit over the flange of a
cartridge in the belt and over the flange of the cartridge shell in the
barrel, so that the block in retracting draws both back, pulling the car-
tridge from the belt and the shell from the barrel. Then the extractor
plate drops, lowering the new cartridge to the level of the barrel and
the empty shell to the ejector tube below. The forward motion of the
block pushes the new cartridge into the barrel, and toward the end of
the motion the extractor plate is moved up, sliding over the head of the
cartridge in the barrel and engaging a new cartridge in the belt, while
the empty shell is left free to drop out. The breech link, in swinging
down Qnd drawing the breechblock back, cocks the piece by striking a
lever or tumbler, which throws back the firing pin, a safety catch at the
top of the block engaging the firing pin, to prevent it from swinging
forward until the breech is again closed. A sear engages the tumbler,
and the sear is tripped by a trigger placed in rear of the casing and
connected with the sear by a sliding plate. After the gun is once
loaded and the belt put in place, continuous fire can be produced by
pressing on the trigger until a belt is exhaasted. The hands grasp
handles in rear and the thumbs press the trigger foi*ward.

There are 4 magazines or receptacles for ammunition, 2 being situ-
ated above the axle and 2 below. Each one of these contains 4 boxes,
each box holding 250 to 300 rounds of ammunition placed in belts and
ready for immediate use. The front walls of the magazines are formed

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1188 REPOET OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

of thick steel plate, which forms a shield for the ammunition. There
is also a light shield attached to the cross head for protection of the
man aiming the gun. The elevation is given by an elevating screw and
the traversing is effected by the gunner, who controls the gun by the
handles in the rear. The gun is capable of firing 600 shots per minute.
It is an American invention developed abroad. Loaned by the Maxim-
Nordenfeldt Company.

63. Buffingt(m steel carriage for inacliine guns, — The carriage is
formed of steel plates, so arranged that the body forms a hollow axle
between the wheels. This gives room for storing a large supply of
cartridges, instead of depending wholly on the supply in the limber
chests. A curved shield, extending upward from the front of the
cari'iage, has been devised to give greater protection to the gunners,
but the especial feature is the arrangement by which the gun can be
aimed as desired, though the shield is fixed to the carriage, without
exposing the gunners through a wide opening for the muzzle. A

square opening in the shield
is covered in front by a
curved slide, free to move
laterally, and in this slide an
opening the width of the
muzzle extends from top to
bottom. This opening in the
slide is covered by two over-
lapping disks, pivoted cen-
trally to the slide, on either
side of the opening, these
disks havinff notches cut out

BufRngton steel carriage for machine guns , ^ , " _ ,

where they overlap, the
notches allowing room for the muzzle to protrude. Just enough play
is given to allow sighting through the opening. The slide allows
lateral movement of the muzzle, and the disks allow a vertical move-
ment in any position of the slide. It is intended to have a steel flap
hinged to the under pail of the carriage filling the opening below,
and to sheathe the wheels if necessary. Though a Gatling gun is now
mounted on this carriage, it is intended for any gun that needs to be
pivoted on the carriage. The limber constructed to use with the Buf-
fington carriage and Williston harness has a wooden chest fastened
permanently to the frame and axle of steel. The lid of the chest,
hinged in front, is made of steel, and it is intended, when raised, to
serve as a shield to protect men at the chest. In front of the chest is
a shelf with a low iron railing. A doubletree is used with singletrees
attached. The pole has no permanent yoke and no straps, but a pro-
jection a little in rear of the pole pad prevents the ring of the neck
yoke from slipping back.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1189

HAND FIREARMS.

A very full collection of these arms is shown, indicating the devel-
opment from the earliest times, and including many of the most recent
magazine guns of to-day. Most of the guns are from the fine collec-
tion at the national armory, but many were loaned for exhibit. The
descriptions of hand firearms are divided into the following classes:
Matchlocks, muzzle-loaders; wheel locks, muzzle-loaders; flintlocks,
muzzle-loaders; percussion locks, muzzle-loaders; single breechload-
ers; repeating arms, including revolvers and magazine guns. Though
the breechloaders and revolvere involve the use of the different kinds
of locks described in the first four classes, the locks are not the dis-
tinctive feature. No separate classification of smoothbores and rifles
is made. Rifling with straight grooves was used as early as 1498,
with round balls, but the advantage of spiral grooves, introduced in
1520, appears to have been an accidental discovery. The rifle was
first used merely as a sporting arm, and it did not come into militaiy
use until the middle of the seventeenth century. Its use was not
common until toward the end of the eighteenth century, and then only
for cavalry.

As early as 1742 Robins pointed out the advantage of using the
oval or elongated form, but no efficient way of using such bullets in
muzzle-loaders without deforming them was devised until 1836,*
when William Greener, in England, invented the expanding system
by which the action of the powder spread the base of the bullet into
the grooves. He used a conical pewter wedge partially inserted in a
cavity in the base. Mini^ afterwards used the same principle, and
later still the base wedge or cup was abandoned, the base cavity alone
serving the purpose. Bullets for breech-loading rifles do not require
this cavity in the base, as they are made a little large and are forced
into the grooves. Delvigne in 1827 improved the accuracy of rifle fire
with round balls by attaching a sabot, which rested on the shouldei-s
of the cylindrical powder chamber in the bottom of the bore, so that
blows from the ramrod spread the bullet into the grooves. This
method was afterwards applied by Delvigne and Mini^ to elongated
bullets composed of a cylinder with a conoidal point, the sabot being
omitted; and the same principle was used in Thouvenin's carabine a
ti<]€^ in which Delvigne's form was replaced by an iron spindle screwed
into the bottom of the chamber. It is remarkable that the modern
breechloader should have appeared about the same time that percus-
sion muzzle-loaders were generally introduced, and about the tmie
that elongated bullets began to be used in rifles.

'It is said that as early as 1S17 it was proposed in Russia to use an elliptical ball
having a cavity in rear, for rifles. This is the firet suggested use of the expansion
system, but it appears to have been loet sight of.

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1190 BKPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

The Americans made excellent use of rifles during the Revolution,
and the eflfect of the Kentucky -rifles at the battle of New Orleans in
1815 seems to have drawn especial attention to the advantage of asing
them, even with round balls. In this country military rifles were
made as early as 1814, at Harpers Ferry, but the mass of American
infantry were armed with smoothbores until 1855. It is interesting
to note the progressive reduction in caliber of military rifles, making
the size of the bullet a very fair guide to the period of manufacture.

MATCHLOCK GUNS.

Hand guns first appeared in the fourteenth century — the earliest
ones requiring to be touched oflf, like cannon, by means of a slow
match held in the hand. These were called hand cannon, petronels,
culverins, etc. (the recoil of the petronel being taken up on the breast-
plate instead of on the shoulder). The matchlock soon appeared. It
had a swinging cock on the gun to hold the slow match. It was fired
by forcing the cock down, and so bringing the slow match to the
firing pan. In later models the cock had a lever attached to act as
trigger for bringing the slow match down. The matchlocks are the
earliest models shown in the exhibit. Many of these early guns were
so heavy that a crutch had to be used to support them in firing.

64,. Matchlock imislcet^ Fonriosan, — Captured from the Boutans and
Kussikuts, of Aboriginal Formosa, at the Battle of Seik Mon (Stone
Doors) by the Japanese troops under General Saigo, May 22, 1874.
This represents the earliest form of matc*hlock referred to above. It
has no trigger. It is of form and weight to be fired from the
shoulder.

65, Matchlocl' mushi from India^ date unknovyii. — British coins on
butt. The bands and mountings are silver. This has a trigger for
operating the cock. The butt is bent downward and then upward,
forming a curious curve. The construction of the gun and its general
finish are of the most primitive character.

66, Matchlock mmket^ calihcr ,717^ of fourteenth amtury, — ^The trig-
ger works an intermediate lever to bring the lighted end of the match
into contact with the pan. One objection to the matchlocks was that
the blast from the vent or touchhole would blow out the match.
This gun is light enough to fire from the shoulder.

67, Matchlock rnwnket^ caliber ,66^ hintory unhimcv^ prol>ahly east-
em, — Has a trigger for operating the cock, but the trigger is pushed
up instead of backward as in other guns. The stock is nearly straight.
The barrel was originally covered with gold leaf, and the stock was
ornamented with same. No trigger guard is found on the matchlock
guns.

68, Matchlock musket^ Chmcse^ loaned hy Mr, K, Thomas^ gxin-
amith^ Chicago,, III,

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1191

69, Old matcJdock gun from India^ harrel 1^,5 feet long^ calibet' li
inches^ loatied hy S, J. Tellery i& Co.^ East h\dia pavUimi, — Mounted
on a wooden stock with shoulder piece, with attachment for support-
ing on a wall in firing. Shown in shooting gallery.

WHEEL-LOCK GUNS.

These guns first appeared early in the sixteenth centur}-. They
originated in Germany. The lock is very ingenious and complicated.
In the^e locks a piece of flint is pressed down by a spring against a
revolving wheel of tempered steel placed under the pan. The friction
between the surfaces produces the sparks that ignite the powder.
The flint is held in a clamp hinged in front. A ribbon spring round
the arbor of the wheel is wound up by a key, and pressing a trigger
releases the wheel and allows it to revolve. Two of these guns are
shown. These locks were used principally for sporting purposes, and
as a military ami they were used for the most part by mounted troops,
the matchlock for infantry not being supplanted until the adoption of
the flintlock. All the early arms were so slow to load that in a battle
as late as 1636 they could be fired only about once an hour.

70, Chinese whed-lock. pistol^ caliber ,4^2, — ^This shows very fine
work. The stock is inlaid with ivory.

71, Wheel-loek gun, ealihe?* ,707, date about 1520, — Used in the field
with a crutch to support the barrel. Stock highW ornamented. The
baiTel is marked Gottfried Fleming. Engraving of battle scene on
lock plate. This gun was probably used as a wall piece or with a
portable crutch in field firing. A slide covers the pan to keep the
priming from falling out. The key is separate. Winding up the
spring slides the pan forward. The lock has a set trigger. It is
remarkable for the fineness and force of its engraving and for the
general beauty of its form and finish. A detached wheel lock is also
shown in working order. By pressing a knob outside the lock plate,
the pan cover slides back and protects the priming from wet or loss.
The key is permanently attached to the arbor winding up the spring.

FLINTLOCK GUNS, MUZZLE-LOADERS.

The flintlock mechanism appeared in a crude form in the snaphaunce,
invented late in the sixteenth centur}', in Holland, pyrites being used
in the hammer instead of the flint, which did not appear until about
1630. The improved flintlock was introduced into the French army
in 1680, and it continued to be used in all armies until atout 1842,
when the percussion lock replaced it. The period covered by the use
of the flintlock saw three particularly important advances in the effi-
ciency of hand firearms: (1) The introduction by Gustavus Adolphus
in 1630 of the cartridge box, and the use of the paper cartridge,
having the ball and its proper charge wrapped together, in place of

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119^ RKPOBt O^ OOMMITTEB OK AWARDS.

having the powder and balls carried separately, as before. Before this
period the powder charges were carried in wooden boxes hung from
the girdle, and in still earlier times the powder had to l>e measured
out for each fire. Some authorities give an earlier date, 1569, for the
use of the cartridge in Spain; (2) the substitution of the bayonet for
the pike, 168^1691; (3) the introduction of the iron ramrod, 1698-
1741.

72. Arab rmtsket^ caliber .727, — Barrel, 4 feet 10 inches long; total
length, 6 feet 1 inch long; highly ornamented barrel and stock. The
cocking of the hammer draws the pan cover over the pan and protects
the priming from wet, etc. The fall of the hammer pushes this cover
forward and allows the sparks from the steel to fall into the priming
and ignite the charge. Six l)ands of sheet brass hold the barrel to the
stock. The butt plate is of bone, and is highly decorated on the sole.
The length of guns of this class is probably due to the imperfect gun-
powder manufacture of the period. This being used with a slow-
burning mealed powder, the long barrel was necessary to allow com-
plete combustion.

73. Albanian imisJcet^ caliber .72. — Silver mounted. Resembles
very much, in length, style of ornamentation, etc., the Arab musket,
but it is banded and inlaid with silver. The hammer has a special dog
outside the lock plate for holding it off the steel. The hand of the
firer is protected from abmsion by a leather flap. The piece has no
trigger guard. The butt is of brass ana uncomfortably narrow.

7^. Old flintlock.^ imhwiim. — "Truitt Bros. & Co." marked on lock
plate. No bands and no date given. The barrel is octagonal and the
bore septagonal.

75. Flintlock musketoon.^ caliber .75., enlarged at th-e muzzle to 1.05. —
Used by cavalry or dragoons; provided with swivel bar and ring;
marked U. S. on barrel; brass mountings; barrel keyed to stock.

76. English ^^ Broicn JSess,^^ .75 caliber^ flhdlock^ bayonet^ 1690 to
18Ifl. — Loaned by Colt's Patent Fire Arms Manufacturing Company;
bears on lock plate "Tower," and "G. R." under crown; barrel keyed
to stock, brass mountings. This is the arm with which almost all the
fighting of the Revolution was done.

77. English smooth-bore muzzl-e-loading -flintlock m.xLsket^ caliber .75^
model 171^7. — Marked "King's Own Regiment" on barrel; Revolu-
tionary trophy; no bands around the barrel; on lock plate, "lordau
1747"*^and "U. S.," also "G. R." under crown.

78. Flintlock musket^ French., caliber .72, modd i7^<^.— Marked
U. S. on barrel and lock plate; barrel fastened with three iron bands
to stock; mountings of iron; swivel loops for gun sling, with bend for
lug. "M 1763" on tang; on lower part of lock plate "U. S." and
" H. R." under crown, and also " Manf . Royale de St. Etienne." This
is apparently the arm which served as a model for the first muskets

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made for the United States. These were made at the private factory
of Eli Whitney in 1798 or 1799.

79. Flintlock mvsket^ " Queen^s Arm.^'^ used hy minute men of the
Hevolution^ 1776^ caHher ,81. — Brass butt plate and guard, no bands.

80. Old flintlock^ loaned hy Mr. E. Tlwmaa^ Chicago^ 111. — ^Two
bi*ass bands and one iron band joining barrel to stock. No marks on
gun, and date unknown.

81. Old Springfield muzzle-loading -flintlock musket. — Marked on

U S
barrel jt-q- Making parts of United States guns by machinery was

successfully accomplished in United States arsenals between 1813 and
1825, all parts being made interchangeable except breech screws,
which were not made by machinery until 1853. This interchange-
ability of parts was first accomplished by Hall in the construction of
his breech-loading rifle at Harpers Ferry, begun in 1813.

82. Old Springfield mv^zzle-loaMng flintlock musket. — ^Marked on

barrel^

83. Springfield SfmootK-hore fiirdlock musket^ caLihei .70 ^ model 1818^
magazine primer. — An arm projecting forward horizontally from the
eye of the hammer gives a partial revolution at each movement to a
fluted cylinder forming the bottom of the pan. As the hammer is
di-awn back to cock it this cylinder revolves to the front and takes its
charge of priming powder from the brass magazine above it. As the
hammer falls the cylinder is brought back opposite to the vent in time
to receive the sparks from the steel. Bayonet without clasp. This
illustrates the attempts made long before the invention of percussion
priming to prime the flintlock automatically. These magazines for
automatic priming were the precursors of the magazine for percussion
priming used with the first percussion lock, described further on in
connection with the Forsyth pistol, invented in 1807.

5^. Five ilunderhusseSj iron and hrass harrels^ wall pieces^ 1776 to
1820. — Two of these are bell-mouthed and three cylindrical; four have
swivels for use as wall pieces.

PERCUSSION LOCK GUNS; MUZZLE-LOADESS.

Even with the early flintlock guns attempts were made to provide
a method of automatically depositing priming powder in the firing pan,
and a magazine for this is shown among the United States arms (No.
12, flintlock guns). Apparently several special priming powders also
were devised, some partaking of the nature of fulminating powder,
proposed not only for priming but for charging the gun itself; but the
credit of applying percussion to their explosion in the firing pan with-
out striking fire as in the flintlock is awarded to Alexander Forsyth,
who, in 1807, invented the punch lock described below, using a powder

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priming composed principally of chlorate of potash, and depositiiipf it
from a magazine. The percussion cap proper did not appear until
1817, when it was invented by Shaw, of Bordentown, N. J.,* though
its invention has been ascribed to Thomas Egg, an English gun-
smith, in the year 1818. The percussion cap, however, did not
come into general military use until about 1840, when most countries
adopted the percussion system. Meanwhile, about 1830, the punch
lock was improved by Dr. Samuel Guthrie, of Watertown, N. Y.,
who used pellets of fulminating powder in place of fine priming pow-
der, and his gun was used extensively by sportsmen. His gun is
shown in the exhibit, and described below. Fulminate of mercury was
not proposed for percussion arms until 1819, though known from 1764.
The Maynard primer was adopted in the United States in 1854, but
abandoned in 1860. It was a waterproof tape holding at regular
intervals pocket** of percussion power, the operation of the lock bring-
ing them successively over the firing nipple. Specimens of these locks
are shown; also an apparently earlier form of foreign design of 1839,
with a hammer underneath. Later, the metal-covered percussion
pellets or disks for the Sharps breech-loading rifle are to be noted.

86, FoTsytKn punch-loci* pfftfol, calibei* .56^ with magaziriefor per-
cussion poipder^ 1807, — The earliest percussion lock known. This is
a muzzle-loading pistol. Extending forward from the hammer is a bar
connecting it with a sliding magazine, which contains the percussion
priming powder. Cocking the hammer draws back the magazine, so
that a few grains may drop from an aperture in the bottom into a
cavity in the pan below. When the trigger is pulled, the magazine
is pushed forward as the hammer falls, so that the punch on the end of
the hammer falls into the pan without striking the magazine, and
explodes the priming, the fire being communicated to the charge
through a vent in the bottom of the cavity.

86, Guthrie' s pellet-primer rifie^ 1830, — Loaned by Jefferson County
Historical Society, Wateilown, N. Y., through the courtesy of Col.
W. B. Camp, president, and D. S. Marvin, librarian. Octagonal barrel
and septagonal l)ore. This interesting arm was invented by an Ameri-
can, Samuel Guthrie, M. D., the discoverer of chloroform. It is a
punch-lock gun like Forsyth's, just described, but instead of the per-
cussion priming powder used in Forsyth's gun, a pellet of fulminating
powder was used, dropped into a small cavity corresponding to the pan
of the old flintlock. The end of the hammer was sharpened, so that
the point would fall into the cavit}^ and explode the pellet. At the
United States military post, Sacketts Harbor, N. Y., in 1826-1828,
Dr. Guthrie is known to have fired the evening gun by percussion
instead of using the old slow match, which preceded the friction primer

*Shaw was an Englishman who came to America to intrcKhux* his invention. He
ia said to have received $18,000 from the Uniteil States Government.

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for cannon. He soon after altered the sporting flintlock gun to a
punch lock, and the latter came into very general use, about 1830, in
New York and in neighboring parts of Canada, the percussion cap not
being generally known. From the shape in which the fulminate was
used, the gun was also known as the pill gun. In the sample exhibited
the old flintlock hammer appears, but instead of the flint a pointed
steel block is held in the jaws to form the "punch." This device of
Guthrie's made the alteration of flintlock guns by sportsmen compara-
tively easy. Some of the original pellets were also exhibited, and one
of them was fired in the piece during the exhibition. The Smith
punch-lock magazine rifle, described below, used similar pellets dropped
one by one into the priming hole from a special magazine along the
barrel. Though the Forsyth system dates back to 1807, no record of
its extended use in this country has been found until Dr. Guthrie's
changes were made.

87, Austrian smooth-bore punch-lock mvsket^ caliher ,705, — This is
evidently a detonating gun, operated by exploding a percussion cap-
sule in the pan. The pan is covered by a lid, on the principle of the
flintlock, and a pin works through this lid, acting on the capsule
below. The hammer strikes the pin and explodes the charge. This
detached firing pin is the precursor of the firing pin seen later in many
breechloaders.

88, English TmizzLe-loading mvsket^ caliber ,70^ hammer underneath
fm* ribhonprmier^ 1839, — Hewitelup's patent. The barrel is attached
to the stock by three iron bands. This appears t6 be a forerunner
of the Maynard tape primer, tried in our service before the rebel-
lion. This gun is also adapted to use with the percussion cap, and
it is the earliest specimen of that kind shown in the exhibit. Loaned
by Colt's Patent Fire Arms Manufacturing Company.

89, Springfidd smooth-hore miisket^ caliber ,69^ model 184S, — ^The
first model of the United States percussion musket, used in the service
in the Mexican war. The supply being insufficient, however, flint
locks were generally employed. Bayonet has clasp.

90, Sprirhgjield smooth-bore musket^ caliber ,69, — Altered from the
old model flintlock to percussion in 1852. The bayonet has a clasp.
Many of the altered locks were used in the first ^'^ears of the rebellion,
as new arms could not be supplied in suflScient quantities. Though
new percussion locks were made in 1842, no record of alterations of
old flintlocks at Springfield appears until 1852.

91, Harpers Ferry shmpshooter* s rifje,^ caliher ,75^ 18J^7, — Used on
tripod; peep sight on trigger; globe sight on barrel.

92, Shcyrt rifle^ Harpers Ferry^ caliber .5^5.— Manufactured 1848;
browned barrel; brass mountings; patch box in stock.

93, Springfield smooth-bore musketoon^ caliber ,69, 1851. — Brass
butt plate; guard and bands; ramrod in swivel to prevent its loss on
horseback; long swivel bar. ^ ,

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9Ji, Pistol carbine^ smooth hore^ caliber ,51^7^ 1851. — ^The gun has a
detachable stock, brass butt plate^ gtiard and band, and a swivel
ramrod.

96. Harpers Ferry rifle., mliher .50^ irwdel 1855. — Browned. The
gun was made for Secretary of War John B. Floyd, and used exclu-
sively by him in target practice. The wood of the stock is remark-
ably fine. It has three bands.

96. SpringfiAd rifle mvsket^ caliber .58^ 1859. — This gun has two
leaf sights, 300 to 700 yards, percussion cap and Maynard primer.
The Maynard primer was a waterproof tape or ribbon enveloping
patches of fulminate placed at intervals throughout its length. The
tape was coiled and placed in a round cavity in the lock plate, a hinged
gate covering it. An arm from the hammer pushed the tape along
st€»p by step, causing a patch of fulminate to project over the nipple.
The end of the hammer had a shai'p edge which came down close to
the mouth of the primer cavity and cut off the tape beyond. This
primer was adopted in the United States in 1864, but abandoned in
1860.

97. Short rifle^ Harpers JFerry^ caliber .58. — Manufactured in 1859;
browned barrel; Maynard primer and saber bayonet; patch box in
stock.

98. Dovhle-barreled rifle^ caliber .51^ Munich. — Lock-plate guard and
butt plate engraved; no bands; ramrod on left side of stock; barrels
superposed.

99. Sfwrt^ heavy sjyortvng rifle. — Private manufacture; made fix)m
sti'ay parts.

100. Springfield rifle musket^ caliber .58^ model 18GL — This is the
arm made in greatest numbers during the war of the rebellion. It
differs mainly from the model of 1855 in the change in the rear sight
and the omission of the Maynard primer. The necessity for the
immediate production of guns did not allow time for the changing of
the lock-plate tools, so as to reduce the thickness of the lock plate
from the thickness required by the Maynard primer. Some of the
minor details of the mountings are also altered.

101. English Enfield rifie musket^ with sahei' bayonet.^ caliper .587 .^
model 1861. — Has nipple protector held by chain on trigger guard.
Many of these guns were imported and used during the rebellion. On
the lower part of the lock plate is a crown and in the upper part
"1861 Tower," and on the lower part of the barrel, near the tang,
''TC. *25*25*." It has a brass trigger guard and bi-ass butt plate.
The Enfield rifles at this time were not made with parts interchangeable
as in the United States rifles, and even the bayonets were fitted to
special arms, so that they could not be interchanged.

10^2. '' GaribaldV rifledmusket^ caliber .72^ with I^ong srcnrdbayonet. —
The gun has brass butt plate and guard, but no bands. On barrel.

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'*Ferd Fruwirth" and "I. W." Has a leaf sight sliding in seat on
barrel.

103. United States Springfield irvusket rifle and cadet rijle^ 186 i.. —
Percussion lock.

10i» Mivzzle-loading rifle^ Russian Cossack cavaJ/ry^ caliher £25^
1867. — Loaned by Colt's Patent Fire Amis Company. Has three bands
of iron and a brass butt plate with double eagle on the upper part.
Trigger is a round button beneath the stock, and the hammer has a
circular finger hole. It has a double leaf sight, with no correction for
wind. "E. Taunerson" on lock plate, a double eagle and "A. F." on
barrel, near tang.

105, Board of pistols. — A few more pistols are shown on '' board of
pistols and revolvers," No. 238 of catalogue, as follows:

1. Ellis breech-loadmg pocket pistol, patented 1869.

2. Pocket pistol, smoothbore flintlock, cannon-shaped muzzle, caliber .45.

3. Pocket pistol, rifled, caliber about .25.

4. Pistol for firing signal lights, model 1861; signal Itght held in place by spring

undei barrel; fired by percussion caps.

5. Revolving pistol, "pepper-box;" percussion; self -cocking.

6. Remington, breech-loading, rifled, caliber .50, metallic cartridge.

7. Derringer (United States Navy), caliber .54, smoothbore, 1847.

8. Army, smoothbore flintlock, 1836, caliber .535; made by R. Johnson, Middle-

town, Conn.

9. Army, smoothbore flintlock, 1841, caliber .545; made by R. Johnson, Middle-

town, Conn.

10. Army, smoothbore, percussion, 1844, caliber .547; altered from flintlock; made

by R. Johnson, Middletown, Conn.

11. Army, smoothbore, percussion, caliber .525; made by A. H. Waters <fe Co., Mill-

bury, Mass.

12. French, smoothbore flintlock, 1830, caliber .66; made at Mutzig.

13. French, smoothbore, percussion, 1848, caliber .66.

14. ** Springfield," smoothbore, percussion, 1842, United States model. No. 4, cali-

ber .545.

15. Army, smoothbore, percussion, 1851, caliber .55, model 1842; made by H. Aston

& Co., Middletown, Conn.

16. Prussian, smoothbore, percussion, 1867, caliber .66; presented to the United

States by the Pruasian Government.

17. Dueling (English), smoothbore, percussion, caliber .53.

18. Springfield (rifled, model 1855), caliber .58, Maynard primer, fitted for detacha-

ble stock.

19. Springfield, breech-loading, rified, model 1868, caliber .50, experimental.

106. Board of gun locks. — The following locks are exhibited
detached from the guns, and they show the evolution from the days of
the flintlock to the present time:

1. Flintlock, **B. T." on inside of plate; Revolutionary.

2. United States, flintlock, Springfield, 1814.

3. United States, flintlock, Springfleld, 1836; altered for peculiar mainspring and sear.

4. United States, percuasion lock, Pittsburgh; original model of the Maynard primer

lock, invented by Dr. Maynard, in 1853. From this the musket lock, model
1855, was perfected at the Springfleld Armory.

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5. United States, percussion lock, Springfield, 1831 ; altered for Maynard primer.

6. Unfinished model of Maynard primer lock.

7. United States, percussion lock (cadet), Springfield, 1854.

8. United States, percussion lock, Springfield, model 1842.

9. United States, percussion lock (cadet), Springfield, 1856, model 1855, Maynard

primer.

10. United States, percussion lock, Springfield, 1860, model 1855, Maynard primer.

11. United States, percussion lock, Springfield, 1860, model 1855, nickel plated.

12. United States, percussion lock, Springfield, 1861.

13. United States, percussion lock, Springfield, 1861, browned.

14. United States, percussion lock, Springfield, 1864.

15. United States, percussion lock, Springfield, 1862.

16. Unite<i States, lock, Springfield, for breechloader.

17. United States, lock, Springfield, model 1866. This lock was taken from an unserv-

iceable breech-loading rifle, model 1866, sent to the armory for repairs in Janu-
ary, 1871 . The ingeni<5u8 device of a tapering screw in the lock plate to regulate
the dip of the sear nose was made by the soldier.

18. United States, lock, Springfield, model 1866.

19. United States, lock, Springfield, 1870.

20. United States, lock, Springfield, nickel-plated, model 1868.

21. United States, lock, Springfield, model 1873.

22. United States, lock, Springfield, model 1884. Safety notch in tumbler.

23. Confe<lerate States, percussion lock, Richmond, Va., 1862.

24. Sharps's percussion lock for paper cartridge. C. Sharps's patent, October 5,

1852. Lawrence primer, R. S. I^wrence's patent, April 12, 1859.

25. Sharps's lock, for metallic cartridge.

26. Joslyn lock, for metallic cartridge. Joalyn Fire Arms Company, Stonington,

Conn.

27. Joslyn lock, for metallic cartridge. Face of hammer differs from No. 27. Joslyn

Fire Arms Company, Stonington, Conn.

28. English, percussion lock. Tower, 1861.

29. Spencer lock, for metallic cartridge.

30. Starr lock, for metallic cartridge. Starr Arms Company, Yonkers, N. Y.

31. Unknown model, trunnions on sear. Probably foreign.

32. Left-hand percussion lock, "J. Bishop" on plate.

33. Confederate States, percussion lock, 1863, Cook & Bro., Athens, Ga. No. 3086.

34. Confederate States, percussion lock, Fayetteville, 1864.

35. United States, percussion lock. Colt's Patent Fire Arms Manufacturing Com-

pany, Hartford, Conn.

36. Confederate States, percussion lock.

37. Prussian, percussion lock, made at Potsdam.

38. United States, percussion lock; two hammers for single barrel. Lindsay's patent

39. Ancient flintlock of supposed Spanish origin. Eighteenth century. Presented

to the National Armory Museum by Mr. Samuel Powell, of Newport, R. I.,
through Capt. Howard Stockton, November 15, 1871.

40. Albanian flintlock.

BREECH-LOADING GUNS.

Breechloaders date back to the time of Kiiicr Henry VUI. The
earliest forms of French and German make, in the latter part of the six-
teenth century, had a chambered breech piece similar in action to that
described for the early Chinese cannon. These were matchlock guns.
Some flintlock breechloaders, in latter part of the seventeenth century,

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1199

used a similar block, but had a barrel turning on a hinge below, aa in
the modern Smith & Wesson revolver, or made to swing sideways to
allow inserting the chamber piece. These removable chamber pieces
were really the first metallic-case cartridges. During the Revolution a
breechloader was used to some extent by the English. It was closed
by a screw turned in from below across the rear of the barrel. This
was the Ferguson rifle. The first American breech-loading gun was the
Hall, and this was the first breechloader adopted and.put extensively
into the hands of troops by any nation. Specimens of this gun and of
the Ferguson are shown in the exhibit. The Hall gun was issued to
United States troops in 1818, and used in the Black Hawk, Seminole,
and Mexican wars, and even in the war of the rebellion, while the
needle gun, generally supposed to have been the first, was not adopted
by Prussia until 1847, and not used in war until 18(16.

One very marked superiority of breechloaders over muzzle-loaders —
besides the great advantage that rapidity of loading gives more time
to aim, and if necessary greater I'apidity of fire — lies in the impossi-
bility of getting more than one charge at a time into the gun. The
following statement of the master armorer at the Washington Arsenal
will illustrate this danger with muzzle-loaders:

The number of arms received here from Gettysburg was 27,574. The number
found to be loaded was 24,000. Of these, 6,000 had 1 loa<l each, 12,000 2 loads each,
and 6,000 from 3 to 10 loads each. In many of these guns from 2 to 6 balls have
been found, with only 1 charge of i)owder. In some the ball has been found at the
bottom of the bore, with the charge of powder on top of the Imll. In some, aa many
as 6 paper-case cartridges have been found, these cartridges (regulation ball, calil)er
.58-inch) having been put into the gun without being torn or broken. In one Spring-
field rifled musket there were 23 loads, each load in regular order. Twenty- two
balls and 62 buckshot, with a corresponding quantity of powder, all mixed up
together, was found in one percussion, smooth-bore musket.

In the following list guns marked with a star (*) were bought by
the United States Government during the war of the rebellion.

Gun^i using pajyer cartrldijes.

In these guns paper cartridges were used — bullet and powder
wrapped in paper which had to be removed, or, in the later models,
cartridges in which the powder only was covered with paper, cloth,
or other combustible substance, so that the powder and ball could be
inserted together. They were usually fired with a separate percussion
cap exploded by an exterior hammer, but the ''needle guns" had self-
primed cartridges. Many of these guns were modified to use metallic
cartridges.

107. Ferguson hreech-loading jlintlovlc r'if*\ 1776, — Used during the
Revolution. Loaned b}^ Gen. J. Watts de Peyster, New York. Has
''D Egg London" on barrel and "D Egg" on lockplate. Has leaf
sight and no bands. The gun is loaded at the breech by means of a

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screw plug that descends in one turn as low as the bottom of the bore
to admit the ball and then the powder. The gun fires a round ball.
It has a brass plate on side of stock on which the following is engraved:
'^Ferguson breech-loading Rifle. Patented March 7, 1777, in England.
First used by the troops in line of battle at the Brandywine in 1777.
Presented to Frederic de Peyster, Capt. Royal N. Y. Vols, by Col.
(Local Brig. Genl.) Patrick Ferguson, B. A., 1779. Only perfect
specimen in existence. Property of Brev. Maj. Gen. J. Watts de
Peyster, S. N. Y."

Breech mechanism somewhat like this is figured and described by
German authorities as made by Marshal Saxe in 1731. The authoi's
state: '* It is noteworthy that this carbine also had a large chamber for
the reception of ammunition." They cite the following authority:
"Barado y (i^nova, Armas portfitiles de fuego, el moderno armamento
de la infanteria y su influencia en el combate." (See "Die Kriegs-
waffen," by Emil Capitaine and Ph. von Hertling.)

Ferguson does not claim to have originated the screw, but to have
made certain improvements rendering it practical, making that part
of the screw plug which forms the breech of the barrel smooth and
hollow, providing recesses and chambers for the escape of gas, mak-
ing the screw thread more oblique, so that one turn would open the
breech, etc.

108. HaW% hreech-loading flintlock rifle musket^ caMber ,512. — Ten
thousand of these guns were issued to United States troops in 1818.
A muzzle-loading chamber piece hinged at rear in line of barrel
could be tilted up to allow the insertion of the paper cartridge. A
catch underneath holds the breech piece down when closed. No pro-
vision for a gas check was made in these guns, a joint loose for one
thickness of writing paper, but binding on two, being considered tight
enough to prevent the escape of gas, and yet loose enough for free
manipulation. This is the earliest breechloader known to have been
adopted and used extensively by any army, though the German needle
gun, adopted in 1847, is generally supposed to bo the first. Hall's
gun was patented in 1811. It was the first gun made successfully on
the principle of interchangeability of parts.

109. Same system, flint lock, model of 1832, caliber .536.

110. *HaW8 carbine^ same system^ percussimi lock^ caliber .64^^ with
ramrod bayonet, — ^This seems to be a flintlock of 1832, altered to per-
cussion at later date. This gun resembles in all particulars the Hall's
rifle before described, except as to the bayonet, which consists merely
of the blade sliding under the barrel and capable of being withdrawn
and fixed by the same means which held it sheathed. Similar to
Greener's pencil-case bayonet, etc. A compound implement, screw-
driver, etc., is carried in a cavity in the back of the butt, closed by an
extension of the guard strap hinged at its forward end and held closed

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or open by a spring. This is a very interesting arm. Three thousand
five hundred and twenty of these arms were purchased for use in the
Army during the civil war.

111. HdlPs rifle^ percussion^ calmer .6Jf>,

112. JenMs hreechnloddmg ncuvy ca/rhme^ caliber .52, ISJ^S. — Paper
cartridge, hammer on side of the barrel. Opened by drawing back
top lever. By means of a link this draws back a sliding breech plug
and exposes a round hole in the top of the barrel a little larger than
the ball. The ball is inserted through this, and allowed to run for-
ward to its seat. The powder is then poured in and pressed forward
by reversing the movement of the lever.

113. *Sharps^s carbine^ caliber .52, paper cartridge. — Closed by a
block sliding vertically across rear of barrel, operated by a lever
below. Percussion cap and nipple. Edge of block sharp to cut oflf
rear of paper cartridge. Gas check formed by undercut hollow in
face of block. Sharps's guns were used in the United States Army as
early as 1846, in the Mexican war.^ and during the rebellion. In

•Sharps's carbine the primer consists of small pellets of fulminate,
inclosed in a copper casing so as to be waterproof. In shape they
resemble a 5-cent piece, but are only about three-sixteenths of an inch
in diameter, and of proportionate thickness. Two dozen or more of
these are placed in a hole, bored vertically in the lock plate, and are
forced up by a spiral spring until the upper one arrives at a horizon-
tal groove which extends forward and opens just in the rear of the
nipple. As the hammer descends, it moves forward a small plunger
that slides in the groove, the front end of which forces forward the
topmost pellet out of the groove into the air, when it is caught by the
cup-shaped face of the hammer, which carries it down upon the top of
the nipple and explodes it. Of course, the gun can be fired by the
ordinary cap, without the primer, if desired, and a device is attached
by which the primer may be made to opemte or not, at will. Car-
tridges for this and similar guns were constructed of linen cloth, the
rear end being covered with tissue, or bank-note paper, through which
the fulminate will ignite the powder, thereby saving the necessity of
tearing the cartridge.

m,. Sharps^s rifie^ caliber .68, paper cartridge., May nard primer. —
In this model the breechblock is inclined to axis of barrel.

116. Dreys^s needle gun, German, caliber .555, with sober bayonet. —
Has brass band and tip. On frame "F. V. Dreyse, Sommerda."
Quadruple leaf sight, hinged. Has a sliding and turning bolt, with
longitudinal striker, operated by a spiral spring and carrying at the
forward end a long needle. When the bolt is open the needle is drawn
back within the bolt. With bolt closed, pulling the trigger releases
the striker, and the needle passes through the powder at the base of
the paper cartridge and strikes the fulminate beyond. Has only a full
COL EXPO— 02 76 rc^c^a\o

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1202 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

cock, and cocking is performed by hand each time. Can not be fired
until thumb piece for cocking is pushed back, locking bolt and prevent-
ing its rotation. It fires a paper cartridge, front ignition, the needle
striking a pellet of fulminate in the base of the paper sabot which
surrounds the ball. There is no gas check except that resulting from
the mechanical fit of the bolt. This is the earliest self-primed cartridge
adopted for military service, and the gun is the first example of the
bolt system now so common in Europe. The bolt is pushed in and
turned like a common door bolt to secure it. The Prussian needle
gun described below is based on this system, which was invented in
1836.

116. DoerscK% hreech-loading rifle^ caliber .61^ with bayonet ^ Genrian
patent — Loaned by Colt's Patent Fire Arms Manufacturing Company.
Has a sliding and turning bolt with needle. Gun must be cocked by
hand and cocking thumb piece pushed back and rotated. Bolt is
rotated to right to engage lug against rim on rear portion of receiver,
and has no safety lock for bolt mechanism.

117. PnisHian needle gun, caliber .60, invented by Dreyse in 1838. —
Presented by the Prussian Government to the United States in 1868.
This gun was adopted by the Prussian Government in 1847.

118. Carbine of same system, caliber .577. — The front sight is pro-
tected by guards on either side projecting above the barrel. These
guards stand away from the sight far enough not to interfere with aim.
This device would be useful where no sight cover is used.

119. Dreys^s improved needle gun, caliber .605. — An improvement
upon the Prussian needle gun. (See report of the Chief of Ordnance,
1873, and also Ordnance Memoranda No. 15.) Saves one motion in
loading, the needle being automatically cocked in opening the piece.

120. French Chassepot carbine, caliber .IfB. — Handle bent down to
be out of the way; paper cartridge. Bolt gun resembling the Prus-
sian needle gun in principle. The gas check is a rubber washer on the
end of the bolt. This is compressed axially by the powder pressure
and forced against the sides of the chamber, being similar in principle
to the De Bange gas check now used in heavy guns.

121. GreerHs bolt gun, caliber .535, paper cartridge., 1857. — Hammer
underneath barrel. By depressing the spring in the rear of the bolt
the handle of the bolt can be lifted and withdrawn. A piston, trav-
ersing the length of the bolt and attached to the handle, serves to pass
the charge forward into place. The piston being then withdrawn, the
bolt is turned and locked in place by two lugs at its forward end
engaging with corresponding recesses in the receiver. The cartridges
had the bullets in the rear so that there were always two bullets in the
gun when loaded, the rear bullet serving as a gas check. Green used
a wind-gauge slide on the rear sight and a barrel with an elliptical
bore.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1203

125. * Lindner's hreech-hading rifle carbine^ caliber .57^ 1851^,. — Paper
cartridge.' This has a chamfered breechblock tilting upward on
a hinge at rear in similar manner to the Hall. Encircling the breech
of barrel in front of this block is a loose band with an overhang to
hold front of breech pin down. Turning this band releases the breech
pin and a spring underneath tilt8 it up. After loading, the breech
piece is depressed and the band is turned to catch it in place. Eight
hundred and ninety-two of these carbines were purchased by the
United States Government for use during the civil war.

123, Wkittenior^s hreech-loading rrfle carbine^ caliber .635. — No
date. Paper cartridge, brass butt and guard. Depressing the lever
underneath the breech releases a spring which raises the breech of the
barrel upward so that the cartridge can be placed in. On pressing
down the barrel, it catches to the stock and locks in a similar manner
to the Hall.

l^i. Perrj/s shotgun^ 1866, 15 bore. — Loaned by Colt's Patent Fire
Arms Manufacturing Company. The breechblock is opened by a
lever serving also as trigger guard, the front of the block being
rotated upward.

126. *Starr^8 carbine^ caliber .64-, paper cartridge^ skeletonized to show
breech action. — By depressing the lever the brace in rear of the breech-
block is dmwn downward by means of a link connecting it with
breechblock. The breechblock is simultaneously caused to revolve
downward and backward. The piece is fired by an ordinary side lock.
The face of the breechblock is countersunk annularly, so as to give a
conical bearing against the butt of the barrel, probably to serve as
gas-check. Twenty-five thousand six hundred and three of these arms
were purchased for use in the Army during the civil war.

126. * Cosmopolitan rifle carbine., caliber .50. — By depressing the lever
the front section of the breechblock slides back until a cylindrical tenon
on its face is clear of the chamber. It then revolves about an axis in
front and below it until the chamber is exposed. The strain of the
discharge is transfeiTed by the head of the lever to the abutment on
the frame. The arm uses a paper or linen cartridge, ignited by a
percussion cap. An apron above the block protects the parts from
dust, etc., and helps to guide the cartridge in loading. Nine thousand
three hundred and forty-two of these carbines were purchased by the
United States Government for use during the civil war.

127. * Smith carbine., caliber .52 ^ paper cartridge. — Barrel connected
with butt by a hinge below, and held above by a spring on the barrel,
stretching across the joint and fitting over a square lug on top of butt
stock. Spring lifted by a lever underneath. Thirty thousand and
sixty-two of these rifles purchased for use during the civil war. From
Allegheny Arsenal.

128. * Gallagher rifl^e carbine., caliber .51. — Barrel opened at breech

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1204 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

by lever underneath, pushing barrel forward. Used in civil war.
Twenty-seven thousand seven hundred and twenty-eight of these guns
were purchased by the United States Government for use during the
civil war.

129. *Chreevl!% hreech-loading rifle carbine^ caliber .53^ June 21,
185 i. — Paper cartridge. Maynard primer and brass butt plate.
Opens by, turning barrel to the right and pulling it forward, so that
the charge can be placed in. Closes by reverse movement.

130. * Gibbs breech-loading rifle carbine^ caliber .5^, 1863. — Leaf sight,
paper cartridge. Opened by pressing downward on a lever under-
neath. This moves the barrel forwaixi and tilts up the rear end.
One thousand and fifty -two of these carbines were purchased by the
United States Government for use during the civil war.

131. *Joslyn carbine fifle^ caliber .54,. — ^The breech is closed by a
plug at the forward end of the strap running backward on to the
small of the stock. The shape of the plug is conical; it is loose upon
the strap, and contains a split ring designed to be expanded by the
force of the discharge against the sides of the seat of the mouth of the
chamber to act as gas check. This expansion is effected by means of
a conical plug, driven into the split ring by the discharge. This is
similar to the gas check of the Williams gun described under cannon.
The locking catch is so connected with the rear that the hammer can
not fall while the breech is open. The breechblock is locked when
closed by the locking catch at its rear end. Eleven thousand two
hundred and sixty-one of these guns were purchased by the United
States Government for use in the civil war.

132. * Merrill breech-loading rifle carbine^ calibefr .54,, 1863. — Paper
cartridge'. Breech closed by a piston or plunger, which is attached
by a link connection with a top lever hinged at its rear end to a
rear extension of the barrel. When the lever is thrown forwaixl
and down it holds the plunger forward against the opening of the
breech, the front end of lever being held by a sliding spring catch.
Lifting the lever draws the plunger to the rear and exposes the
breech. The Merrill rifle resembled the Jenks, described above,
except as to manner of loading. It has a spring catch engaging with
rear-sight base. Also an ordinary side lock meant for prepared
paper or skin ammunition. No extractor used, as cartridge is all
consumed. Breech plug faced with copper, probably to serve as gas
check. Fourteen thousand four hundred and ninety-five Merrill
carbines were purchased for use of the Army during the civil war.

133. Merrill, Latrobe, and Thomas breech-loading carbine, caliber
.54,, paper cartridge, — Brass butt-plate guard and band patch box on
the butt stock of the gun; leaf sight hinged to the rear. Maynard
primer. Faucet breechblock turned by a lever on side. When the
breech is open a sliding rod in rear is used to force the cartridge
through the block into the barrel. ^ j

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WOBLD's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1205

ISJff,. AUen and Whedoch carbine^ faucet hreech. — ^The faucet turns
on a horizontal axis in rear of the barrel, being operated by a long
handle which extends to the rear of the long, small stock when the
breech is closed. It is turned up vertically when the breech is
opened. It is fired by a side lock striking on a nipple fixed to the
housing of the breech on the right side.

136. Merrill mvsketomv^ Latrdbe and Thomas ^^rebd^^'' caliher .54>^
paper cartridge. — Altered from Harpers Ferry rifle. Manufactured
1849. See lock plate. Leaf rear sight.

1S6. Bentley^a hreech-loading rifie.^ caliber .^1^ English^ faucet
breech. — Loaned by Colt's Patent Firearms Manufacturing Company.
The breechblock rotates to right on vertical axis through its center
by means of a lever under the stock. In the breechblock there is an
arrangement for using a percussion cap.

137. Symmes breech-loading carbi^ie, caliber .6^. — Invented by Lieut.
J. C. Symmes, Ordnance Department. Paper cartridge; Maynard
primer attachment. Patch box in the stock. Two hundred Symmes
carbines purchased in 1865. Breech closed by a block hinged in rear.
Depressing a lever underneath throws up the block and exposes the
end of the barrel through a hole in the block, allowing the cartridge
to be pushed through. This is a modified form of faucet breech.

138. Tarpley breech-loading carbine^ rebels caliber .62. — Paper car-
tridge; brass fi-ame. Bi*eechblock swings upward on hinge at left
side. Opened by pressing on a spring catch on the right, Jind throw-
ing the breechblock over to the left side. Cartridge put in from the
rear, level with the barrel.

139. Muzzle-loader converted to breecldoader^ .70 caliber*., experi-
mental.— Loaned by Colt's Patent Firearms Manufacturing Company.
The breechblock has a longitudinal axis to the left of the barrel for
rotation to the left. The block fits in an opening in the top of the
barrel. The block is locked by a rotating plate on top, engaging
front and rear in lugs on the barrel, and turned by a handle at the
right side.

REPEATING ARMS.

Many of the single-fire breechloaders described above had maga-
zines attached for percussion priming or for priming powder, and
these are not included here; but the repeating guns described are not
confined to those using self -primed cartridges, or even "fixed ammu-
nition " with exterior primer. Early forms, not only for percussion
but for flintlock guns, had separate magazines for powder, ball, and
priming. Revolvers are repeating arms, but not magazine arms.
The magazine guns proper are armnged according to form and posi-
tion of the magazine — tubular magazines running through the butt
stock or along the barrel, and what are called box magazines placed

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1206 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

under or beside the receiver, with cartridges arranged side by side
instead of end to end. This last division is essentially the modem
magazine gun, and it embraces quite a variety of fornis — stiuight and
curved, vertical and horizontal, drum shaped, etc., the latter being a
natural development of the revolver. Just preceding the modem
magazine guns examples are given illustrating their development
from revolvers, tubular and gravity magazines, and from various
devices for carrying cartridges for use with single-loaders. Following
the description of box magazines illustrations are given of automatic
and electric guns.

Among magazine guns a great variety of breech mechanisms is
found, but no attempt is made to classify them by this feature, as in
the description of single-loaders. In the development of magazine
guns note must be taken of air guns, which first appeared about the
year 1500, and which were even used in war by the Austrians in the
latter part of the eighteenth century. Magazines for firearms
appeared early in the eighteenth century, and they seem to have been
based on magzines previously used on air guns. Even crossbows,
however, were used with magazines containing extra ''bolts" supplied
automatically for mpid firing, and a Chinese crossbow of this nature
for 20 ' ' bolts " is shown in the artillery museum at Paris. In the first
repeating guns here illustrated the barrel may be said to form its own
magazine.

W3, Ellis's repeating fiintlock mvjzzle-loading rifle^ caliber. BJ/^ — ^This
illusti-ates one of the earliest forms of repeating arms. The barrel
has three vents along the side of the breech, with a single lock made
to slide back and forth to bring the pan opposite one vent after
another. It was intended to put three loads in, one above another,
with the wads between, the powder of each load coming opposite one
of the vents. On firing the front charge the lock would be slipped
back to the next vent, and so on, firing the rear charges in succession,
if they had not gone oflf at the first shot.

WJ/.. SingU'harrel pUtol^ percussion^ firing two charges, — Similar to
Ellis gun in method of loading, but provided with two hammei's, one
longer than the other, to reach two nipples, one in advance of the
other. It was probably intended to force the bullets in tightly enough
to prevent flame from front charge igniting the rear one.

REVOLVERS.

Some 60 specimens are shown. The earliest revolvers were match
locks, but there are no specimens of these in the exhibit. The earlier
forms had the cylinder extending tlie full length, and they required to
be turned by hand. Though Colt's revolvers were the first ones gener-
ally used which turned the cylinder automatically, earlier forms show
this improvement crudely. The chief point claimed in the original

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1803. 1207

Colt patent was the central fire, the nipples being placed in the axes of
the barrels in the cylinder. An old revolver, shown by the Bandle
Gun Company, of Cincinnati, has 4 barrels, each provided with a pan
and cover for the single flintlock. One great objection to the revolver
system for anything but pistols is the escape of gas at the joint between
the cylinder and barrel, as this lessens the range. It is filled as readily
as some of the tubular magazine guns. Savage's revolver, as well as
Collier's, has a contrivance for pushing the cylinder against the barrel
before firing, to shut off escape of gas.

^05. Collier^s revolve?* rijle^ flintlock^ caliber .53^ 5 shots^ 1818. —
Loaned by Colt's Patent Firearms Manufacturing Company. Contains
a cylinder, like that of the Colt's revolver, with 5 chambei-s, which are
loaded from the muzzle and turned by hand. The mouth of each
chamber is recessed suflSciently to receive the end of the barrel, which
projects slightly to the rear. A spring behind the cylinder throws it
forward when opposite to the barrel and closes the joint. Upon the
back of the steel cover of the pan is formed a hollow chamber, contain-
ing a quantity of priming powder. By an automatic device, each time
that the pan is shut a measured quantity of the powder is deposited
in the pan, the valve in the bottom of the chamber being closed auto-
maticall}" by the forward movement of the pan. In the butt stock is a
loading drift used to lengthen out the ramrod, which, on account of the
pressure of the cylinder, can not be otherwise sufficiently extended.
. W6. Flintlock revolver carbine^ peppet*-box pattern^ 8 sliots.

207. RevolveT percussion pistol {pepper'-box)^ 6 sliots. — See No. 5 on
Board of Pistols, 105 of catalogue.

208. Old Japanese revolver^ 3 bai^rels^ percussion. — ^The history of
this revolver is unknown. It is of very crude form, but the hammer
and nipples for percussion cap indicate that it is not an antique. The
handle is of awkward form. The barrels are remarkable from being
wire wound and distinct from each other, and joined together without
an exterior covering. They have to be turned by hand to come under
the hammer.

209. Whittier revolver riHe., date about ^5.^5.— Cylinder has to be
turned by^ hand. Has a long single barrel in front of the revolving
cylinder. Has concealed hammer with a cocking lever near trigger.
Percussion cap used.

210. Cochran's revolver pistol^ 1837. Revolving chambers; revolves
by hand; hammer below; chambers extend radially from the center.
Cylinder is a flat disk, with chambers in the curved surface, running
radially from near the center. Revolved by hand. Hammer under-
neath. Paper cartridge, percussion. Contributed by Colt's Patent
Fire- Arms Company.

211. Cochran revolver rifle^ 1837.— Has a disk holding nine charges;
revolved by hand. Hammer underneath. Disk taken out to charge

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1208 REPORT OF COHMITTEE ON AWARDS.

by throwing up strap which inns along top of stock. From Colt's
Arms Company.

212. Swiss or Bdgicm parlor magazine rijle^ 10 shots^ caliher ,35, —
A disk containing 10 chambers radially disposed is pivoted in the pro-
longation of the barrel on a vertical axis. These chambei's having been
loaded with loose ammunition when off the piece, the disk is set in
place and keyed there by drawing back the sliding barrel by means of
the side lever until the tapered bolt of the barrel enters into the mouth
of the nearest chamber. This movement of the side lever cocks a con-
cealed hammer beneath the disk, which, when the trigger is pulled,
rises to strike the percussion cap with which each chamber is primed.
The barrel is then thrown forward again to allow the disk to be again
turned for the next shot by hand. Its revolution is checked by a
spring pin on the under side of the disk. The chasing on the lid of
the chamber-piece is very well done, representing a wreath of vine
leaves. Barrel hexagonal; fourteen grooves; serrated rifling; stock
of ebony or of pear wood dyed black.

213. Two Coifs revolvers^ of earliest pattern, — Used for paper ammu-
nition. From Colt's Arms Company.

2H. CoWs revolver rifle^ early pattern, — From Colt's Anns Com-
pany.

216. Coifs revolver shotgun^ No. 12 'bore. — From Colt's Arms Com-
pany.

216. Coifs navy revolver^ old model ^ with deto/cJiahle extension stock.— ^
The extension stock, formed like the butt stock of a gun, is intended
to allow firing the revolver from the shoulder, and in this sample the
stock is made hollow to inclose a canteen with an opening at the comb
of the stock.

217. Coifs revolver rifle^ 6 shots ^ with sword bayonet., caliber .66^
1857. — The cylinder is revolved automatically by cocking hammer.
When at half cock, cylinder can be revolved by hand and loaded, a ram-
mer being adjusted just under stock.

218. Coifs revolver carbins^ 5 shots^ caliber .56, 1857.

219. Eight specimens of CoWs revolver. — Showing the progression
from the earlier forms used with paper cartridges to the most recent
used with metallic ammunition. Some show marks of alteration from
old form to new.

220. Wesson <& Leavitt revolver i, caliber .35. — First revolver patented
after Colt's. Made by Massachusetts Arms Company, Chicopee Falls,
Mass.

221. French navy revolver., Lemat pattern., 9 shots, central barrel ftr
buckshot, — The extremity of the hammer is made with a joint, so that
it can be turned forward to fire the chambers, or turned down to fire
the central barrel. Loaned by C. Breckenridge, Covington, Ky.

222. Three Jodynrevolvi^^s, caliher J^, one skeletonized.

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WOBLD's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1209

^3. Eight f^pedmens of Remington revolvei*. — Illustrating the devel-
opment from the time of paper cartridges to to-day. Some forms
have the Hay safety device, a slide passing up in front of the hammer
to keep the latter up until the slide is withdrawn by pressing the
trigger.

^m, Beall revoh)er^ caliher .J^Jf,, — Bears close resemblance to the
Remington.

226. Two AUen <& Wheelock revolvers^ caliher .44. — ^Its main differ-
ence from the ordinary form of the Colt revolver, or of the Reming-
ton, which it resembles in having the cylinder inclosed by the frame,
consists in the position of the rammer lever, which is turned back-
ward and bent so as to form the trigger guard.

226. Adams revolver (JSnglish)^ ccdzbe?* .^, patented' 1866. — A self-
cocking revolver, the hammer being raised by pulling the trigger.

227. Four self -cocking Starr revoVoera. — The trigger is double. By
continuing to pull on the forward trigger, which raises the hammer
and revolves the cylinder, the back of the trigger strikes against the
front of a rear trigger and causes the hammer to fall.

228. Two Dreyse needle reoolvera., caliber .36, self-cocking.

229. Four Savage revolvers, caliher .3626, self -cocking. — By pulling
back the lever in the rear of the trigger the cylinder is first slightly
retired from the barrel and then caused to revolve. The hammer is
cocked at the same time. When the lever is released, the cylinder'
moves forwaixi slightly, so that the mouth of the nearest chamber may
embrace the butt of the barrel, made somewhat conical for this pur-
pose. The cylinder is withdrawn by means of a toggle-joint con-
nected in its rear end, which is lifted by a projection on Jihe upper
part of the lever. An arm attached to this end of the toggle reaches
forward and operates the ratchet. The stop-ratchet is foimed on the
body of the cylinder, back of the cones. The operation of the moving
parts, which is very interesting, may be readil}^ seen by removing the
plate on the left of the lock.

230. PettengiWs revolvei\ caliher .1^, dovhle-action, hammerless.

231. Two Lefaricheux revolvers {French), caliher .35, pin- fire. — By
opening the gate on the right side, the rear chambers are exposed and
an opportunity given to insert the cartridges. The empty cartridge
shells are pushed out to the rear by sliding a rod on the frame. The
cylinder stop consists of a pin plying back and forth in the face of the
breech. It arrests the movement of the cylinder by striking against
projections on the face of the cylinder between the chambers. In
consequence of M. Lefaucheux's early invention of this pin-fire car-
tridge, this is one of the earliest breech-loading revolvera using
metallic ammunition. The trigger folds up when not in use.

232. Christiensen revolver (Danish), caliber .1^5, pin-fire. — The hinged
gate in rear of the right side of the cylinder allows the chamber to be

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1210 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

loaded with a pin-fire (Lefaucheux) cartridge. The stop operates
against a series of inclined ratchet teeth fonned on the body of the
cylinder. The trigger folds up when not in use. The butt contains
an oil cavity closed by a screw stopper which has an internal stem to
take up the oil one drop at a time. An eye is formed in the frame
immediately in the rear of the hammer, by which the pistol is fastened
to the person by a lanyard.

^233. Three Pen^n revolvers {French)^ caliber .44. — ^The cartridges
are inserted through the gate in the rear of the cylinder on the right.
The tumbler is without any notch, the hammer falling at the moment
that the " lift" of the trigger is accomplished. It may be kept oflf the
cartridge by means of a wedge pressed in by a spring so as to block
its fall. The wedge is out of the way when the hammer falls in firing.
The pistol uses a central-fire cartridge, instead of the pin-fire Lefau-
cheux cartridge for which it was originally made.

234^ Sharpen revolver^ callher .44. — Opened by swinging barrel side-
ways. Same as Wesson's, except in mode of opening.

^3o. Siftlth cfe Wessmi revolver. — By raising the barrel latch in thft
rear of and above the cylinder the barrel may be turned down about a
horizontal axis in front of the lower part of the cylinder. The barrel
in turning down carries with it the cylinder, and at the same time a
shaft running through the axle of the cylinder is driven to the rear,
pushing out the empty shells by a projecting plate on the rear end.
When pushed out far enough to remove the shells this extractor springs
forward into place and gives room for inserting more cartridges.

236. Smith cfe Wesson revolver^ caliber .43^ Hicssian model.

237. Schofeld^ Smith i& Wesson revolver ^ caliber .-^, United States
service pattern. — This arm differs principally from Smith & Wesson in
the form of the extractor and of the barrel latch, the latter' being
hinged to the frame instead of the barrel of the cylinder catch. The
height of the front sight is also reduced by placing it in a groove along
the top of the barrel.

238. Board of pistols and revolvers loaned from CoWs Armory. —
The numbers given below correspond to the numbers in the accom-
panying illustration of this board:

1. National Arms Company revolver, 6 shots, caliber .45, metal cartridge.

2. German revolver (Mauser), 6 shots, caliber .415, metal cartridge.

3. Leavitt's revolver, 7 shots, caliber .36, percussion cap.

4. German revolver (Mauser) , 6 shots, caliber .415, metal cartridge, simultaneous

ejection.

5. Pepper-box revolver, 8 shots, calil)er.31, percussion cap.

6. Pepper-box revolver, 6 shots, caliber .31, percussion cap, hammer on bottom.

7. Belgian revolver (Lefaucheux), 6 shots, caliber .47, metal cartridge.

8. Massachusetts Arms Company revolver, Maynard primer, 6 shots, caliber .31.

9. French revolver, Aliadie, caliber .35, metal cartridge, simultaneous ejection.
10. Remington revolver, 5 shots, calil)er .31, percussion cap.

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WOBLd's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1211

11. 81ocum*8 revolver, 5 shots, caliber .32, metal cartridge.

12. Pocket pepper-box revolver, Rupertus, 1864, 8 shots, caliber .22, metal cart-

ridge.

13. Belgian pocket revolver, 5 shots, caliber .32, double action, concealed hammer,

folding trigger, ''baby " metal cartridge.

14. Colt's pocket revolver, skeleton, 5 shots, caliber .27, paper cartridge.

15. Elliott's pocket pistol, 1860, 4 barrels, caliber .32, metal cartridge.

16. Sharp's pocket pistol, 1852, 4 barrels, caliber .22, metal cartridge.

17. Derringer, muzzle-loading, 1870, caliber .44.

18. Bacon & Co. pistol, caliber .32, metal cartridge.

19. English multibarrel rifled pistol, 4 diverging barrels, caliber .43, percussion cap.

^39. Board of army and navy revolvers using paper cartridges:

21. Remington, caliber .44; used largely in the rebellion.

22. Remington, caliber .44.

23. Wesson & Leavitt, caliber .35; first revolver patented after Colt's; made by

Massachusetts Arms Company, Chicopee Falls, Mass.

24. Joslyn, caliber .44, skeletonized; takes same cartridge as Colt's.

25. Beall, caliber .44; bears close resemblance to the Remington.

26. Colt, caliber .44; used for experimental bluing.

27. Adams (English), caliber .44; patented 1856.

28. Starr, caliber .44; self-cocking, set trigger.

29. Starr, caliber .44; self-cocking, set trigger.

30. Starr, caliber .44; self-cocking, set trigger.

31. Dreyse, needle, caliber .35.

32. Dreyse, needle, caliber .35.

33. Allen & Wheelock, caliber .44.

34. Allen <& Wheelock, caliber .44.

35. Starr, caliber .44; self -cocking, set trigger.

36. Colt, caliber .44.

37. Joslyn, caliber .44.

38. Joslyn, caliber .44; skeletonized.

39. Savage, caliber .3625; self -cocking.

40. Pettengill, caliber .44.

41. Savage, caliber .3625; self-cocking.

42. Savage, caliber .3625; self-cocking.

2^0. Boards of army and tiavy revolvers using metallic cartridges:

43. Lefaucheux (French), caliber .35; pin fire.

44. Christensen (Danish), caliber .44; pin fire.

45. Remington, caliber .44; originally used with paper cartridge; converted for use

of triangular metallic cartridge; experimental.

46. Remington, caliber .44; shows alterations for metallic ammunition.

47. Colt, caliber .44; originally used with paper cartridge; shows alterations for

metallic ammunition and mode of ejecting shell.

48. Colt, caliber .44; shows alterations for metallic ammunition.

49. French, model 1873, caliber ; made at St. Etienne.

50. Colt, caliber .36; shows alterations for metallic ammunition.

51. Colt, caliber .44; shows alterations for metallic ammunition.

52. Lefaucheux (French), caliber .44, pin fire.

53. Perrin (French), caliber .44.
64. Perrin (French), caliber .44.

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REPORT OF COMBOTTEE ON AWARDS.

66. Perrin (French), caliber .44.

66. Smith & Wesson, caliber .43, Russian model.

57. Schofield-Smith & Wesson, caliber .45, United States service pattern.

58. Smith & Wesson, caliber .44.

59. Sharp, caliber .44; private property.

60. Colt, caliber .45, United States service pattern.

61. Colt, calil)er .45, United States service pattern, skeletonized; presented to

National Armory Museum by General Franklin March 12, 1875.

62. Colt, caliber .44; shows alterations for metallic ammunition.

63. Colt, caliber .44; shows altcjrations for metallic ammunition and improved mode

of ejecting shell.

64. Remington, caliber .44, pin fire, swinging shell extractor.

65. Remington, caliber .44; invented by Dr. Hay and submitted by Brig. Gen. R

Williams; Dr. Hay's patent safety lever; see arrangement near trigger.

66. Remington, caliber .44; shows alterations for metallic ammunition.

67. Remington, caliber .44; shows alterations for metallic ammunition.

^j^. Smith i& We89or^% array r€fo6l/0€T with KditmC

ment. — As shown in figure 6, the
handle of the revolver has a
thumb piece on the right. This
serves two purposes: first, it
steadies the revolver by giving
a firm grasp with the aid of the
thumb; second, it prevents firing
the piece until the trigger is
pulled. For this purpose the
thumb piece is hinged at the for-
ward end on a shaft, which extends into the frame of the handle and
keeps the hammer from falling until the thumb piece is pressed down.
This is the invention of Bvt. Brig. Gen. J. C. Kelton, U. S. A.

^42. Keltoixh cartridge pa/)k fo7* Smith cfe Wesson revolvers. — This
is shown in figures 7 and 8. Figure 7 shows the pack-
age, and figure 8 shows it partially inserted in the barrel
of the cylinder. The cartridges are*arranged around
a central stem, and held by a paper band, or by a brass
strap with a simple catch. The packages are carried
in cylindrical boxes attached to the waist or shoulder
belt, and when the revolver is opened they can be read-
ily taken from the belt and pushed into the cylinder.
The band or strap is readily loosened, and the central
stem falls out. This gives a ready means of reloadinor
the cylinder.

2Ji3, New Colt douhle-actimi revolver^ caliber .38 , vnth simultaneous
ejector. — Adopted for United States service. This arm has been tested
by several troop commanders with very favorable results, and it is
considered a decided improvement on the .45 caliber now in use. The
special peculiarity of this revolver consists in an arrangement for

Fio. 6.

Fro. 7.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1218

allowing the cylinder, by the withdmwal of a spring catch at the left
side of the frame, to be swung outward to the left upon a crane, which
has an axis at the lower part of the frame parallel to the bore of the
revolver. This permits the simultaneous ejection of all the shells by
means of a rod sliding through the center of the cylinder, and allows
the free insertion of new cartridges. The cylinder is then swung
back into the frame and held in place by the spring
catch. The catch is so placed as to be readily with-
di-awn by the thumb while the hand still remains upon
the grip of the revolver. The cylinder can not be
swung from its place in the frame except when the
trigger is forward in its normal position, and the trig-
ger can not be pulled when the cylinder is thrown out,
being firmly held by the rear end of the spindle so
that no motion of the hammer is possible. The trig-
ger spring serves also to produce the rebound of the
hammer. A dog and ratchet hold the cylinder abso- ^^o. IT

lutely firm at the moment of firing. In other respects
the revolver does not essentially differ from those previously described.
The tendency to reduction of caliber is shown in revolvers as well as
rifles, the only argument in favor of the larger calibei*s for cavalry
being the shock that is required to stop, at close quartei's, a horse
going at full speed, and many cavalry officers still favor the larger
calibers.

Tvbidar magazines in the hutt stock.

The earliest example of this kind known is a flintlock gun of the
eighteenth century. It had two tubular magazines running lengthwise
of the butt stock, as in later models, one holding powder for the charge
and the other powder for priming, the bullets being inserted singly.
A revolving disk, turning, like the Cochran, round an axis perpen-
dicular to the barrel, but horizontal instead of vertical, served to close
the breech and the tubes. A chamber in the circumference allowed
the insertion of a ball from underneath the gun. The disk was then
turned to cany the hole past the magazine openings, muzzle of gun
held down to let the powder drop in, and was then set to bring the
chamber opposite the barrel.

ZJfJf!^. Spencer carbine^ old modd^ caliber .5^, skeletonized. — ^This gun
was introduced in 1860. It was the earliest magazine gun used in
actual war. Ninety-four thousand one hundred and fifty-six were
purchased for use in the Army during the civil war. Used a rim-fire
metallic cartridge. A lever underneath, swinging down and forward,
draws down the breechblock and swings it backward far enough for a
cartridge to slip over the block from the magazine in rear, a spring
finger above the mouth of the magazine keeping the cartridge from

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1214 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

slipping out. Swinging the lever backward pushes the cartridge in
and closes the breech. Fired by an independent hammer striking a
slide in the block and driving it against the rim of cartridge. By a
button underneath, the swing of the lever can be limited so that a car-
tridge will not be admitted from the magazine, and the gun can then
be used as a single loader. A narrow plate hinged to the block serves
as extractor, and the shell is forced out by sliding up the inclined finger
which covers the magazine. A tube containing a spiral spring can be
drawn out from the rear, allowing cartridges to be dropped into the
magazine. Returning the tube to place brings the pressure of the
spring upon the cartridges to force them forward. The spring has a
head, or "follower," at the end to bear upon the cartridge, and this is
common to all spring magazines.

To facilitate the filling of the magazine a species of charger was
used, invented by Gen. Erastus Blakeslee, of Connecticut. This was
a tin tube carried full of cartridges, placed end to end, from which
the cartridges could be poured into the magazine when the spring tube
was removed. A number of these tubes were carried by the soldier,
packed in a leather case slung over the shoulder and steadied b}'' means
of the waist belt under the left arm. The cavalry box held 8 tubes
and the infantry box held 13. One of these boxes .filed with chargers
was contributed to the exhibit by the inventor. It is the forerunner
of the modern "clip" or charger used with box magazines, but in the
latter the cartridges are placed side by side, forming a more con-
venient package and allowing the insertion of the finger to force the
cartridges out.

£4S. Spencer repeating rifle^ caliber ,60^ altered from carbine, — Same
system as above.

2i6. Scott or Triplett magazine rijle^ caliber .60^ about 1870^ Jtferi-
den Manufacturing Company^ Merid^n. — The magazine in butt stock;
barrel revolves on parallel axis beneath it until opposite mouth of
magazine, when it receives its charge. The extractor is worked by
the rotation of the barrel.

^J^7, Clemens magazine rifle^ '^Springfield system^'*'* 1878. — The mag-
azine in this gun is placed in a groove in the left side of the butt stock,
and it runs up to the side wall of the receiver, which has an opening
to allow cartridges to slip obliquely from the magazine toward the
firing chamber. A coiled spring at the side of the magazine works a
flexible plunger to force the cartridges forward. Rather complicated
mechanism, somewhat on the order of the first Allin model for the
Springfield, is needed to throw the empty shell clear of the magazine
and draw a cartridge from the magazine to the chamber. This gun
shows a hammerless breechblock. It is converted from the regular
block with little exterior change. A side lever, as in the Kelton ham-
merless gun above described, pushes back the firing pin and compresses

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1215

a spring in the block; but instead of having a sear below, the firing
pin projects from the rear of the block as in the service model, and a
shoulder there catches on a spring plate which is pressed out by move-
ment of the trigger, releasing the firing pin. The description of this
gun in Report of Chief of Ordnance for 1878 does not refer to the
"hammerless" device. Other attempts to make a magazine gun of
the Springfield are there noted.

2^8. HotchJdss magazine Hf^^ caliber iJ^S. — See Report of Chief of
Ordnance for 1882. This gun was introduced about 1879. It is a
bolt gun similar to the Mauser. The slot in the receiver is curved at
its junction with the front and rear shoulders. The bolt is hence
gently checked just before it is pushed home, preventing shock on
the head of the cartridge, and making the operation more continuous
than with square shoulders. The front curve also cams the bolt
backward in beginning to open, and so starts the shell, which can
then be readily drawn out. This action, now used in other bolt guns,
was claimed by Hotchkiss as his invention. The magazine, in the
butt stock like the Spencer, runs under instead of over the breech-
piece, and brings the cartridge into the receiver through an inclined
opening in the bottom. A spiral spring is used with follower. Center-
fire cartridges are used. To insert them the bolt has to be opened, and
they are pushed in through the chamber, endwise, singly, butt end
first. By a lever at one side the bolt can be locked shut for security,
and the hammer held from striking. A lever at the other side shuts
off the magazine when necessary for use as a single loader. It is a
remarkably simple gun, and it avoids having an extra piece to serve
as earner for transfer of cartridges from the magazine. A peculiar
feature is a trigger with a hollow or curved stem where it passes round
the magazine. Stops connected with the trigger check and release
cartridges in the magazine at the proper time.

^Jfi. Chaffee Reece magazine rifle^ caliber .4^, 1881, — See Report of
Chief of Ordnance, 1882. The position of the magazine is nearly the
same as in the Hotchkiss, but in place of having a spring in the maga-
zine the cartridges are forced forward by studs on a bar at the side of
the magazine tube. This bar is moved back and forth by a projection
on the bolt. Another bar, which does not move lengthwise, has cor-
responding studs, and it is kept pressed in by a spring, the studs on
this bar keeping cartridges from slipping back when the first bar
moves back. The reciprocating bar thus draws the cartridges forward,
by regular successive steps, distances equal to their own length. The
front cartridge, before the breech is opened, lies in a hollow under the
bolt far enough forward to be pushed up and into the chamber as the
bolt is pushed in after opening. A hinged gate in the butt plate can
be thrown open to admit cartridges in filling the magazine tube. This
gate, in opening, acts upon the studded rods to force them out from

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1216 BEPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

the tube and allow cartridges to be dropped clear in without striking
the studs. This gun, arranged for small-caliber cartridges, was tested
by the United States magazine gun board of 1892.

TUBULAB MAGAZINES ALONG THE BABBBL.

260. Henry magcLzme rifle^ sliding carrier hlock.^ caliber .4^8, dd
mod^L — ^This system was invented about 1850, but it was slow in com-
ing into use, until developed about 18t>6 into the form of the Winches-
ter gun next described. The gun is operated by a lever swinging
forward below. This acts on an elbow joint which works the bolt back
and forth. An arm connected with the lever causes a carrier block to
slide up and down, transferring the cartridges from the level of the
magazine to that of the barrel when the bolt is back, and dropping
the block when the bolt is forward, and a cartridge pushed into the
chamber. The magazine is charged from the front. The tube is
in two sections, the muzzle part made to swing round to the side to
clear the mouth of the magazine tube, the spring being first pushed
up into this part by means of a thumb piece attached to the fol-
lower, and projecting through a slot cut lengthwise in the magazine
tube. Cartridges can then be dropped into the tube. A magazine
under the barrel gives room for more cartridges than one in the butt
stock.

251, Winchester magaziiie rijle^ caliber .4^, military modd^ 1876. —
This differs from the Henry gun, from which it was developed, mainly
in the method of filling the magazine. Instead of having a movable
muzzle section the tube is continuous, and an opening at tiie rear, cov-
ered by a spring plate, allows the insertion of cartridges one at a
time even when the gun is loaded. No other means of loading is pro-
vided than this method through the magazine. This gun attmcted
much attention abroad when first made, about 1866, and it was adopted
in Switzerland, where it was afterwards displaced by the Vetterlin,
next described, constructed on the same magazine principle. The Win-
chester is very popular for sporting purposes, where small cartridges
can be used. Its operation depends on good workmanship, and it is a
fine piece of mechanism. The length of the breech system orevents
its being used to best effect for long cartridges.

252. Swiss Vetterlin inagazine rifle .^ caliber .Ifi^ about 1868 ^ adopted
hy Switzerland for its corps d'' elite. — This is a simple bolt gun, the bolt
operating a sliding carrier block like that of the Winchester, from
which magazine system it is derived. The same remarks as to filling
the magazine and loading apply to this as to the Winchester. The
bolt differs from the Mauser bolt in having the handle near the rear
and bent down by the side of the stock, two lugs on the turning part
of the bolt, near the rear, catching the shoulders in the breech frame.
This rear position of the handle is an advantage in magazine guns.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893 1217

The firing spring is spiral, as in the Mauser, but made large and
heavy, though short, and placed in the rear instead of the front paii;
of the bolt. This makes an enlargement in rear and gives a clumsy
look.

253. Sticknei/^8 breech-loading carbine^ caliber .4^, magazine on right
side of barrel^ 1872. — Loaned by Colt's Patent Firearms Manufactur-
ing Company. The cartridge carrier for this gun is worked by
hand. It is a grooved block hinged on a longitudinal axis at the side,
between the barrel and the magazine tube. When swung over to the
right it receives the cartridge, which is pushed back from the maga-
zine into the groove. Then tilting the carrier over tmnsfers the
cartridge to the receiver. The cartridge is forced home by a square
bolt attached to the hammer, and fired by a firing pin which is
contained in the bolt.

25 ^. *BaW% breech-loading magazine carbine^ caliber .50 n, 1863. —
The magazine, which lies beneath the barrel, is loaded from the rear
through an aperture in the side of the receiver. The breech mech-
anism is operated by a lever below. The breechblock is foi-med into
a spoon at*the front end, so that when the block is closed it fotms not
only the rear of the cartridge chamber, but a portion of its bottom.
When the lever is depressed the breechblock is drawn to the rear and
the front end is tilted downward so that a cartridge is admitted into
the spoon from the tubular magazine under the barrel, a groove in the
rear under the spoon serving to hold the flange of the cartridge shell.
A reverse motion of the lever tilts up the block to the level of the
baiTcl and pushes it forward, inserting the bullet end of the car-
ti-idge. The empty shell after firing is drawn back by the breech-
block and lowered to the level of the loading opening, where it is
flipped out sidewise by a lever which is struck by the breechblock.
The breechblock is so aiTanged that, once closed, it can not be opened
until after the hammer has fallen. This is intended to prevent Iosl-
of ammunition by withdrawal before firing. The piece is fired by a
side lock. One thousand and two of these arnis were purchased for
the Army during the civil war.

255. Smithes punch-lock rifie^ with magazine for paper cartridges
and percussion pellets^ 1851. — Loaned by Mr. E. Thomas, Chicago,
111. This is a bolt gun operated by a lever underneath, as in the Henry,
but the bolt is pushed forward and back by a short arm on the lever,
and it is secured for firing by a brace hinged in rear and forced up
behind the bolt. When the bolt is drawn back a cartridge from the
tubular magazine under the barrel is carried up by a rocking spoon or
carrier. This magazine used paper cartridges, fixed. They were
fired by means of a side punch lock, the point of hammer dropping
into a hole in the top of the breech bolt. Into this hole pellets of per-
cussion powder were dropped from a small magazine under which the

COL EXPO — 02 77 r^^^^T^

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1218 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

bolt passed in moving back and forth. Tlie flame communicated with
the powder through an aperture in the end of the bolt.

£56. Ward-Biirton ma<jazine rifle^ caliber .45^ 1873^ rocking carrier, —
The bolt mechanism of this gun is the same as that of the Ward-
Burton single-loader above described. Like that gun, the handle is
placed at the rear of the bolt, and a stop is provided to hold the handle
half turned, thereby giving a half cock. The magazine is a tube under
the barrel with spring and follower as above described, but instead of
a sliding carrier block, a rocking carrier of spoon shape is used. This
spoon is made to rock on horizontal bearings at the rear. Its front
end is forced down by the bolt in moving forward and up by the bolt
in moving backward, striking projections at the rear end. The spoon
when down receives a cartridge from the magazine and when up it
holds the cartridge inclined upward toward the chamber, about at
the position and slope of the front cartridge in the Hotchkiss, with
the flange end mised sufliciently for the bolt to strike the upper edge
in going forward and so push the cartridge into the chamber. A side
lever operates to hold the spoon up and cut off the magazine when
desired for use of gun as single-loader. Cartridges are inserted into
the magazine through an opening under the breechblock. Cartridges
are put in endwise, singly, point first. The magazine mechanism is
indicated in the cuts illustrating the new German and French magazine
guns below described, to which the remarks about loading, etc., also
apply. Brought before the United States board of magazine guns of
1874.

£67. Remington- Keene magazine rifle., caliber .4S^ tested by magazine
gun board of 1882. — ^The breech mechanism of this gun is a sliding and
turning bolt, not differing materially from the ordinar}?^ bolt, the lock-
ing being done by having the handle turn down in front of a shoulder
on the side. The principal peculiarity of the bolt lies in having a
pivoted cocking piece in rear, by means of which the firing pin, con-
cealed in the bolt in the usual way, can be drawn back and the piece
cocked without opening the bolt. A halfcock and safety mechanism
are provided. The tubular magazine is under the barrel, as in the
Ward-Burton, and the cartridge is raised in a similar manner by means
of a rocking spoon opemted by the bolt. The front part of the bolt
turns with the handle, and when the bolt is unlocked the extractor
rides around ahead of the cartridge. The magazine can be filled in
any position of the bolt by inserting cartridges underneath the carrier.
See report of Chief of Ordnance for 1882.

£58. Ma^cser magazine gun., German model., calihei* .J^S. — This is
practically the Mauser single-loading mechanism with a magazine of
the Ward-Burton type, having a rocking carrier or spoon. This is
commonly known as the Kropatcheck system, which, however, was
not known until about 1878, while the Ward-Burton was tried in this

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WOBLd's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1219

country in 1873. A projection below the nose of the spoon serves to
prevent cartridges from slipping under the spoon from the magazine,
and a detent operates when the spoon is down to prevent a second
cartridge from following the first into the spoon. A cut-off operates
in a similar manner as in the Ward Burton gun. The rifle is 4 feet
3 inches long, and with the bayonet 6 feet 11 inches long. With the
magazine empty the gun weighs about 10 pounds; with it filled, about
11 pounds. The bayonet weighs 1.76 pounds. The trigger mechan-
ism is so arranged that a gradual pull on the trigger finally disengages
the tumbler and permits the firing-pin to fly forward. The magazine
holds 8 cartridges end to end. The service cartridge weighs 663
grains. It is 3.07 inches long. Later cartridges, contain 89^ grains
of powder. Reduction of caliber is now going on, and its advantages
will be discussed under ammunition. The French gun next described
is of reduced caliber. A box magazine gun, described later on, has
replaced this gun in the Gennan army.

259. The LSel magazine gun^ Fr<mch tnodel^ caliber .30^^ represented
onlyiy drawings and description, — This is practically the French Gras
rifle fitted with the Kropatcheck (or Ward Burton) magazine, and the
same general remarks apply here as to the Mauser gun just described.
The new bolt has double lugs, as in the Lee bolt, to take up the recoil
on both sides the receiver. One figure shows the spoon down, with a
cartridge lying in it received from the magazine. The bolt is partly
pulled back, drawing out an empty shell, in the position just before
tilting up the spoon with the new cartridge to the position shown in
the other figure. The Berthier box-magazine gun has replaced this
in great measure in the French army. For description of cartridge
and results with it see under ammunition.

260. Kropatscheck^ Portxigal^ caliber .316. — ^This arm has been offi-
cially adopted and issued to the army of Portugal. The magazine,
holding 8 cartridges, is tubular and lies under the barrel. It is
charged with single cartridges only through the receiver, and a cut-off
is provided for the magazine. A spoon-shaped cartridge carrier ele-
vates the cartridge from the magazine, as above described. The breech
is closed b}'^ a bolt not differing materially from others above described.
This gun has a cut-off for the magazine, and a safety locking device
for the bolt. This gun was tested by the United States Magazine Gun
Board of 1892.

261. Mitrata, Japan^ caliber .315. — This arm is adopted by the
Government of Japan. The magazine lies under the barrel in a
channel in the stock, has a cut-off and can only be charged with single
cartridges through the receiver. While differing in some of the
details of construction and dimensions, this arm is very similar in
both its breech and magazine mechanism to the Kropatscheck, described
above. It has no safety lock, and the piece must be carried at full

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1220 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS,

cock after it has been loaded. This gun and the Kropatscheck, above
described, were the only new tubular magazine guns brought up for
test before the United States Magazine Gun Board of 1892. A
Chaff ee-Reece gun of caliber .30 was, however, tested. All the i-est
had box magazines. Before the Magazine Gun Board of 1882 all had
tubular magazines except two; this shows the tendency toward box
magazines for military guns.

£6S. Spencer repeating shotgun^ 12 hore^ 1881, — The breechblock in
this gun resembles the Peabody, it being hinged in rear, and made to
move up and down in front. Its special peculiarity lies in the arrange-
ment for operating the block by means of a sliding handle on the
magazine tube under the barrel. This handle is connected with flat
bars, which extend to the rear, into the receiver, and along the breech-
block. A stud on the inner side of one rod fits in an inclined groove
in the side of the breechblock, so that sliding the handle back wedges
down the block to open the breech. Immediately after this, an
extractor is operated by the bar on the other side to remove the empty
shell. When the handle is well back the block is thrown up by a
spring, tossing the shell out above. While the block is up, a cartridge
underneath, received from the magazine below the barrel, is pushed
in by moving forward the slide, and the breech is closed. The maga-
zine is filled from underneath the breechblock.

263. CoWs TYha^azine rijle^ caliber ,22, 1887. — ^This gun is also oper-
ated by a handle sliding on the magazine tube under the barrel, but
the breech action is a bolt system, instead of the falling block. A
bar, attached to the slide, works a lever connected with a cam latch,
which is hinged at its forward end to the under side of the bolt
toward the rear. When the bolt is closed the rear end of this cam
latch drops into a depression under the bolt in the bottom of the
frame, and abuts against a shoulder in the frame, securing the bolt
Drawing back the handle raises the cam latch over the shoulder and
then pushes back the bolt so freed. Forcing the handle to the front
draws the bolt forward and finally swings the cam latch down again,
locking the bolt. A spring extractor on the bolt withdraws the empty
shell. A sliding carrier block, moving like that in the Winchester
and Vetterlin, transfers cartridges from the magazine. The rear end
of the magazine tube can be swung slightly to the right to insert
cartridges, a spring plate securing them from springing out. This
gun was use<l during the Exposition, in the shooting gallery of the
War Department, in determining practically the velocity of pro-
jectiles. Loaned by B. Kittredge Arms Company^, Cincinnati.

264,. Winchester repeating shotgun. — This has a breechblock operat-
ing in a similar manner to that of the Spencer magazine gun described
at the beginning of magazine guns, and it is worked by a similar lever
underneath; but the magazine is under the barrel, and when the breech-

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1883. 1221

block is revolved bacikward a spoon carrier lifts the cartridge from
the magazine to the level of the barrel. Closing the breech forces
home the cartridge.

S6S. Burgess Treating shotgun. — The special peculiarity of this gun
is its operation by a handle embracing and sliding along the small of
the stock. This handle carries with it the trigger and trigger guard,
so that the trigger hand may rest continually on the trigger. The
breech is closed by a bolt, which is secured by a bi'ace hinged 'to it
and connected with the slide by a link, so that a motion of the handle
to the rear unlocks the bolt and pulls it out; then operates a rocking
carrier to bring the cartridge up from the tubular magazine below.
Sliding the handle forward closes the breech and loads the gun, it
being impossible to fire until the bolt is secure. There is no special
peculiarity about the magazine, and this breech action, like that of the
Spencer repeating shotgun, is equally applicable to box magazines.

Review of magazine guns.

The earlier magazines, of tubular form on account of the difficulties
in refilling them, were almost of necessity kept full and held in reserve
to await some special crisis in the battle; and the added weight of the
cartridges had to be carried on the gun. The essential purpose of the
modern fonn is to provide a means for so rapidly renewing the supply
that it is unnecessary, as a rale, to keep cartridges in the magazine and
on the gun. The box form of magazine, therefore, has been univer-
sally adopted, because that form holds the cartridges in the most com-
pact and convenient manner, and because with such a form it can be
replaced or refilled the most readily. This makes the use of a compact
and convenient magazine filler possible, and the arrangement of car-
tridges side by side prevents the possibility of explosion of a cartridge
by having the bullet of one cartridge rest against the primer of another,
as in tubular magazines.

A marked distinction is sometimes drawn between magazine guns
and repeaters among the modern guns, as if there were an essential dif-
ference in the method of charging the magazine; the tenn *' repeaters"
being applied to those arms which can not be used as single loaders
while the magazine is charged. As this difference, however, depends
merely on whether a cut-off is used or not, and as a cut-off can be used
with any style of magazine, this difference is one of choice rather than
of necessity, and all the new arms afford the facilities for rapid, con-
tinuous fire.

In many instances the cut-off is abandoned with a direct view to
controlling the magazine fire by making the difference between single
fire and fire from the magazine as distinct as possible. For this pur-
pose the use of the packing case or clip affords an opportunity for the
officers to observe the rate at which the magazines are used.

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1222 BEPOET OF COMMITTEE ON AW ABBS.

The United States, though nearly the last nation to definitely adopt
a magazine gun for its armament, can claim for its inventore the first
practical development of magazine guns for war puiposes, and it was
the first nation to make use of them in war, the Henry, Spencer, and
Ball magazines being used during the war of the rebellion. The mod-
ern box magazine also owes its inception to American inventore, and
the most improved modern systems vary but slightly from the originals.

There is no doubt that the introduction of this form of magazine
has led to the general adoption of the magazine gun for the armament
of troops, the military powers having apparently waited only until a
magazine arm could be obtained which would not merely serve for a
temporary reserve, leaving the gun no better than a single loader
when the magazine was exhausted, but which could be quickl}^ refilled
for successive emergencies, however rapidly they might occur, and
which would even increase the rapidity of continuous fire. The box
magazine is the only kind with which more rapid continuous fire can
be maintained than with the best single loaders.

The great impulse to the adoption of magazine guns was given by
the change of armament demanded by the adoption of smaller caliber
and smokeless powder for military arms. This lessened one objection
which has always been urged against every step toward improvement
in the rapidity with which they could be fired — that sufficient ammuni-
tion could not be provided to supply the increased demand; for the
weight of the arm is reduced as well as the weight of the cartridge, so
that for the same weight nearlj'^ double as many cartridges can be car-
ried as before. The increase in accuracy of fire, due to having longer
time to aim, has greatly developed the effect of modern arms, so that
there is less waste of ammunition. The magazine gun is now fully
accepted, and the contest is now oyer the adoption of automatic guns,
giving still greater rapidity of fire. A recent authority says on this
subject as follows:

To sum up, we believe that the arguments opposed to the adoption of rapid-firing rifles
are but a continuation of those raised against the adoption of the percussion gun and
the magazine gun, and that, as in those cases, experience or a conscientious investiga-
tion of the matter will demonstrate that the result can not be doubtful, but very sure,
and that the education of the soldier, modified to agree with the conditions, will keep
the waste of ammunition from being as great as claimed, or, what is the same thing,
that the same end will be attained with the same number of shots as in ordinary fire;
simply in this case varying the time, which will be shortened in proportion to the
rapidity.

The sights of modern military arms are treated under a separate

^ head in the report, and the cartridges are described under the head of

ammunition, with some discussion of ballistic effects of the modem rifle.

A table is appended giving the elements of the infantry rifles of dif-
ferent nations, this table being drawn from a paper prepared by Capt.
S. E. Blunt, Ordnance Department, United States Ai-my, a member
of the recent magazine-gun boards.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

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WOBLD's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1225

Deodopment of the modem box magazine.

The accepted forms of box magazines of to-day are fitted with
spring followers or some positive feed to force the cartridges side wise
to the mouth, with no intermediate ''carrier" to convey them to the
receiver. Notwithstanding the conceded advantage of magazine guns
of the tubular type, that of a reserve for certain emergencies, none of
them in long-continued fire could exceed the best single-loaders in the
number of shots delivered, the long time that it took to refill the
magazine offsetting the great gain in rapidity of loading the gun from
it. In this stage of development it was thought that the complicated
mechanism of magazine guns might be avoided by changes in the
method of carrying the cartridges for use with single-loading guns,
the aim being to make it easier for the soldier to get at the cartridges.
This gave rise to ''quick loaders," so called. Several early box
magazines were dependent on gravity, as in the cartridge cases for
machine guns, and attempts were also made to combine box with tubu-
lar magazines.

266. Quick loaders. — ^These are devices for carrying extra cartridges
on a single-loading gun in a convenient position to be seized succes-
sively for loading the gun by hand. They are rather substitutes for
magazines than magazines proper, but they form a link between single-
loaders and box magazines. The detachable principle is illustrated in
some of them^ and in several forms the cartridges are forced laterally
by means of a spring to present them successively at the mouth.

(a) Krnka quick loader: The best known of these is the one invented
by the gunmaker Krnka, of Pi-ague, whose conversion of the muzzle-
loading guns to breechloaders was adopted in Russia. The Krnka
quick loader first came into prominence in the Turco-Russian war,
1877-78. It consisted of a longitudinal box of pasteboard open at the
top. Within it was divided by partitions into spaces for ten cartridges,
two of these partitions, the second from each end, being formed of a
double spring to press against the cartridges, which were insei-ted
bullet down. The cartridges came packed in these boxes, which were
carried on the belt of the soldier. A movable spring frame on the
gun served to hold the boxes for use. In the first form, which
appeared in 1872, Krnka's device, called by him a rapid-fire regulator,
consisted of a pasteboard box with plain, thin partitions, and it had
no device for securing it to the gun, the soldier holding it between the
gun and the left hand, which grasped it. Similar forms devised in
America about the time of this earlier invention are described below. .

(b) Colonel Benton's quick loader, fixed, 1870, for Spnngfield rifle:
The cartridges are placed point down in holes in the stock, which is
enlarged at the left of the receiver, the side of the breechblock having
a projecting ledge to hold the cartridges in.

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1226 BEPOET OF COMMITTEE ON AWABDS.

(c) General Hagner's quick loader, fixed, 1874: A perforated block
under the stock holds several cartridges, points to the rear.

(d) Stillman's quick loader, fixed, 1874: The cartridges are arranged
in a row of holes in the top of the butt stock, and are protected by a
hinged or a swinging cover.

(e) Merrill's quick loader, fixed, 1884: A mortise is cut in the top of
the stock, and this is covered except at the front end. A spring within
presses a follower forward to hold any cartridges that may be put in,
and to keep them near the opening ready to hand. A detachable quick
loader acting on the same principle is also illustrated.

(f) Colonel Benton's detachable quick loader, 1873: This is a per-
forated wooden block which can be attached to catches on the right
side of the stock near the receiver by means of a lever fastened to the
block. It is intended to be preserved and refilled.

(g) Captain Metcalfe's detachable quick loader and cartridge pack-
ing block, 1874: This differs mainly from Colonel Benton's in the
method of attachment to the gun, having the block itself free from
mechanism, and in making the block to serve for packing cartridges
at the aimory for transportation. It holds eight cartridges. It is
intended to be thrown away when emptied.

(h) Elliott's detachable quick loader, 1871-72: This has the cartridges
arranged in a spiral drum and moved by a spring, as in the Schulhoflf
magazine, and it introduces the principle used in modern magazines
of pushing the cartridges sidewise toward the mouth, but taking them
out endwise. No provision was made for automatic transfer of car-
tridges to the firing chamber of the gun.

(i) Tyler's spiral magazine for revolvers, 1853: This is properly a
"quick loader." It consists of a drum in which the cartridges are
arranged parallel to the axis and carried round between spiral par-
titions by means of a spring. The drum is attached to a revolver in
front of the cylinder into which the cartridges are successively pushed
by a plunger sliding under the barrel.

267. Swmgle revolving repeating rifle^ 1880^ Austrian, — This is a
bolt gun with a revolving cylinder placed in a drum beneath the bolt
This cylinder, in place of holes parallel to the axis, as in revolvers,
has grooves in its outer surface, as in the Lowell and other machine
guns, and the bolt works through one after another in succession.
The C3^1inder is supplied with cartridges through an opening on the
right-hand side, as in the Colt breech-loading revolver. This gun
approaches closely to the drum magazine gun of Schulhoff type. The
Swingle is similar to the American Roper system of 1866.

268, Franklin} 8 detachable gravity magazine,, 1887 ^^ holt gun, caliber
.4S^ loaned hy Coifs Patent Fireanns Conijjany, — This gun has a
sliding and turning bolt. The magazine is attached to the top of the
receiver at the side. The cartridges are fed from the magazine by the

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. -1227

action of gravity. When the bolt is closed, one cartridge lies beside it
in the receiver, and when the empty shell is withdrawn by the extractor,
this cartridge slides down to be pushed into the chamber by the bolt.
There are two gates just under the magazine, operated by the bolt, which
prevent a second cartridge from dropping into the receiver when the
bolt is withdrawn. The magazine is a tin 'box, nearly square in cross
section, with a zigzag partition within. The cartridges, therefore, lie
in a folded row side by side in the box, in a more compact form than
if placed in a flat box. General Franklin brought before the magazine
gun board of 1882 a gun having a tubular magazine above the barrel,
the cartridges dropping by gravity into the receiver when the bolt was
drawn back. As early as 1869 a detachable gravity magazine was
brought out, called by the inventor, J. D. Green, a detachable cartridge
pannier. It was in form somewhat similar to the Franklin box maga-
zine. This magazine was placed on a bolt gun at the right side of the
receiver, which was slotted through from right to left. To load from
the magazine it was necessary to turn the gun on its leftside, when the
cartridge rolled down into position to be caught by the bolt and pushed
forward into the chamber. When the bolt was drawn back and the
p^un turned again to position for loading, the empty shell, drawn out by
an extractor on the bolt, fell out through a slot in the left side of the
magazine. Another gravity magazine for small arms was brought out
by Bethel Burton in 1880. This may be described as a detachable
hopper magazine, consisting of a straight feed case practically like the
Fmnklin feed case of 1875, formerly used for the Gatling gun. This
magazine was placed at the side of the receiver, and cartridges fell by
gravity into a cavity under the receiver, being then pushed up by a
carrier to the level of the bolt. A gravity magazine placed over the
breechblock was suggested by Diaz in 1869 and by Quimby in 1877, and
a hopper, suggested by White for supplying cartridges to load a
revolver, appeared in 1856. Gravity magazines for small arms have
found but little favor, and even for machine guns they are being dis-
placed by more direct and positive feed. In the Loewe or Barthelmes
magazine the cartridges are fed into the receiver by gravity, although
it resembles the modern box magazine in general construction, use of
a spring follower, etc. It is detachable, made to envelop the stock
under the receiver, and it is fitted with a spring to force the cartridges
up to the mouth, but the cartridges are not fed by the spring into the
receiver, being made to fall by gravity from a swinging " carrier" at
the mouth. This carrier is operated by coming in contact with the
handle of the bolt.

£69. Sporer magazine gun^ caliber ,30^ 1890, — Adaptation of box to
tubular magazines. The magazine for this gun is really a cross between
the box magazine and the tubular magazine in the butt stock. There is
nothing particularly distinctive in the construction of the sliding and

Digitized by VjOOQIC

1228 • BEPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWABD8.

turning bolt. The cartridges are fed up into the receiver and into the
cartridge chamber after the manner of the Hotchkiss magazine gun,
through an inclined tube formed under the receiver. An extension of
this tube runs to the rear the length of the butt stock. A few inches
from the rear end the tube is open at the top about the length of a
cartridge, a slot extending through this opening upward through the
stock to the top. Cartridges are fed in through this slot in the butt
stock. Just in the rear of this slot is a plunger acted on by a spring
in the rear, and having a limited forward and back motion in the tube.
A downward projection from the bolt engages a sliding rod, which
projects to the rear and carries at its end a catch which bears against
the plunger, so that retracting the bolt forces the plunger back until
this catch is tripped from the head of the plunger, allowing the plunger
to move suddenly forward under the action of its spring. A cartridge,
which drops down into the tube from the slot, is impelled by the
blow from the plunger with sufficient force to reach the front end of
the tube, where it is caught by the bolt in its forward motion and
forced into the cartridge chamber. The slot, which forms the box part
of the magazine, is closed on the top by a lid hinged in rear, the same
hinge also carrying a follower lever, which is pressed down by a spring.
Opening the lid presses it against a lug at the rear of the follower
lever, raising the latter and pressing it flat against the under side of
the lid when the lid is brought to a vertical position. Cartridges can
then be dropped in, or they can be fed down by engaging the heads of
the cartridge cases in grooves on the under side of the lid, after the
manner employed with the feed guides of the Grardner and Gatling
machine guns. This gun was tested by the United States magazine
gun board of 1892. It is quite similar to the Livermore-Russell device
brought before the magazine gun board of 1878, and provided with a
magazine filler of a form developed more fully in the box magazines
described under the head of '"Modern magazine guns." A similar
device of about the same period is illustrated in the Merriam charger
for the Evans magazine. One of the earliest forms of butt-stock
magazines containing a large reserve of cartridges is illustrated in
Wilson's magazine, 1864.

MODERN MILITARY M AG AZINS . OUNS.

These have box magazines placed near the receiver with cartridges
touching sidewise instead of end to end. They are either detachable
and arranged to be readily replaced, or fixed in place and arranged to
be rapidly refilled from compact packing cases, or they are a combi-
nation of these two systems. The Lee is the type of the detachable
magazine. It has been adopted in modified form by England, as
described below. The other type is now coming into prominence from
its recent adoption in some form b}' several nations. One great

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WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1229

advantage of the box magazine is that the bullet of one cartridge does
not reiit against the primer of another, and so the possibility is
removed of exploding a cartridge in the magazine or injuring the bul-
let by shock from another cartridge. If necessary a spring plate can
be placed front or rear to lessen all shock. In some, an opening at
the side allows inspection of the interior. They work without carrier
block or spoon, though some, like the Rubin, have a catch operated
by the bolt to check and release, cartridges. The chief advantage,
however, is that it enables the supply of cartridges to be rapidly
renewed. This becomes more and more apparent with the reduction
of caliber and lengthening of the cartridge. While box magazines
avoid the slow process of inserting cartridges one at a time end wise,
some of these require the refilling to be done through the receiver
with the bolt drawn back, thus failing in a point covered in several
tubular magazines — the power to refill when the gun is loaded.

The modem box magazine is adapted particularly to the bolt gun,
which has become almost universal for military use; but box maga-
zines are applicable like tubular magizines to other forms of breech
mechanism. Almost all the various forms of breech bolts are suited
to any one of the box magazines described with but very slight modi-
fication in the bolt, such as in the position of the extractor, of the
handle, etc., not altering its essential character; so that in considering
the advantages and disadvantages of a certain magazine, too much
stress should not be laid on the bolt which is used with it. The com-
parison of magazines should be made with similar bolts, or at least
with bolts working with equal ease and equally well suited to stand
the tests to which magazines are subjected.

The bolt most commonly used is of the old familiar type, similar to
a door bolt, sliding forward and back, and locked by turning down the
handle, so engaging lugs or screw threads in recesses in the receiver.
It has a firing pin running lengthwise through the bolt, operated by a
spiral spring concealed, like the firing pin, within the bolt. Bolts of
this kind, however, diifer in many points of construction, increasing
or diminishing the ease of manipulation. For the modern small-caliber
rifle using smokeless powder it is considered almost essential that a
turning bolt, which is necessarily of small diameter, giving thin walls,
should have the supporting lug at the front end, so that the strain of
recoil may not be brought upon the long stem of the bolt itself. With
some bolts the firing pin is. cocked in closing, the pressure of the firing-
pin spring being then brought against the hand in pushing the bolt
forward, as in the Lee gun. The method generally preferred is one
in which the turning of the bolt cams back the firing pin and com-
presses the spring before the bolt is withdrawn. With this system,
turning down the handle to lock the bolt, after closing it, finds the
firing pin already drawn back ready to be held by the sear of the

"^^®^* • Digitized by GoOglC

1230 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDB.

The Mauser single-loading gun and the Hotchkiss magazine gun
illustrate some of the earlier forms of this type. These bolts had a
separate piece at the front end carrying the extractor and made so that
it would not turn with the handle. The construction now preferred
is one in which the whole forward end of the bolt turns with the handle^
while the exti'actor is held from turning. The Lee bolt is one of the
earliest of this type.

A number of attempts have been made to substitute a bolt working
by a direct forward and back motion, and several examples of these
are mentioned below. They have been adopted in few cases, and of
those yet tested the main difficulty seems to be that the mechanism
does not provide sufficient camming action to readily start the cartridge
in beginning to open the bolt. In these arms a sliding handle is made ,
to wedge the bolt around when pushed well forward, the bolt being
secured by the usual locking lugs, or the bolt has no turning motion
whatever, and the sliding handle operates a turning sleeve or a locking
brace to keep the breech closed. In the last form, with the locking
brace, it is not so essential to have the support of the bolt at the
forward end, since the bolt can be stiifened by longitudinal ribs with-
out enlarging the receiver too much.

Every eifort was made to obtain for exhibition all the guns that
were tested by the recent magazine gun boards of 1882, 1892, and
1893, and letters were sent to parties' interested. Several of these
guns were sent for exhibition, but in some cases the inventors refused
to send their guns and in some cases failed to reply.

The great heat developed with the new cartridge demands some
protection for the hand. This protection is usually obtained by a
wooden envelope extending over the whole of the barrel, or over that
part which is usually gi-asped by the hand in firing. The Gennans
surround the barrel with a metallic case, leaving an air space between
it and the barrel.

As an illustration of the rapid development of the box magazine, it
may be stated that whereas the first two magazines described below
were the only ones of this class brought up for trial before the United
States board on magazine guns in 1882, all others being tubular maga-
zines, only three tubular magazines were presented before the board
of 1892, all the rest being box magazines.

The first five box magazines described below are types of nearly all
the later forms: (1) the Lee, that of the detachable magazines; (2) the
Livermore-Russell, that of the fixed magazines filled by pushing in
cartridges from a clip or magazine filler, and of the magazines feed-
ing automatically into the receiver from one side; (3) the Tiesing-
Kennedy, that of the fixed magazine filled at the bottom and fitted
with a lid which, in opening, retracts the cartridge follower; (4) and
the Schulhoff, that of magazines made in the form of a drum and fitted

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1231

with a revolving cartridge follower. (5) The Mannlicher is the type
of those combining the fixed and detachable forms, having the operat-
ing parts fixed to the piece in a magazine chamber, while the cartridges
are held in a separate holder, which, when inserted with the cartridges,
forms temporarily a part of the magazine.

^0, Lee magazine rifle^ caliber J^S^ 1879. — The earliest dettCchable
box magazine under the receiver. This is a bolt gun, with an open-
ing the length of a cartridge in the bottom of the receiver, just back
of the barrel, and it has a detachable magazine, which is inserted
from below. Several of these magazines are carried on a belt. They
are each provided with a spring and follower within, to force the cart-
ridge up, and they are filled up in advance by the soldier, as it is
intended to have them saved. When a magazine on the gun is emp-
tied, it is dropped out by pressing a spring, and a new one already
filled is inserted. A magazine holds five cartridges of our old service
model, caliber .45. The gun can be used as a single loader when the
magazine is oif , as a spring plate then covers the bottom of the receiver.
The magazine can be filled when on the gun by drawing back the bolt
and inserting the cartridges singly.

The earlier models of the Lee gun had a flat, zigzag spring in the
magazine to press the cartridge follower up, but in the later models a
flat, curved spring is used, fastened at the top of the front wall of the
magazine, running down below the follower and curving up under-
neath it. The exti-actor does not turn with the bolt, but the turning
part of the bolt extends through to the cartridge. In the early models
the handle of the bolt was placed far enough forward to turn down
opposite the receiver, just in front of a shoulder on the frame of the
receiver, to act as a partial support of the bolt, a lug on the opposite
side assisting. In later models the handle is in rear, bent downward
and outward to bring the hand close to the trigger when the bolt is
closed, the support formerly given by the handle being borne by the
end of a longitudinal rib on the bolt, a lug, as before, supporting the
strain on the other side. Lee was the first to bring out a practical
central box magazine in front of the trigger. (See Report of Chief
of Ordnance for 1882; see also the English Lee-Speed gun described
below.) The Hampden gun, brought before the United States maga-
zine gun board of 1892, had a detachable magazine similar to the Lee
and, like it, fitted with a spring, but it was set with mouth down at
the left side of the receiver, the box sticking upward above the barrel.
The cartridges fed through an aperture in the side of the receiver.

271, Livermm^e- Russell magazine gun^ caliber .^5^ 1880, — The maga-
zine is placed at the side, extending downward, an opening at the side
of the receiver admitting cartridges from the magazine to the front
of the bolt when drawn back; but the special feature is the spring gate
at the top, closing an outer mouth. This allows cartridges to be

Digitized by VjOOQIC

1232 BEPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

inserted singly, or to be forced in all together from a packing case,
even when the gun is loaded, tut prevents their exit there and guides
them toward the other opening leading to the receiver. The feed of
the magazine can be cut oif by a stop, which simply keeps the bolt
from drawing back far enough to catch the flange of the cartridge,
and the gun can then be used as a single loader.

The position of the magazine allows an opening to be made in the
side through which the soldier can see how many cartridges remain in
reserve.

The packing case is made of light tin, and the cartridges are held in
by flexible lips at the open bottom. When the case is placed over the
magazine the cartridges are pushed down by the thumb or finger,
passing through the slot in the cAse, and the lips yield, allowing the
cartridges to pass at once to the magazine. These cases are light and
cheap, and they require no spring. They can be carried like detachable
magazines on the belt, and cartridges can be packed in them at the
arsenals for issue to the soldiers.

This is the first known magazine filler for box magazines. Tubular
fillers are referred to in description of the Spencer and Winchester
magazine guns.

The gun in the exhibit has practically the Mauser or Hotchkiss bolt.
(See Report of the Chief of Ordnance for 1882.) This magazine was
tested by the magazine gun board of 1882, and brought before that of
1892, but not tested.

272. Tleifing-Kenn4idy magazine gun^ 1880. — The magazine of this
gun is placed like the Liee magazine, under the bolt, but it is fixed in
plac^e, and its position is a little farther in rear of the barrel than in
the Lee, so that the magazine is always partially covered by the bolt
In feeding from the magazine into the receiver, the top cartridge of
the magazine is first pushed part way forward by a tongue under the
bolt, and left in a bed or pocket just in rear of the barrel, so that the next
movement of the bolt shall push the cartridge into the cartridge cham-
ber. The bolt does not differ essentially from that of the German
Mauser, model of 1871. The cartridges are inserted into the magazine
at the bottom, which is closed by a lid swinging around a horizontal
hinge at the front. The follower is a hinged leaf placed on the end of
a lever which swings on a pivot at the lower front end of the maga-
zine. Flat springs are used to force the arm and follower up. This
style of follower is, in principle, now adopted for most magazine guns.
The special peculiarity, however, of the mouth lies in the arrange-
ment for folding back the follower lever when the lid at the mouth of
the magazine is opened. This is accomplished by having the lever
pivoted to the lid a little in rear of the hinge instead of to the front
wall of the magazine. Opening the lid, therefore, draws the pivot of
the follower arm down and causes a projection on the front of the

Digitized by VjOOQIC

WORLD^S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1238

follower arm to strike a stud fixed to the front wall of the magazine,
so that when the lid is wide open the arm is flat back against it, leav-
ing the opening of the magazine free for the insertion of cartridges.
Closing the lid releases the follower and allows it to press against the
cartridges within the magazine.

^3, Schvlhoffnuigazine gun^ Austrian invention^ 1888, —The Schul-
hoif magazine gun is also an Austrian invention. The magazine is a
fixed hollow drum under the receiver. An axial shaft, nearly parallel
to- the barrel and turned by a spiral around its front end, runs through
the drum, and this carries a radial plate which revolves with the shaft
and acts as a " follower," pushing before it cartridges placed in the
magazine, and delivering them at an opening in the bottom of the
receiver, where they can be caught by the bolt in loading. An open-
ing on the right-hand side of the magazine allows cartridges to be
inserted, and a lid closes the opening. This lid is hinged at the bot-
tom, and it is opened outward and downward by pressing on a pro-
jecting thumb piec«. The lid in opening retracts the follower, as in
the Tiesing-Kennedy magazine. A toothed projection from the hinge
of the lid catches in a cogwheel on the follower shaft, and, opening
the lid revolves the follower to a position beyond the entrance. Clos-
ing the lid releases the follower and brings the pressure from the
spring against the cartridges. The magazine fillers, described above
for type gun No. 2, are also used to fill the Schulhoff magazine rap-
idly, but loose cartridges can be thrown in readily. The curved fonii
of the magazine causes the cartridges to arrange themselves length-
wise as they fall in. This magazine holds 9 of the new small-caliber
cartridges. It is not necessary to unload the piece to fill the maga-
zine, but separate motions must be made to open and close the latter.
The gun is a natural development from the Swingle revolving gun
described above. The cut-oflf for the magazine is a slide on the side
opposite the lid. It is curved to fit the outer surface of the drum,
and pushing the handle slips it round so that the end comes over the
opening into the receiver. The drum shape gives great capacity to
the magazine without affecting the symmetry of the piece. (See
Report of the Chief of Ordnance for 1889, describing the tests of this
gun, in which the action of the magazine was entirely satisfactory, but
the bolt was found to be weak and defective.) The bolt is of the
uHual sliding and turning pattern, with locking-lugs in rear but not in
front. The Schulhoff idea of a drum magazine seems to have been
anticipated in America by Andrew Burgess, who devised a similar
form in 1887, filling on one side of the gun and feeding around to a
mouth on the opposite side of the receiver.

Schulhoff magazine pistol: A pistol is constructed by Schulhoff with
a magazine working on the same principle. It has a bolt mechanism,
which is operated by the trigger. The trigger is double, and pressure

COL EXPO— 02 78 C(^c^ci\o

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1234 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

on the forward part draws out the bolt, ejecting the old shell, and then
closes the bolt, pushing in a new cartridge. Further motion of this
trigger causes it to strike the second trigger and fire the pistol. Fixed
straight box magazines for pistols appear as early as 1873, credited to
Rodier and Bates.

274^. Mannlicher mdgazine rifle, Austrian^ caliber ,316, 188S, — In
the Mannlicher gun the bolt is operated by a simple forward and back
motion of the hand, avoiding the necessity of turning the bolt to secure
it after closing or to unlock it for opening. The handle is a round
knob at the rear, connected with a piece which slides in and out at the
end of the bolt, and which has a wedge-shaped projection below.
Hinged at its front to the underside of the bolt, in rear of the maga-
zine, is a brace, or cam latch, and the wedge above referred to works
in a slot in the rear and top of this brace, forcing the latter down
when the bolt is pushed well forward, and securing it against a shoulder
in the frame of the gun. Drawing back the handle raises the brace
by inclined projecting lips on the wedge, and allows the bolt to slip
Imck. This method of locking the bolt by a brace or cam has been
adopted in the Colt magazine gun above described. The Mannlicher
magazine is under the receiver, and to fill it the bolt is drawn back.
A special cartridge feed case or clip is used with this gun. This case
holds the flange ends only of the cartridges, and the top one alone can
move forward. The whole package, case and all, is inserted from
above into the magazine, the spring in the magazine acting through
the case on the cartridges. The emptied case either falls out at the
bottom of the magazine or it is forced out by inserting another full
case. Cartridges can not be inserted one at a time into the magazine,
as the case forms part of the mechanism to control the cartridges,
making a sort of cross between a detachable and fixed magazine. The
cartridge follower is similar to that described for the Tiesing-Kennedy,
but the lever is hinged to the front wall of the magazine, and the
springs are arranged diiferently. This gun was tested by the United
States magazine-gun board of 1892.

^6, Lee- Speedy English, detachable iruigazine, caUher ,303, — ^The
bolt of this gun resembles the Lee bolt in essential particulars, but the
extractor is attached to a fixed head which does not revolve with the
bolt. A protecting plate covers the bolt, sliding with it but not turn-
ing. Like the recent forms of the Lee bolt, the handle is placed in
rear, and it is bent downward and curved outward to bring the hand
nearer to the trigger when the bolt is closed. The bolt head, which car-
ries the extractor, does not turn with the handle. The magazine is
detachable, and it is essentially that of the Lee gun, but it is made like
the Schmidt fixed magazine, described below, broad enough to hold
two vertical rows of cartridges, the rows overlapping by about half
the diameter of a cartridge, so that the cartridges of the two rows

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1285

are alternately presented at the top of the magazine in front of the
bolt. The follower plate is lower on one side than on the other, to
correspond. The follower spring is of wire, wound in an oblong
spiral. The sides of the magazine at the top and near the rear have
lips cuiTed inward, so that the cartridges are caught alternately on
opposite sides and prevented from springing out until pushed forward
by the bolt. The magazines of the first model adopted held 8 car-
tridges, but those of the present model hold 10. When on the gun,
the magazine can be filled from clips, but this method is not practiced.
One magazine is chained to the gun by a link connecting a staple on
the gun to one projecting from the front of the magazine. When
this magazine is exhausted it is dropped from its socket and left hang-
ing, while a full one from the belt is inserted in its place. A broad,
flat plate, swinging laterally, is attached by a pivot at its front end to
the underside of the right-hand bar of the receiver, and the magazine
is cut oflP when this plate is swung in. When the magazine is detached,
this plate also acts as a floor to the receiver for single firing.

This gun was tested by the United States magazine-gun board of
1892.

^6, Riibm magazine gxm^ Swws, 1888^ caliher .295, — This has a
magazine set like the Lee, under the receiver, but fixed in place. To
fill it the bolt is drawn out and cartridges are inserted from above
through the receiver. They are put in singly or are all pushed in
together from a clip or packing case. A spring gate is placed at the
mouth of the magazine, and the motion of this gate is controlled by a
bolt to allow cartridges to pass up in succession from the magazine to
the position for loading. (See Report of the Chief of Ordnance for
1889.) The bolt used is practically that of the Swiss Vetterlin tubular
magazine gun.

277, Schmidt magazine gun^ Sidtzerland^ caliher ,295. — ^This gun
has been adopted by Switzerland in place of the Vetterlin tubular
magazine gun. The magazine is fixed underneath the receiver like
the Rubin magazine, and, like the Rubin, it is intended to be filled
through the receiver from a clip; but the clip, holding 6 cartridges, is
made of pasteboard shod with tin at the bottom, and it has the slot
for the finger of the hand extended over the top and part way down
on the left side, causing less obstruction to the finger in pushing out
the cartridges than when the slot extends only up one side and over
the top. The magazine holds 12 cartridges. It consists of a box,
which, though not ''detachable," is made practically like the English
Lee-Speed, with overhanging lips and wire follower spring, the car-
tridges being arranged in two vertical rows and the follower being
lower on ode side than on the other. The space between the lips is
wide enough also to allow cartridges to enter unobstructed from the
clip, and no spring catch is needed, at the mouth, as in the Rubin gun,

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1236 BEPORT Olf COMMITTEE ON AWABDS.

or in the Mauser, next described. It takes two full clips to fill the
magazine. Cartridges can be put into the magazine singly if desired.
To use the gun as a single loader, the magazine can be lowered by
means of a side lever until the top cartridge sinks below the level of
the bolt. The bolt works by a direct forward-and-back motion of the
hand, as in the Austrian Mannlicher rifle, but the mechanism is diflfer-
ent. The handle, projecting from the right side, is attached to a
slide extending longitudinally along the bolt and guided by a slot in
the side of the housing. The body of the bolt does not turn. It is
secured by locking lugs on a turning sleeve, which embraces the body
at the rear. The sleeve has a spiral groove in which moves a stud
projecting from the inner side of the handle of the slide. The bolt
being closed, a pull on the handle turns the sleeve, thereby freeing
the two locking lugs, and a continuation of the pull draws the bolt
back. Reversing the movement pushes in the bolt and turns it. It
is said that some models of the Swiss gun have an attachment for fir-
ing the piece automatically when the l)olt is closed, without pressing
the trigger. This gun was tested by the United States magazine gun
board of 1892.

278. Mamer htx-magazine <jun^ caliher .301. — The magazine of this
gun is fixed under the receiver as in the Rubin gun, and the magazine
is filled, in the same manner as the Rubin, by passing cartridges through
the receiver from the loading clip. The special peculiarity lies in the
form of this clip. Instead of being a box surrounding the ends of the
cartridges, as in the Rubin gun, the Mauser clip is a simple strip of metal
with its longer sides doubled over into lips, constituting a slide along
which the heads of the cartridges slip, the lips curving over the flanges
of the cartridges or fitting into the grooves in the heads of the car-
tridges where the cannelured head is used. A flat spring placed length-
wise in this holder presses the cartridges forward against the lips, and
prevents their being easil}' deranged. This forms a symmetrical pack-
age, so that it may be plac^cd either end up in inserting the cartridges.
The sides of the magazine itself are formed of spring steel, having
at the top overhanging lips, which allow the cartridges to be pushed
past them into the magazine, but which press in with sufficient force
to retain the cartridges until the}^ are pushed forward in succession by
the bolt. To fill the magazine, the bolt is drawn back, and the clip
holding the cartridges is placed in the receiver over the mouth of the
magazine, the thumb or finger pushing the cartridges out of the clip
and down into the magazine. A spring at the side of the receiver
holds the clip lightly in place after use, until the bolt, moving forward,
throws it out automatically. There is no marked peculiarity about the
follower, which is practicall}'^ of the Mannlicher pattern, with a hinged
leaf at the top of the follower arm forming a floor to the receiver for
single loading when no cartridges are in the magazine. This gun has

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1237

been adopted in Belgium with a caliber of .301, and no cut-oflf is used;
but in the model exhibited the magazine is arranged to slide up and
down in the stock by the action of a short lever at the side, after the
manner of the Schmidt. When the magazine is depressed, the piece
can be used as a single loader even when full of cartridges, as the bolt
passes over the top cartridge in the magazine. Cartridges with canne-
lured heads are used with the Belgian model. The Mauser guns have
the sliding and turning bolt, essentially that of the old Mauser gun
(German model 1871), but it has a solid head with two locking lugs in
front. The firing pin is inserted from the rear, as in the Lee and
Remington-Keene bolts, but the firing-pin spring bears at the rear on
a collar which screws into the body of the bolt, the firing pin passing
through this collar to the rear. The ejector is pivoted at its rear end on a
lug at the left of the breech housing in rear of the receiver. It forms a
part of the catch which serves to retain the loading clip in place in
loading. In the Belgian model the extractor turns with the bolt; in
the other model it does not. The handle is at the rear end of the bolt.
This gun was tested by the United States magazine gun board of 1892.

^9, RuMdlmoingiihg ma^azine^ caliber .Ifi, — The only peculiarity in
this consists in the arrangement of the magazine, which, though placed
centrally under the receiver as in the Lee gun, is not detachable, but
is made to swing about horizontal bearings, front and rear, so that
the mouth of the magazine can be moved to the right under a spring
gate attached to the outer side of the receiver. The giite acts auto-
matically' to allow the cartridges to be pushed in without obstruction
and to prevent their escape. This allows the cartridges to be inserted
into the magazine singly or from a clip, without passing them through
the receiver or requiring the bolt to be opened. The ordinary Lee
spring and follower are used. When the magazine is full it can be
swung back to the vertical 'position for use, or held to one side for
reserve, a projection on the left side of the magazine forming a floor
to the receiver for use in single firing. This magazine is attached to
the ordinar}'^ Lee gun, the breech mechanism serving simply as a type.
Brought before the United States magazine gun board of 1892, but not
tested.

280. MannlicJier carbine^ Austrum^ caliber .315. — ^Thisuses the same
loading clip as above described for the Austrian Mannlicher rifle.
The follower diffei-s from that of the rifle by the omission of the hinged
leaf at the top, so that there is no floor to the receiver when the car-
tridges are not in the magazine. For single loading, therefore, car-
tridges have to be partially' or wholl}'^ inserted into the firing chamber
by hand. In this respect the arm is similar to that adopted for the
German army. The bolt of the carbine works like that of the rifle, by
a direct forward and back motion of the handle, but the locking mechan-
ism differs. In the carbine the l)ody of the bolt slides and tunis. It

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1288 BEPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

has a solid head, with two front locking lugs, the firing pin being
inserted from the rear, and the firing pin spring being supported by a
collar screwed in at the rear. The body of the bolt has spiral grooves
on the exterior, in which move inclined studs on the interior of a sleeve
which envelops the rear end of the body of the bolt, and which carries
the handle. This sleeve has simply a forward and back motion. When
the bolt is closed and the locking lugs are engaged in the locking slots,
a pull on the handle moves the sleeve back, turning the bolt and disen-
gaging the locking lugs, then drawing the bolt back. A reverse move-
ment pushes the bolt to the front, and, when it is forward, turns the
body of the bolt and engages the locking lugs. The cartridges of the
Austrian Mannlicher rifle and carbine have flanged heads, and these
flanges are arranged in the clip so that they overlap. Hence the clip
has a bottom, and a top, and it can be inserted only one way into the
magazine. This gun was tested by the United States magazine gun
board of 1892.

281. German hox rnagazine^ model of 1888^ ccdiher ,311, — ^The maga-
zine used with this rifle is of the Mannlicher type, requiring the clip
to be inserted with the cartridges and retained in the magazine until
the cartridges are fired, the clip constituting an essential part of the
magazine. The cartridges used in this arm, however, have cannelured
heads, instead of flanged heads, and the clip is therefore symmetrical
in shape, so that it can be inserted either end up into the magazine.
The follower is a simple lever, the upper-hinged leaf of the Mann-
licher system being abandoned, so that cartridges have to be inserted
by hand into the firing chamber of the barrel when the gun is used as
a single loader with the magazine empty. There is no provision for
cutting off the magazine. The bolt differs but little in material points
from the bolt of the old Mauser system, formerly used in the German
service with a single-loading gun and with a tubular magazine gun,
the main difference being that the body or turning portion of the bolt
has two front locking lugs which engage in locking grooves in the
frame of the receiver. The head of the bolt, to which the extractor
is secured, does not turn. This gun was tested by the United States
magazine gun board of 1892.

282. ManidicJiet' carbine^ Roumania,, caliher^ ,256, — This, like the
German gun, has a magazine of the Mannlicher type with a sliding and
turning bolt. The follower is simply a lever with no swinging leaf,
and the magazine has no cut-off. But the cartridges have flanged heads,
and the clip for holding them, though similar to that of the Austrian
Mannlicher, is so curved at the back that the flanges of the cartridges
lie on each other, but do not overlap. This makes the clip symmet-
rical and it can be inserted either way up, gaining the advantage found
in the German clip where cartridges with cannelured heads are used.
The general construction of the bolt is similar to the German, with a

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W0BLD*8 COLUMBIAN EXl>OSITION, 1893. 12^9

movable bolthead; but on the side opposite the extractor is a sliding
ejector which is made to slip forward beyond the face of the bolt on
striking a bolt catch in rear as the bolt moves backward. This form
of ejector was used in the Ward-Burton tubular magazine gun. This
gun was tested by the United States magazine gun board of 1892.

283, Berthier^ the raodd adopted in Frcmcefor the caval'i^^ the arm
exhibited adapted to caUher .30 cartridge. — The clip like that of the
Roumanian Mannlicher is symmetrical, flanges of cartridges touching
tangentially, but not overlapping. In general mechanism the follower,
which consists of a lever and hinged leaf, does not diifer materially
from the Mannlicher, except that a single spring with two branches
serves to work both the lever and the follower. The bolt resembles in
general the Hotchkiss, with a turning bolthead, middle handle, and a
rib running along the body of the bolt from the handle; but the firing
pin is attached to the cocking piece in rear without the use of a screw
nut. In place of a screw nut a cylindrical clutch is used with an under-
cut groove in its face, which slips over side notches cut near the end
of the firing pin. The clutch is then prevented from moving by slip-
ping into a recess in the rear of the cocking piece. The clip carries
but four cartridges. This gun was tested by the United States maga-
zine gun board of 1892.

£84. Befrgmam. rifle. — ^This gun is the invention of Lieutenant Berg-
man, of the Swedish army, and it was loaned by the Swedish commis-
sioner for exhibition in the Ordnance Exhibit. This gun presents
several novel features. It is a bolt gun, the bolt sliding and turning
in the usual manner, but the handle is of peculiar form, curved down
and back from the rear end of the bolt so that it forms a grip for the
whole hand, and when the breech is closed brings the forefinger nat-
urally in position to pull the trigger. The bolt is solid at the front
end except for the perforation for the firing pin, and it has the front
locking lugs now commonly used. The firing pin is inserted from the
rear as in the general type of the Lee bolt, but arranged so that turn-
ing the bolt to unlock and open it draws back the firing pin nearly to
the cocking position. The cocking is completed in the forward motion
of the bolt as in the Lee, the cocking lug on the firing pin catching
the rear of the trigger before the bolt is quite home. The firing-pin
spring bears in front against a shoulder on the firing pin and in rear
against a sleeve which slips over the end of the firing pin and projects
slightly to its rear. The firing pin, with spring and sleeve, is pushed
into the bolt from the rear, and a sliding cover is slipped over the
rear opening of the bolt, the sleeve on the firing pin sinking into a
cavity in the front of this cx)ver and holding it in. The extractor is
entirely detached from the bolt. The bar which carries the extractor
is simply applied to the side of the bolt, and it works through a groove
in the right side of the breech housing. The extractor bar has a pro-

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1240 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

jection on the under side which fits in the groove around the bolt, so
that the extractor moves forward and back with the bolt, but does not
turn with it. This arrangement allows the housing of the breech to
extend wholly over the bolt in rear of the receiver without leaving
any opening above. This adds to the strength of the breech and gives
a firmer bearing to the bolt. The extractor is fixed to the extractor
bar without screws by an undercut pivot. The magazine more nearly
resembles the Mauser than any other. It is placed centrally under the
receiver, and it evidently can be filled from loading clips, although no
clips were provided. To cut off the magazine, it is lowered by means
of a lever similar to that used with the Mauser and Schmidt box maga-
zines. Loaned by the Husqvama Arms Company, Sweden.

£85. Matidragoii repeating rifle ^ Mexican^ caliher ,256, — This gun,
invented by Majors Mondragon and Gill of the Mexican artillery, is
represented in the exhibit by a drawing contributed by them. This
arm is reported to have stood all the tests requireu by the Mexican
authorities. The principal novelty in the magazine, which is of the
Mannlicher type, is that the clip is double, carrying the cartridges in
two vertical rows like the magazine of the English Lee gun. As the
clip is inserted from above through the receiver, this requires the
opening in the bottom of the receiver to be unusuall}' wide. The mag-
azine holds 8 cartridges. The bolt appears to be of remarkably
simple construction. It is a sliding and turning bolt, operated by a
sliding handle, which moves along the right edge of the opening of
the receiver. The bolt is a tube of steel, having 6 locking lugs at the
forward extremity and 6 others near the middle. On account of the
large number of locking lugs, only one-twelfth of a revolution is
required to secure the bolt. A stud in the sliding handle works in a
helicoidal groove in the outside of the bolt, and transforms the recti-
linear motion of the handle into a circular motion for the bolt when
the latter is forward, either in opening or closing the mechanism.
There seems to be no provision for cutting off the magazine for single
loading when the clip is once inserted. For slow firing from the mag-
azine, however, the cartridge fed trom the magazine can be replaced
after each shot, and so maintain a full magazine for emergencies. An
attachment to the mechanism allows great rapidity of fire, in cases
where careful aim is not required or where a muzzle rest can be
obtained to steady the piece. This consists of a catch which holds the
trigger back, so that the piece is fired on closing the bolt without
requiring the additional motion of pulling the trigger. In this way,
as is claimed, 60 to 80 shots a minute can l)e fired. In the ordinary
magazine firing 40 shots per minute are claimed. The barrel is made
of crucible steel, of caliber .256. There are three rifling grooves run-
ning a length of 27.56 inches in the barrel, with a twist of S,^>^ inches.

286, Liverniore'RusHell magazine gu/h% Nos, ^, J, and J^, — ^These

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WORLD^S COLUMBIAN KXPOSITION, 1^93. 1241

three magazines are attached to guns with the Lee-Speed bolt, and
their construction illustrates three special features.

Magazine No. 2: This shows the application of a bottom opening,
like that of the Tiesing Kennedy magazine, the type of those filling
from below, to a magazine feeding sidewise into the receiver. The
lid is dispensed with, and the follower arm, pivoted in front of the
magazine, has a thumb piece attached which allows the left hand to
depress the lever and so open the magazine without removing the hand
from its natural position in holding the gun. This relieves the right
hand from the operation of opening and closing a lid and saves time
by leaving it free to simply handle the cartridges. The follower, when
depressed, swings out only far enough to clear the magazine opening
and allow the cartridges to be inserted. Cartridges can be inserted
singly or from any ordinary clip.

Magazine No. 3: This magazine shows the use of a clip which can
be inserted with the cartridges into the magazine and withdrawn,
leaving the cartridges behind. The cartridges when inserted into the
magazine are held in by spring lips just below the sides of the receiver.
The magazine is central, and the rear of the side walls is cut away at
the bottom, while the bottom of the rear wall is slightly narrowed, so
that the lower end of the clip is exposed when inserted, allowing the
thumb and finger to grasp it and withdraw it downward, leaving the
cartridges behind it in the magazine. This clip is not essential in
loading, as cartridges can be pushed in singly or from clips of other
forms. This magazine has a cut-oif .

Magazine No. 4: This shows a method of inserting the clip full of
cartridges through a side opening into the space underneath the
receiver. A follower lever is hinged in front to the frame of the gun,
and it has a lug projecting to the right. In inserting the clip it strikes
this lug and depresses the lever, which then holds the cartridges and
clip up in place. The lever, working through the clip, forces the
cartridges up as the top cartridges are pushed forward successively
by the bolt. In this gun the follower lever is hinged on a level with
the bottom of the barrel and far enough in front to bear on the lower
cartridge, whatever the number of cartridges in the magazine. When
the magazine is empty, the end of the follower forms a floor to the
receiver for single firing, and no separate hinge or rocking floor is
needed. The clip for this magazine holds ten cartridges in two
vertical rows.

The three guns above described were tested before the United States
magazine gun boards, 1892 and 1893.

287. Brucs magazine gun^ caliber ,30. — This is peculiar both in bolt
mechanism and in the constimction of the magazine. The bolt has
simply a direct motion forward and back and there is no rotation. It
is operated by a handle projecting to the right from a slide extending

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1242 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

along the right side of the bolt, passing through a slot cut in the right
side of the frame of the receiver, as in the Schmidt gun. At the rear
of the bolt is hinged a brace, which, when the bolt is closed, is pressed
down in front of a shoulder in the bottom of the receiver frame,
holding the bolt against the pressure of the powder. An incline pro-
jection on the top of the brace strikes the overhanging receiver frame
as the bolt is nearly home, and forces the brace downward. A tongue
projecting from the rear of this hinged piece or brace, and curving
slightly downward is encircled by a loop projecting to the left from
the rear of the slide, and when the slide is well forward the upper
arm of this loop bears upon a shoulder just in front of the tongue and
locks the brace down. The breech being closed, a pull on the lever
draws back the slide, and the under arm of the loop at the rear end of
the slide lifts the brace, by acting on the under curve of the tongue,
when a further motion of the handle draws the bolt back. A pin,
projecting to the left from near the front end of the slide through a
slot in the bolt, engages a sleeve surrounding the front of the firing
pin, and the motion of the slide backward in unlocking the bolt also
forces back the firing pin slightly, and withdraws its point from
beyond the face of the bolt. A reversal of the motion of the handle
closes and locks the bolt. The magazine is central and under the
receiver, like the Lee. It is not detachable, but it is made to swing
downward around a pivot near the bottom of its rear end. When
closed it is secured by a spring slide at the lower front end of the
magazine, working into catches on the frame. The follower is
operated by a system of double levers, and pulling back the securing
catch of the magazine, acts on these levers to draw down the follower
before the magazine is swung down. It is intended to be filled by use
of a peculiar clip, which is also suited for use with the Sporer gun,
No. 269. This clip holds only the front ends of the cartridges. It is
made of tin, in skeleton form. A front wall with bent edges at the
sides is connected by straps at top and bottom with a corrugated loop
forming five sockets, through which the cartridges are inserted from
the rear, forming a symmetrical package. When the magazine is
swung down, this clip, containing the cartridges, is pushed edgewise
into the magazine, which has ribs running up the sides of the inner
walls to catch the flangs of the cartridges. The clip is then pulled
forward lengthwise of the cartridges, the ribs holding the cartridges
back in the magazine. The magazine is then swung up for use. To
use the piece as a single loader, the magazine can be lowered slightly
at the rear to a new bearing on the pivot. This magazine was tested
before the magazine gun board of 1892.

288, Blake magazine gun^ caliher .SO. — ^The magazine, which is the
distinctive feature of this gun, is in exterior appearance similar to the
Schulhoff. It is a drum magazine, feeding into the cartridge chamber

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1243

through a slot in the bottom of the receiver. It differs, however,
entirely from the Schulhoff system in the operation of the magazine
and in the method of filling. The drum is merely a shell to hold a
detachable cylindrical packet holding seven cartridges, and consisting
of a spindle with spring catches which hold the cartridges in position
around the axis. When in the drum this spindle is turned by a tongue
(similar to that used for turning the cylinder of revolvers), actuated
by the rearward movement of the bolt, while in the Schulhoff maga-
zine the cartridges are forced around by a follower actuated by a spiral
spring. The lower half of the drum is hinged to the upper half at the
left side, so that it can be swung downward, carrying with it the empty
spindle, which can then be replaced by a full packet. The drum is
then closed for use. In method of loading from the magazine it may
fairly be compared to the Swingle 'gun described above (see No. 267),
for the bolt in moving forward pushes the cartridges out of the
catches, as in the Swingle it pushes them out of grooves in the cyl-
inder, and the carrier is practically a Swingle cylinder, made detach-
able and fitted with retaining catches for the cartridges.

This gun wa3 tested before the United States magazine gun boards
of 1892 and 1893. Two other drum magazines were tested before
these boards, but they could not be obtained for exhibition. These
are the Durst and Savage magazines. In general principles of action
these two magazines resemble each other and the Schulhoff, in having
the cartridges forced around inside the drum and outside of a central
spindle, by means of a revolving follower, actuated by a spring; but
in both of them the exterior gate used in the Schulhoff gun is onodtted
and the cartridges are forced into the magazine through the receiver,
either singly or by means of cartridge clips. The Durst gun is oper-
ated by a sliding and turning bolt, which presents no special novelties
of construction. The exterior drum of the Durst gun has just within
it an interior drum, which can be rotated slightly back and forth to
cover the opening into the receiver and cut off the magazine. The
Savi^e gun has a bolt which is actuated by a lever underneath.

£89. Krag-Jorgensen mdgasme gun, Denrnark, caliber .315. — In this
gun the magazine feeds into the side of the receiver, as in gun of type
No. 2, but the magazine is placed on the left side and it is bent further
around, so that it runs under the receiver and extends to the right-
hand side of the stock. Here it is closed by a lid, hinged in front like
the Tiesing-Kennedy, No, 273, and operating in a similar way to draw
back the follower lever, also pivoted to the lid in front, and to fold the
follower lever up against the cover, leaving the opening unobstructed
for the insertion of cartridges. The spring for the follower plate is
omitted and this plate swings freely, so that it folds more closely
against the cover than in the Tiesing-Kennedy.

When the gate is open the magazine can be filled by dropping in

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1244 ftEl»0»T OF OOMMITTEK OTl AWARDS.

cartridges singly, but a clip is also used. The cartridges are held in
this clip by a wire catch, which has to be turned by the thumb or
finger to allow the cartridges to roll into the magazine.

The bolt combines many of the best features in other turning bolts,
the main novelties consisting in the method of attaching the extractor
and the construction of the firing pin. The bolt has a solid head with
a front locking lug, the firing pin being inserted from the rear as in
the Lee form, but, as in the Mauser form, turning the bolt cams back
of the firing pin to the cocking position. The special pecularity of the
firing pin consists in its having a movable point or striker connected
by a ball-and-socket joint with the shank or l)ody, around which the
spring is placed. To the rear of the body of the firing pin is riveted
a thumb or cocking piece, shaped to form a firm hold for the thumb
and fingers. The firing pin, surrounded by its spring, is inserted from
the rear, and the spring is held from moving to the rear by a sleeve
which surrounds the rear end of the body of the firing pin. This
sleeve extends to the rear and upward, where it has an arm projecting
forward over the end of the bolt, a groove on the underside of the
arm catching over a fillet, which runs partly round the bolt and pre-
vents the sleeve from slipping backward when the l)olt is on the gun.
The projecting arm of the sleeve is forked to receive the heel of
the extractor, which is retained in it by a screw. This screw is
liable to work loose in manipulation. With the exception of this
screw, the bolt can be dismounted without the use of tools.

The extractor has a long spring shank extending nearly the length
of the bolt, and the top of the receiver frame is cut through length-
wise at the rear of the receiver opening to guide the extractor and a
longitudinal rib on the bolt.

The handle is placed at the rear of the bod}^ of the bolt, and the
rear face of the shoulder left on the right side of the receiver frame is
curved backward, so that the handle, as the bolt turns, has a camming
action, to start the cartridge in beginning to withdraw the bolt. The
front face of this shoulder is also curved, so that it serves as a bearing
for the rear end of the rib on the bolt and gives the bolt a slow final
motion forward a.s the handle is turned down in closing. The ejector
is pivoted in a mortise in the bottom of the receiver a little to the left
of the axis. Withdrawal of the bolt causes the front end of the ejector
to tilt up, striking the empty shell and throwing it out.

290, Krag-Jorgensen, Norwegian^ ealibei' .256, 1890. — Similar in
mechanism to the new United States model, but differing in caliber.
This gun was furnished for exhibition by the Krag-J5rgensen Com-
pany to illustrate the mechanism of the new magazine gun adopted for
the United States service as a result of the tests of the United States
magazine-gun boards of 189ii and 1893. The manuf Picture of the United
States gun had not advanced far enousfh to allow that gun itself to be

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WORLD^S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1245

exhibited. The form of the ytock differs slightly from the United
States model and the sights on the gun are different. The bayonet,
however, is quite similar to that adopted for the United States service,
being a short knife which can be fixed to the muzzle of the gun by a
spring catch on the handle of the bayonet. This catch also serves to
hold the bayonet in its scabbard when not on the gun.

This gun has been tested by the Norwegian Government, and it is
understood to have been adopted. The caliber is .256 instead of the
caliber .30 of the United States arm.

The mechanism differs in few points from that of the Danish model
before described. The most important modification in the magazine
is a change in the position of the hinge for the lid. Ipste^d of having
this hinge placed in front, so that the lid swings far out to the front as
in the Danish model, the hinge is placed at the lower edge of the
mouth, so that the lid swings outward and downward around a hori-
zontal axis as in the Schulhoff magazine above described, the lid when
open projecting but little farther than when closed. A lug projects
horizontally from the inner face of the lid at the lower edge near
the front of the hinge and in rear of the pivot of the follower arm,
this pivot being attached to the front wall of the magazine as in the
Mauser, German, Berthier, and other guns above described, instead
of being attached to the lid as in the Danish model. Opening the lid
causes this lug to strike the lever arm and fold it down against the
inside of the lid, leaving an opening through which cartridges can be
inserted downward and sidewise into the magazine, this arrangement
giving the magazine the advantage noted in the curved magazines of
the Schulhoff type, that the cartridges can not be inverted in putting
them in. The opening which leads from the magazine into the side of
the receiver is slightly lower down than in the Danish model, so that
the magazine projects less from the left-hand side of the barrel. A
great addition to solidity and strength is obtained by forming the front,
rear, and bottom walls of the magazine in one piece with the frame of
the receiver. As in the Danish model, the left side of the magazine is
covered by a curved plate which guides the cartridges to the opening
into the receiver. The bolt differs from the Danish model in the
absence of a half-cock notch on the cocking piece and in having a
safety lock similar to that on the German and other small arms. The
cocking piece is screwed to the rear of the firing pin instead of being
riveted as in the Danish model. The safety lock attached to the rear
of the piece which supports the extractor is operated by a thumb
piece which causes a spindle to turn down into a notoh in the body of
the bolt, locking the firing pin when cocked and preventing motion
of the bolt. The ejector differs slightly from the Danish in form and
position, but not in principle, and the sear spring is slightly altered.
This magazine affords the same facility as the Schulhoff for filling the

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1246 KEPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWABD8.

magazine with loose cartridges without the use of a filling clip, though
the Schulhoff magazine holds more cartridges. A clip, however, can
be used with advantage, and from the clip presented for trial with the
United States model the cartridges are fed in entirely by gravity.
This clip differs from most of the other clips in use in being formed
in two parts or two half boxes. The lower part is a flat, open-top box,
the side from which the cartridges are to roll out being curved, the
other sides flat. Over this fits a flat cover with edges bent down over
the three flat sides of the lower box. The two parts completely envelop
the cartridges. When the gate is open this clip is applied to the
mouth of the magazine, the fingers and thumb grasping the upper and
lower parts of the box, and the motion of the fingers slides the cover
backward, leaving an open space for the cartridges to escape succes-
sively from the clip into the magazine. The clip furnished with the
Norwegian model resembles more closely the form described for the
Schmidt gun, a box formed of a single piece with a continuous slot
running up one side and nearly to the bottom of the other. The
retaining catch for the cartridges is different. It is a short hood
hinged to the side of the clip near the rear, projecting over the mouth
of the clip at the flanged end of the lower cartridge, and formed with a
lip projecting from the under surface. In filling the magazine, the lid
being fii-st opened, the clip is applied from above and from the rear,
with a forward motion, causing the rear wall of the magazine to catch
the lip and to push back the retaining hood, so that the cartridges pass
naturally into the magazine, assisted by the fingers of the hand.

The United States carbine of this system will be of the same caliber
as the rifle and adapted to the same cartridge, the barrel being short-
ened from 30 to 22 inches, with sights of the same general design as
those for the rifle.

AUTOMATIC GUNS AND ELBCTRIG GUNS.

It remains to be seen what will result from the use of magazine
guns operating by their own recoil, or by utilizing part of the powder
pressure. Maxim, the inventor of the automatic recoil machine gun,
has also invented a musket acting on a similar principle, in one form
practically adopting the system of feeding used in the Swingle
revolver gun above described, and in an earlier form using a modifica-
tion of the Winchester sj-stem, operated by a spring butt plate. The
Freddi gun here exhibited acts on a principle similar to the Maxim,
but it has a box magazine. The Pitcher gun, also exhibited, acts by
pressure of gas from the cartridge, and this has a tubular magazine.
The peculiar principle of these guns, however, is independent of the
style of magazine adopted. No specimen of electric guns could be
obtained, but this type was represented by drawings and description.
The full possibilities of this arm have not been developed. The great

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1247

advantage of such a gun woald be the simplification of mechanism by
dipensing with the firing pin and its spring. This would materially
reduce the force required to operate the bolt.

291. The Freddi automatic recoil gwn^ in/vented iy Maj, G. Freddi^
Italian oHiUery. — During the fire the force of recoil is utilized to pro-
duce automatic loading. At each shot the barrel slides to the rear in
the stock, compressing a spring which returns the barrel immediately
to its former position, leaving the breech open, the breech bolt being
held back by a catch pivoted to a guide plate on the stock. This oper-
ation throws out the empty cartridge case, and, at the same time, a
new cartridge is automatically brought in front of the bolt from a box
magazine fixed in the stock below the forward position of the receiver.

The breech is closed and the loading completed by simply pressing
the thumb of the right hand on the catch which holds the bolt back,
and so letting the bolt fly forward under the action of another spring
also compressed by the recoil. A pull on the trigger discharges the
piece. Since the bolt catch can be released without removing the fin-
ger from the trigger, all the cartridges of the magazine may be dis-
charged without requiring the removal of the finger from the trigger,
and without deranging the aim. The soldier, therefore, releases the
breech mechanism while the breech is still open and the cartridge
unsupported, the breech being closed by a spring, and the piece fired
automatically, as in the single-fire gun devised several years ago by
Col. J. M. Whittemore, of the Ordnance Department, to reduce the
number of motions in loading. In that gun, pulling the trigger, with
the breech open, both closed the breech and fired the cartridge. See
the description of the Mondragon box-magazine rifle for automatic
firing device to avoid pulling the trigger. The Daudeteau gun has a
device similar to that of the Mondragon, to increase the rapidity of
fire. As the principal recoil in the Freddi gun occurs in the direction
of the axis of the bore, and as the springs relieve the shoulder from
shock, there is less tendency than in other arms to throw up the muz-
zle of the piece and so derange the aim. The advantage is obvious.
The gun exhibited is of caliber .30 inch, with a magazine containing
five cartridges. The initial velocity claimed for the bullet is 2,340
feet per second. The similarity in principle to the Maxim machine
gun is noticeable. The breech is closed by a bolt, which moves for-
ward and back in the receiver attached to the rear of the barrel. The
bolt has a longitudinal rib at the bottom to prevent its turning. Near
the rear of the bolt is a turning sleeve, quite similar to that on the
Schmidt rifle, this sleeve carrying three locking lugs, and having two
flat spiral surfaces on which work flat projections from the inner sur-
face of an enveloping ring. This ring has only a forward and back
motion, and this causes the sleeve to turn, when the bolt is forward,
and engage the locking lugs in locking grooves in the frame of the

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1248 BEPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

receiver, made eontinuoiLs over the bolt in rear. The ring carries
handles by which the bolt can be moved by hand, and is kept from
turning by a projection underneath, which runs in a longitudinal
groove in the plate on the stock. The spring which opei*ates the bolt
is attached to this handle ring and to the plate on the stock. The bolt
has a solid head pierced for the point of the firing pin, which is intro-
duced into the bolt from the rear, the rear of the firing-pin spring
bearing on a sleeve attached to the bolt. The magazine is filled by
pushing cartridges into it from a clip; but the clip has some novelties
of construction. It is a skeleton clip formed of front and rear walls
connected at the sides by wire bent so as to form openings running
nearly down the sides, so that the finger can pass nearly through with-
out obstruction. These sides are so formed that the clip is symmet-
rical, and the cartridges can be pushed out with the clip placed either
way up. Tne magazine is filled through the receiver, when the barrel
is forward and the breech is open. A similar clip was used with the
Durst magazine gun. The weight of the piece is about 8 pounds; but
it may be reduced to 5 or 6 pounds by making some of the secondary
parts of aluminum instead of iron.

29^2. Pitcher automatic repedting rifle ^ 1889-90, — ^This has a tubular
magazine above the barrel, but the special peculiarit}'^ lies in the auto-
matic action and, like the last gun described, it is adapted to the box
magazine as well as to the tubular magazine. A gun with the tubular
magazine above the barrel — General Franklin's — was brought before
the United States magazine gun board of 1882, but, unlike this gun,
it depended upon gravity for bringing the cartridge down from the
magazine. It was a simple bolt rrn. The Pitcher gun utilizes a part
of the gas from the explosion of the powder, a small aperture in the
wall of the barrel just in front of the cartridge admitting the gas into
a cylinder below the barrel. Here it acts on a plunger working in
the cylinder and drives the plunger forward, compressing a strong
spring in front of it. This plunger has a spring rod, attached to it,
extending backward under the cylinder, and the end of this rod, when
the plunger is thrown forward, catches in a sliding bar, which is con-
nected by means of a link and brace with the sliding breech bolt in a
manner somewhat similar to the Burgess action. When the force of
the gas is expended by the passage of the bullet from the bore, the
front spring, acting through the spring rod, forces back the slide and
opens the breechblock, the slide moving against and compressing a
weaker spring in rear in the butt stocfe. When the breech is well
open, the spring rod is '^ tripped" from the slide, which is then free
to move forward under the action of the rear spring, closing and lock-
ing the bolt and at the same time pushing in a fresh cartridge from
the magazine above. An inverted spoon carrier, rocking on a bearing
in rear, brings down the cartridge from the magazine, to be caught

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WOBLD's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1249

by the bolt and forced forward. By a continuous pull of the trigger
all the shots in the magazine can be fired automatically. For inserting
the firat cartridge the slide is worked with the hand by means of a
handle projecting at the side. A stopcock is provided in the passage
leading from the barrel to the cylinder, so that the automatic action
can be cut off and the gun operated by hand. The Paulson rifle,
recently tried in France, also illustrates this principle of utilizing the
escape of gas from the barrel. In principle this gun somewhat
resembles the Mallen gun, 1888, adapted to a box magazine wrapped
around the stock at the receiver. As early as 1877 the Gardner
device for revolvers was brought forward, having the chambers of the
revolving cylinder communicate by apertures just in front of the shell,
so that the explosion of one cartridge would eject the empty shell in
the next chamber, the aperture into the loaded chamber being sealed
by the bullet.

^93, Pieper electric gun, — ^This requires no hammer or firing, pin.
A metal rod, insulated, runs to the rear from the central point of the
bottom of the bore. To the butt plate is attached another metal rod,
also insulated, running forward in a hole bored in the butt stock and
so arranged that, by means of a trigger, its front end can be brought
in contact with the first insulated rod. The cartridge has a metallic
case, and in place of the percussion cap in the center of the base, an
insulated plug of copper is used, running forward in the case nearly
to the bullet, and having on its front end a disk of tin foil reaching
nearly to the side of the case. A small storage battery is carried in
the pocket or in the butt, with the two wires running one to the insu-
lated rod at the butt plate and one to the barrel. When the trigger
is pressed, the cartridge being in, electric contact is made at the trig-
ger, and a spark dai*ts from the tin foil to the cartridge case, igniting
the powder.

MACHINERY USED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF RIFLE CARTRIDGES

CALIBER .45.

This comprises a set of machines and operatives transferred for this
purpose from the Frankford Arsenal, Philadelphia. B}^ reason of lack
of space a complete set of machines is not shown. On account of the
danger the operation of loading these shells is omitted, but a loading
machine is shown which is run at pleasure with flaxseed instead of
powder. Frankford Arsenal, in the northeastern portion of the city
of Philadelphia, is the seat of the manufacture of metallic ammunition
for the AiTtiy, and of many other special branches connected with the
military supply.

The center-jive inetfdlic case cartrld'ge, — (See Ordnance memoranda
No. 8, revised.) The successful invention of the self -primed metallic
case cartridge has greatly simplified the construction of breech-loading

COl. EXPO-02 79 DigitizedbyGOOgle

1250 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

small arras. Prior to its introduction and use, attempts to prevent the
escape of flame through the joint of the breech mechanism were made
with, at best, unsatisfactory results. The metallic cartridge over-
comes this difficulty, being itself a perfect gas check renewed at every
round, prevents foulness and wear of the mechanism, and exercises
the most vital. functions in the life of the arm. So important an
element is it that it may be said that with a perfect cartridge the most
indifferent breech arrangement can be used with safety and efficiency.
Its advantages, other than that already indicated, are many; its com-
pleteness and simplicity being self-primed and used as a whole in
loading; its strength and safety, notwithstanding the roughest usage
and thorough protection of the powder and fulminate; its accuracy,
because of the coincidence of the axis of the bore and bullet, and,
added to these, the absolute impossibility of using more than one
cartridge at a time. The United States regulation center-fire reload-
ing metallic cartridge consists of the following parts, viz: The tinned-
brass case the cap or primer containing two-tenths grain of percussion
composition, 70 grains of small-arms powder, and a lubricated lead
bullet weighing 500 grains, 16 parts lead, 1 part tin. The case is the
tube which forms the receptacle for the powder charge, the percus-
sion composition, and the leaden bullet. Its exterior conformation
is designed to facilitate its ready extraction from the chamber of the
gun after firing. Besides the rim at the closed end, which is intended
primarily to assist extraction, the case is tapered from the rear to a
point where it seizes the bullet, whence it merges into a right cylinder.
It has a solid flange at the head and a recess in the head for receiving
the primer; a perforation at the bottom of the recess to admit the
flame to the powder. The case for the .30 caliber cartridge is bottle
shaped.

The primer is a small metallic cap, thin enough to yield to the blow
of the hammer, but strong enough to prevent perforation by the blow
or by the explosion of the powder. The primer, when charged with
the composition, is placed within the recess in the base of the shell or
case and pressed snugly in, the side of the primer forming a gas check
against the walls of the recess, acting as the shell does in the gun.

The bullet enters more than half its length into the case, in order
that the lubricant in its grooves may be entirely covered and protected.

To render the cartridge waterproof, a drop of varnish is placed upon
each primer after it has been pressed home, and the end of the case is
crimped hard against the bullet.

DOUBLE-ACTION PRESS.

The first operation in drawing the tubes is performed by a double-
action press. The strips of metal are passed between two wooden
rollers covered with cloth saturated with oil, and thence through to a

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1251

press having two punches, each I'M in diameter, so set that the second
punch is to the left and rear of the first, and within each of these
punches there is another, 0.6 of an inch in diameter. The exterior
punch descending cuts out a flat disk by passing through the metal.
This punch then stops, and the disk being over a die, the interior
punch continuing to descend, forces the disk through the die, thereby
forming a cup about 0.3 of an inch deep and 0.789 of an inch in diam-
eter. After passing through the die the pressure is released, and the
cup by expanding slightly frees itself from the punch, which rises to
its previous position. As stated, two disks are cut and two cups are
formed at each descent of the punches, the press forming cups at the
rate of 75 per minute.

SINGLE-ACTION PRE88BB.

In order to draw the cups to the dimensions required, they are sub-
jected to the action of six additional punches and dies of decreasing
sizes, so as to gi-adually elongate the cups while reducing their
diameter. These draws are made by single-action presses, each having
a single punch.

These presses are fed at the rate of 65 tubes per minute by placing
them upright on a revolving horizontal plate provided with guides
and stops.

In all the presses except the sixth a double die is used to prevent
buckling, uneven drawing, and to divide the work, the upper die
closing on the metal and the lower one doing the work of drawing.

ANNEALING.

After each draw on the single-action presses, up to and including
the fourth, the tubes are annealed in order to restore their ductility.
They are heated in revolving cylinders of boiler iron to a peculiar
reddish color, when they are thrown into a bath of 1 part of vitriol to
40 parts of water. This removes the oxide scale formed by the heat-
ing and restores the original brightness of the metal. They are then
placed in a vat of clear water, where they remain until required for
the next draw press, before which they are thoroughly rinsed in clear
water and sprinkled with oil.

TRIMMING.

After the sixth draw the tubes, being of greater length than neces-
sary, are placed in a trimming machine, where they are pushed onto
a rapidly revolving mandrel and brought against a circular cutter,
which takes off the surplus metal.

WASHING.

The tubes are now subjected to a thorough washing in a solution of
soap and carbonate of soda, which removes all traces of grease. They

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1252 REPOBT OF OOHMITTSE ON AWABD8.

are then rinsed in water till clear of the solution and placed in a dry
room for at least twelve hours. This precedes the heading, as any oil
left in the tube causes it to split in the heading operation.

HEADING MACHINE.

The head or rim of the cartridge case is formed by the heading
machine. This machine consists of a horizontal die countersunk at
one end for shaping the head, a feed punch to insert the tubes into the
die, and a heading punch to flatten the closed end of the tubes into the
countersink. The tubes, which are a little longer than the headed
case, are fed into the inclined trough of the heading machine, whence
they are taken up on the feed punch.

A shoulder on this punch, at a distance from its extremity equal to
the inner depth of the headed case, prevents it from extending to the
full depth of the tube, and a surplus of metal is thereby left at the
closed end of the tube for the formation of the head. The feed punch
inserts the tube into the die and holds it there, while the heading
punch moves forward by a powerful cam and presses the unsupported
projecting portion of the tube into the countersink of the die, forming
and accurately shaping the solid head or rim. The headed case, being
left in the die as the feed punch recedes, is pushed out by the succeed-
ing tube and thrown by a flipper into the receptacle below. No oil is
used in this operation, the moisture of the tubas from the recent
washing suflicing as a lubricant. The machine is fed at the rate of 65
per minute. The cases are now finished; but, to be certain that the oil
is entirely removed from them, they are again washed in alkaline solu-
tion and dried thoroughly in a drying room at a temperature of about
125° F.

TINNING.

The galvanic action induced by the action of sulphur in the powder,
or the acid therefrom upon the metal, copper, and zinc of the alloy
(brass) not only destroys the property of the powder but likewise
deteriorates the ca.se. This action is also induced on the exterior of
the case by salt water. To overcome this difficulty the cases are
tinned. This operation is commenced by immersing the shells in a
vinegar bath to brighten them and clean off all scales, etc. ; they are
then rinsed in clear cold water and placed in a perforated copper cyl-
inder in alternate layers of pure block tin and cases; the cylinders are
placed in a copper boiler lined with tin and filled with a solution of one
ounce of bitartrate of potassium in crystals to 1 gallon of water.
This is kept hot by means of steam coils for about six hours.

THE PRIMEK.

The primer cup is cut from a strip of flat copper ribbon purchased
in coils, which are suspended in lubrica-ting wells and drawn by rollers

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1803. 1253

under a double-action press which punches out and draws the cup as
in the first operation on the case. They are washed to remove the oil,
rolled in sawdust, and tinned in the same manner as the case.

The tinning of the primer is not essential when the priming is
embedded in varnish (as is usual), to prevent galvanic action inducing
chemical reaction and destruction of the priming composition; the
tin-foil cover of the priming, together with the varnish, excludes
moisture, which is essehtial for chemical reaction, even in the pres-
ence of active agents and susceptible metals. The tinning of the
primer is therefore entirely for the sake of appearances in matching
the case.

After the cups have received their coating of tin, and have been
inspected, they are shaken into a plate holder, and a drop of varnish
(shellac dissolved in alcohol) is deposited on the bottom of each; they
are then dried before receiving the priming charge.

The varnishing opemtion is performed by means of a plate supplied
with pins corresponding to the perforations of the cup holder; the
pins are lowered into a well of varnish, raised, the cup holder inserted,
and the pins lowered into the cup.

The cup is now ready to receive the moist composition of priming,
which is rubbed into the perforations of a second plate, which latter is
placed over the first, and, by a system of pins, the composition is forced
into the cups. The cup holders are led under the action of the foiling
machine, while a strip of tin foil, varnished on the underside, is drawn
across and at right angles to it. A system of punches cut out the disks
of tin foil and press them, varnish side downward, over and around
the pellets; the punches are hollow on the point, and press the edges
down, leaving the center over the pellets raised.

The primers, in this condition, are placed in the drying room, heated
by steam pipes, for six weeks, to dry the priming, and which, being
hermetically sealed, takes a long time to rid of moisture. After dry-
ing, 100 out of 10,000 are te>sted and if found satisfactory the primers
are ready for the anvil.

The anvil is made from a grooved copper wire, purchased in coils,
which are suspended in wells of lubricating oil and drawn under a
punch which cuts out the anvil. The punch has a slight projection in
the center and reduces on each side the diameter of the anvil along
the groove, to admit of the passage of the flame. The anvils are
shaken into a plate holder and the cup holder is inverted and placed so
as to bring the cups over the anvils. By a system of punches the
mouth of the cup is engaged over the anvil, the tin plate inverted, and
the anvil forced home.

The priming composition consists of fulminate of mercury, by
weight, 64 per cent; chlorate of potassium, by weight, 18 per cent;
ground-glass crystals, by weight, 18 per cent; gum arabic, gum trag-
acanth, to mix. ,.g,^^, .^ Google

1254 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

These are mixed together without danger by using the fulminate in
a moist state. The various ingredients of this composition possess the
following properties:

The fulminate is extremely sensitive to blows, the chlorate moder-
ates the action of the fulminate and increases the temperature of the
flame. The glass increases, by friction of the particles, the sensitive-
ness of the composition, and the gums give cohesion to the mixture.

THE BULLET, CALIBER .45.

The United States elongated service bullets are made of compressed
lead. They are more uniform in size and weight, smoother, more
homogeneous, and more accurate than cast and swaged bullets, giving
better results. The lead for bullets should be pure soft lead of com-
merce, of specific gravity about 11.35, which is increased by pressure
to about 11.45, and which melts at 600^ F. and volatilizes at red heat.
The lead is fii*st melted and cast in iron molds into cylindrical bars;
these bars are passed through rolls which reduce them in diameter.
A man and boy will roll and trim in a day of ten hours 3,000 bars of
lead.

The bars are fed to the bullet machine through a vertical tube above
a horizontal cutter, which cuts at each stroke a length sufficient to
form a single bullet, and transfers it to the die, in which, by means of
a vertical punch, the bullet is formed with its grooves. The surplus
lead is forced out at the junction of the dies in the direction of the
longer axis of the bullet, and at the junction of the punch and dies at
its head. A bullet machine will make in a day of ten hours 30,000
bullets.

LOADING MACHINB.

The cases are now loaded with powder and bullet by means of the
loading machine, which consists of a revolving circular plate with
holes or receivers, and a hopper and powder measure. The cases and
bullets are fed on revolving plates, 35 a minute; the former are lifted
into the receivers, passed under the hopper and measure for a charge
of powder, and then under the bullet feeder for a lubricated bullet

In order to insure a full charge in each cartridge, the machine is
provided with a bell which gives notice to the operative of any failure
in this particular. The edge of the case is then crimped on the bullet
in a very simple manner. The receivers are smaller at the top where
the bullet enters than at the bottom where the case is received, the
diameter of the former being only equal to that of the interior of the
open end of the latter.

After the bullet has been pressed into the case, the cartridge is
lifted so that the edge of the case is forced into the conical surface of
the receiver between its larger and smaller diameters. The powder is
placed in a pasteboard hopper about two feet above the machine^ and

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WOBLD^S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1255

is fed to the cases through a paper tube one inch in diameter; the hop-
per and tube stand inside of a large conical shield of boiler iron.

The loading machine is run upon application by visitors, flaxseed
being used instead of powder. After loading, the cartridges are wiped
clean and put up in paper packages and packed in wooden boxes for
storage.

BLANK CABTBIDQVS,

The blank cartridge consists of the brass case and 67 grains of small-
arms powder. The case is made in the same manner as for the ball
cartridge, except that it receives one more annealing so as to soften
the metal and allow of the greater crimp necessary. The case enters
the chamber more readily when crimped, and acts at its mouth as a
gas check. The powder is pressed firmly in the case and over this is
placed a paper cup; the open end of the case is then crimped down
and the paper cup varnished.

AMMUNITION.

This includes projectiles for cannon, fuses, primers, powder, and
small-arm ammunition. Many projectiles have been described under
cannon. Illustration is given below of some of the cartridges and
projectiles for our large breech-loading guns; also of the electric
welded projectiles shown in the exhibit. -

PEOJECTILES FOR CANNON.

S9ji^ FrarnkfoTd Arsenal shrapnd for 3,^-inch hreech-loading rifle, —
The shrapnel, exclusive of filling, consists of head, body, and base.
The head is made of cast iron, machined on the exterior, and has a
screw thread cut aiound its base, fitting into the forward part of the
body. It is bored and threaded to receive the Frankford Arsenal
combination fuse. The head contains the powder chamber, its inner
surface being lacquered to prevent premature ignition from friction.

The body is made of lap-welded wrought-iron or low-steel tubing,
machined on the exterior and interior to dimensions, and is threaded
front and rear to receive the head and base. It is weakened for
fracture by circular and longitudinal grooves cut on the inside. It
contains a charge of 162 i)alls, made from an alloy of lead and anti-
mony. These are assembled in the case in circular la^^ers, and held
symmetrically in position by cast-iron separators, so-called.

The separators are intended to prevent excessive lodgment or defor-
mation of the balls under the shock of discharge, and increase the
effect of explosion by furnishing additional fragments of effective
weight. The separators at the end are arranged to prevent independ-
ent rotation of the charge of balls. A separator flat on the upper
side is placed on top of the charge of balls, and against it the head is
screwed.

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1256 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

The base is of cast iron, threaded to screw into the cylindrical case.
It is so made as to form a support to the copper band, to prevent
deformation of the case at this point from the shock of discharge.
The band is of copper, shrunk on its seat and forced into place by
running through a die. The seat is roughened to prevent slipping of
the band. The total weight of the shrapnel exclusive of fuse is 12
pounds 6i ounces. The total number of balls and individual pieces
in the shrapnel, complete, is 201.

296. HotcKkhs Hhraprwl for 3,2-incK hre^ch-loading Hfle. — ^The
form of the Hotchkiss shrapnel for 3.2-inch breech-loading rifle is
illustrated in the figure. The bursting charge is placed in the head
of the projectile, and the balls are packed between fragile ciist-iron
separators. The electric- welded shrapnel for 3. 2- inch gun is described
under electic-welded projectiles.

^^. Projectiles mui cartridges shmcii with cannon. — Projectiles:
12-inch breech-loading rifle, solid shot; 12-inch breech-loading rifted
mortar shell, 630 pounds; 12-inch breech-loading rifled mortar shell,
800 pounds; 12-inch breech-loading rifled mortar shell, fired and
recovered; 10-inch breech-loading rifle-cored shot; 8-inch breech-load-
ing rifle-co rod shot; 7-inch breech-loading rifled howitzer shell; 6-inch
breech-loading shell; 3.6-inch breech-loading rifle shell; 3.6-inch
breech-loading rifle shell, fired and recovered; 3.6-inch breech-loading
rifle shell for point fuse; 3.2-inch breech-loading rifle shell; 3.2-inch
breech-loading rifle shell for point fuse; 6-pounder Driggs-Schroeder
armor-piercing shell; 6-pounder Seabury common shell; 3.6-inch
shrapnel with fuse; 3.2-inch shrapnel with fuse, section; Maxim-
Nordenfeldt 6-pounder with fuse, section. Cartridges for cannon:
Charges for 3-inch muzzle-loading rifle; charges for 3.2-inch breech-
loading rifle; charges for 3.6-inch breech-loading rifle; charges for
3.6-inch breech-loading mortar; charges for 5-inch breech-loading
rifle; charges for 7-inch breech-loading howitzer; charges for 8-inch
breech-loading rifle; charges for 10-inch breech-loading rifle; charges
for 12-inch breech -loading rifle; charges for 12-inch breech- loading mor-
tar, steel; charges for 12-inch breech-loading mortar, cast-iron hooped;
charges for 7-inch Ames rifle; charges for 8-inch nmzzle-loading con-
verted rifle; charges for 11-inch muzzle-loading converted rifle;
charges for 15- inch muzzle-loading smooth bore.

297. Electric-welded projectiles. — (Loaned by the American Pro-
jectile Company.) A number of samples of electric- welded projectiles,
the invention of Lieut. W. M. Wood, United States Navy, furnished
by the American Projectile Company, of Lynn, Mass., are exhibited
as follows:

Twelve black enameled 4-inch steel common shell, navy; 4-inch
steel common shell, navy; 4-inch steel common shell, with section
removed to show interior, navy ; 4-inch steel common shell for carry-

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1257

ing high explosives, navy; 4-inch shrapnel, navy; piece of 4-inch
tubing from which 4-inch common shell are made, navy; 3.2-inch
shrapnel, army; 3.2-inch shrapnel, with section removed to show inte-
rior, army; 3.2-inch shrapnel fired, uninjured, army; 57 millimeters
(6-pounder), army; 57 millimeters, with section removed to show inte-
rior, anny; 57 millimeters, rough, before finishing, army; 6-inch steel
common shell, with section removed to show interior, navy; piece of
6-inch tubing from which 6-inch shell are made, navy; section of
6-inch tubing from which 6-inch shrapnel are made, navy. In making
the shell, hollow steel blooms are cast, and from them is rolled out a
thick-walled tube, having the approximate finished dimensions of the
body of the shell. This is then cut into suitable lengths, and to the
short blanks thus made are joined, by electric welding, the head and
base of the projectile, which have been previously formed in suitable
dies. After this is done the only machining necessary is turning to
gauge on the outside, cutting the rotating band score, and the fuse
thread and seat. This projectile is afterwards hardened, and thus is
produced in this very cheap manner a thoroughly efiScient wrought-
steel shell. The figures show in order from left to right the princi-
ples of formation of the shell, and of the armor-piercing shell made
in only two pieces, a section of the armor-piercing shell, and a view
of one that has been firod through a 4-inch armor plate. In the weld-
ing operation it is only necessary to place the three pieces shown in
the left-hand figure in contact, one above the other, in an electric
welding machine designed for the purpose, and by means of the elec-
tric current, which is passed from one pole to the other through the
joint which is to be made, the metal at this point is quickly heated to
a welding heat, and being kept in close contact by mechanical pres-
sure, so unites at this point as to become homogeneous and equally
strong with the rest of the metal. The suiplus metal or burr formed
by the pressure is mainly forced upward, and is removed in the
opei-ation of truing the body of the shell. For the operation of
welding, a large current of low potential is required. It is feasible to
weld the highest carbon steels, steels that are absolutel}^ unweldable
by any other process, one to another, or to weld a high carbon to a
low grade steel, or even to wrought iron. It is seen that the head of
a projectile may be made of high-grade expensive steel, and as much
of the balance as desired of cheaper, softer material. Another style
of projectile now being manufactured is the shrapnel, for the army
3.2-inch fieldpiece. This has a point fuse, but the powder chamber
is placed in the base, covered by a steel diaphragm perforated in the
center, and having a central tube extending forward to the fuse. The
exterior is formed from three parts — the head forging, the tubular
section in the middle, and the cup-shaped base forging in which the
powder charge rests. The latter has a shoulder on which the dia-

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1258

REPORT OF COMMITTEK ON AWARDS.

phmgm rests, and the copper rotating band is placed on this part of
the projectile. The method of making this shrapnel is as follows:
The base piece and middle section are placed in contact in the welding
machine and joined together, forming a deep cup; while the weld is
still hot the diaphragm and tube are dropped into it so that the for-
mer rests on the shoulder of the powder chamber. The weld is then
lightly swaged, thus locating the diaphragm firmly in place. Next
the head forging is placed in contact with the open end of the middle
section, with the small central tube passing into the fuse hole, and
these parts are then similarly joined by an electric weld. Afterwards
the upper end of the small tube is crimped over a slight shoulder in
the bottom of the fuse hole. The outside of the shrapnel is then
turned to guage. A small hole is drilled in the head, communicating
with the interior cavity; through this the shrapnel is filled with the
necessary bullets; next the matrix is poured in, and finally the hole
is closed by a small plug, which is screwed into place. Before the case
is filled with the bullets and matrix it is hardened, to give increased
rigidit}" to the thin walls and to increase the number of fragments
into which the case will burst.

^98, Zalinski shell fai* pneimiatic dynamite gun, — ^Eight-inch pro-
jectile; 15-inch projectile.

299. ColUction of projectiles of old or curious fomi.

French shell from battlefield of Solferino,

lead studs.
Sigoumey shell, American, flanged.
Sawyer fired shell, flanged.
Wheat's shell, copper, flanged.
Whitworth's blind shell.
Whitworth's long shell.
Confederate Armstrong shell captured at

Fort Fisher.
Blakely Confederate shell, 8-inch, from

Fort Fisher, N. C.
Confederate shell, copper band on base,

flanged.
Confederate shell, lead band on base,

flanged.
Laidley's shell.
Henry shot, copper band.
Allen shot.
Reed's shell.
Dimick shell, fired.
Fifteen-inch steel spherical shot fired

against wrought-iron target at Sandy

Hook. N.J.
Gorgsfl shot.
Lawson shot
Jones shot
James canister.

Hotehkiss shot, fired.

Hotchkiss canister.

Absterdam shell.

Parrott shell, iron cup.

Parrott shell, fired, brass band, shell cut

Hotchkiss shell, brass cup in section.

Schenkl shell.

Confederate wrought-iron shot.

Confederate shell, brass and wood base,
dowelled.

Confederate shot, corrugated ^rass band at
base.

Confederate shell, two copper bands.

Confederate shell, copper cup with long
wood sabot at base.

Confederate shot, lead band, wood base.

Abbot's blind shell, iron and lead, disk
on base.

Confederate shot, lead and wood bands.

Confederate shell, lead.

Small cannon balls found at Fort Mont-
gomery in 1871; revolutionary.

Hammered copper balls, Mexican.

Confederate shell cut on section, lead
base.

Butler shrapnel cut; one section.

Butler cored shot cut; one section.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1259

Arrick cored shot.

Dana cored shot.

Brass ring for 8-inch Butler shot, fired.

Brass ring for 8-inch Arrick shot, fired.

Brass ring for 8-inch Dana shot, fired.

Krupp breech-loading field shell, body

covered with lead.
Breech-loading shot, fired, copper-wire

bands.
Patterson breech-loading shot, leather

band.
Lindner's l)reech-loading shot, lead bands

with webbing between.
Confederate breech-loading shot, rope

band.
Mann's breech-loading shot.
Stafford's steel-faced shot, copper bajse.
Stafford's steel-faced shot, iron band

around air cavities.
12-inch steel shot.
Confederate case shot; ratchet sabot with

iron washers; copper fuse plug with

leather washers, and tin tube soldered

to plug for bursting.
Confederate shot, 4 pounder; wire band,

lead bound.
Ritner and Day lead shot, fired through

4J-inch wrought-iron plate.
Confederate shot pierced all over with

holes.
Confederate shrapnel case shot cut.
Confederate percussion shell incased.
Stafford's shell, brass band or wheel in

front, brass cup at base.
12-pounder spherical case glass shot.
12-pounder elongated glass shot.
Ketchum hand grenade.
United States Dyer shell, lead sabot,

11-pounder.
6-pounder United States Hotchkiss shell,

compressed lead band.
Brooke's Confederate shell, 7-inch.
20-inch shell for Rodman gun, with sabot.
Chain shot with cavity for chain.
Chain shot in four parts held by ring.
Chain shot with two shot attached.

Chain shot and case.

Mclntyre's repeating shell for rifle, fired.

Puffer's incendiary shell.

Flemming's incendiary shell.

Cochran's diagonal flanged shot, two lead
bands around base.

Abbot's elongated shell for smooth-
bores.

Old pattern carcass.

12-pounder quilted grapeshot.

Bag of cut links.

10-inch wooden shell for pyrotechny.

10-inch paper shell for pyrotechny.

War rocket.

Parachute rocket.

10-inch light ball.

Junk wad.

Hay wad.

Grommet wad.

Experimental diagonal flanged shot, iron
and wood sabot.

10-inch Confederate wrought-iron projec-
tile for smoothbores.

Confederate Maury projectile for smooth-
bore guns, chilled iron, air passage
through center.

Confederate cast-iron shot for smooth-
bore guns, weight 25 pounds.

Confederate winged shot from battle-
field of Tennessee.

Experimental shot, diagonal flanges.

Smith's flanged shot, fired at West Point,
N. Y.

Wooden fianged shot.

Huginin shell, fired at West Point, N. Y. ;
wood sabot.

Turbine shot, air passage through center.

Confederate shot, wire through center.

Stand of grapeshot, 12-pounder.

6-pounder canister, model unknown.

6-pounder spherical case shot and sabot.

12-pounder gun shell and sabot.

8-inch English spherical case shot and
sabot.

English Boxer projectile and sabot.

24-pounder carcass.

FUSES FOR SHELL AND SHRAPNEL.

The older fuses are arranged on four boards. They embrace most
of those that were used during the war of the rebellion.

300. Simple time fuses in wood^ m£tal^ and paper cases. — These
reauire the passage of flame over the outer end of the fuse to produce

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1260 BEPOBT OF COMMITTEE OK AWARDS.

ignition. They are of wood, metal, or paper. In the wooden fuse tbe
burning composition is driven into a cylindrical hole bored in a conical
plug, which can be cut oflf to allow the desired length of burning. The
specimens shown are for the 6 and 12 pounder guns, 8-inch, 12-inch,
and 13-inch mortar. In the metal fuse the composition is packed in
an annular slot in a thick metal disk screw plug. The specimens shown
are the Austrian, Babbitt, Laidley-Bormann, and the Wright. The paper
fuse consists of a conical paper case, formed by rolling a triangular strip
of stout paper around a cylindrical former, which when withdrawn
leaves a cylindrical bore into which the fuse composition is driven.
Some of the above fuses have a priming of powder and quick match to
facilitate ignition. The specimens of United States paper fuses shown
are for 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, and 40 seconds, with two of
Rebel make of 5 and 15 seconds. The paper fuses have to be inserted
in fuse plu^s, hollow plugs of woods or metal driven or screwed into
the fuse hole of the shell. The wooden fuse plugs shown are for 6
and 12 pounder guns, 4i-inch siege rifle, 13-inch mortar, 3-inch rifle,
10-inch seacoast gun, and 8-inch seacoast mortar. The metal plugs are
of Dyer, Hotchkiss, and Parrott patterns.

SOI. Special tiriu fuses and fuse phtgs, — These are fitted with special
features, such as hoods to direct flame to the fuse, water caps to pro-
tect open fuses from contact with water in burning, holes in fuse
plugs to allow boring into paper fuse without removal, and igniters
by which the shock of discharge sets fire to the time fuse without
passage of flame over the projectile. The igniters are the most
impoi*tant. The following are the characteristic igniters, others differ
ing rather in mechanical arrangement than in principle.

Laidley's igniter consists of a small bi'ass tube, closed at one end,
filled with friction powder, in which is embedded a roughened wire
projecting at the open end and there weighted with lead. Two igniters
are placed open end first in small holes bored in the front of the plug
by the side of the time fuse hole, then, on the sudden forward motion
of the shell at time of discharge, the lead weights hang back, drawing
out the wires and igniting the friction powder. The fire is communi-
cated to the time fuse through small holes near the closed end of
igniter tube.

Stevens's igniter has a plunger, suspended by a loop, in the front
end. On firing, the plunger hangs back, breaks the loop, and strikes
a percussion composition in rear, igniting the time fuse. To the
Stevens class belongs the Russian fuse, described on page 836, War
Department report on the Centennial Exposition of 1876, the plunger
being held in front by an axial wire, which is twisted and pulled apart
by the discharge.

Armstrong's igniter contains a sphere of percussion composition
which is crushed by the discharge, so igniting the time fuse. The fol-

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1261

lowing fuses of this class are shown: Parrott, with water cap; Hubbell,
with water cap; Stevens, with igniter; Rebel, with igniter, wooden
plug; Laidley, with igniter and water cap; Laidley, with igniter;
Hotchkiss, with water cap; Hotchkiss, with igniter and water cap;
3-inch gun, with water cap; Foreign, with igniter and water cap;
Arick, with igniter; Taylor, with hood; Seacoast, with water cap;
Navy, with water cap; Navy, with water cap and bushing; Hotchkiss,
with water cap and igniter; Navy, with water cap; Adams's hand
grenade, with igniter. The following forms, though more strictly
time fuses, only, with special igniters, are placed on board 4 with
combination fuses: Sawyer's, Armstrong's, and Shenkle's. A Swiss
time fuse of recent form is also shown.

30^, Irnpact Jhises — concussion and percussion, — Concussion fuses
are those that are ignited by the impact of the projectile at any point
of its surface, and they are applicable to spherical projectiles. Per-
cussion fuses are especially suited to elongated projectiles, and they
are fired by the impact when the projectile strikes head on. In
general, percussion fuses act by means of a plunger, which moves
forward in the projectile on impact, and either strikes a percussion
composition or draws a roughened wire through a mass of friction
powder. Varieties of impact fuses shown are the Absterdam, Butler,
Curi-an, old pattern Hotchkiss, James, Janezeck and Simpson, Laidley,
Parrott, Patterson, Shenkle, Petman, and several of Rebel pattern.

The following percussion fuses of recent form are also shown,
besides those described in detail below: Armstrong, German '' Krupp,"
Driggs and Danish.

303. Combination fuses. — This name is given to fuses which, besides
the time fuse to explode the shell within a certain time, have a con-
cussion or percussion device which will explode the shell on impact if
the time fuse fails, or if the projectile strikes before the time fuse
is burned through. The following varieties are shown on board 4:
Mclntyre, Woodbridge, Drake, Treadwell-Splingard, Clapp, Tice,
Belgian, etc. The Belgian illustrates the use of an annular time fuse
in the combination.

The following combination fuses of recent form are also shown,
besides those described in detail below: French ••* Walters," German
''Krupp-Moffat," Swiss, Dutch, Russian, and Swedish.

301/,. Hotchkiss hose percussion fuse. — This fuse consists of a brass
screw plug, inclosing a plunger of lead surrounded by a brass band.
A pin, slightly longer than the plunger, is embedded in the lead, with
its point so far in that it can not strike the cap in the front of the fuse.
The shock of discharge drives the plunger back on the pin, leaving
the point projecting to the front, the lead still holding it tight. On
impact, the plunger is thrown forward and the projecting pin explodes
the cap. This fuse is intended to be placed in the base of a shell,

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1262 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

and it is made with a flange to act as a gas check and keep the powder
gas from getting into the shell past the fuse. A front fuse, having
the same kind of plunger, is also used by Hotchkiss.

305. Armstrong comMnutionfuse, — (Received from Ordnance Oflice. )
This consists of a brass fuse plug containing, at the front end, a cylin-
drical metal plunger, held in place by a soft copper wire, connecting it
radially on one side with the wall of the plug. A primer is placed in
the Ijase of the plunger. The shock of discharge shears off the wire,
throwing the plunger back and striking the primer against a projecting
pin. This ignites a quick-burning composition on the inner side of a
movable ring, and flame communicates through a small hole with the
time-fuse composition, which is packed in an annular slot in the body of
the plug. The ring can be turned to bring the hole over any desired
part of the time fuse, and give proper length of burning to six seconds.
In the rear part of the plug is another plunger, having a cap at the
front end and a perforation through to the rear filled with quick pow-
der. This plungei is double, consisting of a plunger of lead within
a ring of bi-ass. Before firing, the inner plunger, which holds the
primer, is kept well to the rear of the cavity by a spring which sur-
rounds it and keeps the outer ring forward. The shock of discharge
drives the ring back, and, on impact, the whole plunger moves for-
ward, the primer striking a pin projecting from the front of the
cavity.

306. Gen. D. W. Flagler^ a fuse. — (Received from Frankf ord Arsenal. )
This fuse is like the Armstrong, in having two plungers, the time
plunger in the front and the impact plunger in the rear (as shown in
the figure), but the means of holding them differ, and the fuse compo-
sition is arranged differently. The front plunger is held in place by
an axial wire at the forward end, similar to that described in the
Russian time fuse above. The rear plunger is made on the principle
described in the new Hotchkiss percussion fuse. The fuse composi-
tion is contained in the movable ring itself, instead of in the body of
the plug, and the latter has only a passage filled with quick powder
leading to the interior of the shell. The parts are arranged to increase
the sensitiveness of both the time and percussion parts, and especially
to make them uniformly sensitive. A restraining disk protects the
percussion igniter from the plunger when in the gun, and from pres-
sures caused by the atmospheric retardation of the projectile during
flight. This arrangement gives a very efficient and compact fuse, less
than thiee-fourths the length of the Armstrong, enabling the point to
be made more solid. It is gi'aduated to burn up to twenty seconds.

307. Frankf ord Arsenal combination fuse. — (Received from Sandy
Hook). — As in the Armstrong combination fuse, the igniter for the
time train is in the front part and the igniter for impact in the rear
part. The arrangement for igniting the time train is similar to that

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1268

of the Armstrong, except that the plunger before loading is held in
position by a safety pin, which has to be withdrawn, while instead of
copper wire to hold the plunger from accidental derangement, thin
ears of brass project radially from the. front of the plunger, and catch
over a shoulder within the fuse, these ears being sheared off as the
plunger moves backward on discharge of the piece. The other plunger
is practically that of the Hotchkiss base percussion fuse. The special
features of difference consist in the arrangement of the time train to
provide for long ranges. This time train is set in a helicoidal groove
in the outer surface of a hollow cone made of an alloy of lead, tin, and
antimony, and this cone is covered by a brass cap pierced with holes
which are arranged in a spiral over the time train, and spaced at inter-
vals corresponding to 8ecx)nds of burning, the spaces between con-
secutive holes being subdivided into fifths and pierced or countersunk
at the divisions.

To adjust the fuse for any particular time of burning, a hole is
punched from the outside through the time train and through the alloy
cone, so that fire is communicated to the train from within on the dis-
charge of the piece. An illustration shows the form of ifuse punch .
and its method of use.

It will be seen that there is no movable ring employed on this fuse,
as in the Armstrong, all exterior parts of the fuse being rigidly con-
nected and immovable. The fuses are made to burn twenty-four
seconds.

The construction of the time train is particularly interesting. A fuse
composition is contained in a small lead pipe which is laid into the
helicoidal groove on the exterior of the alloy cone. This is made as
follows:

A lead pipe 12 inches long, 0.80 inch outside and 0.62 inch inside
diameter, is charged with -meal powder. Both ends are then closed
and the pipe is reduced in 70 draws to 0.152 inch outside diameter.
The length of the resulting train is about 23 feet. Comparative tests
are made by burning lengths of 1 foot each. Figures show the
charged pipe prepared for drawing, one end being reduced for pass-
ing through the die. The reduction in diameter for the first drawing
is 0.02 inch, and the reduction greatly diminishes to the last drawing,
when it is 0.002 inch.

The Schultz chronoscope is used in testing fuses for rate of burning
"at rest," making possible more accui*ate comparison of results "at
rest " than can be obtained with a stop watch, where personal error
will enter. For service this has to be modified by experiment on the
proving ground.

A percussion fuse from Frankford Arsenal is also shown.

308, Merriam hose percmsion fuse. — (Received from Ordnance
OflSce.) This fuse is specially intended to secure explosion on impact,

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1264 BEPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

oven if the shell were to strike sidewise. The hammer which produces
explosion of the percussion caps within the fuse is a heavy Imll, which
rests in a cup-shaped cavity in the rear portion of the body of the
fuse. The curvature of this recess is of larger radius than that of the
bore, so that the ball can have a lateral as well as a forward move-
ment. The ball retains its position until impact, when it moves from
its seat and impinges on small steel balls, which are placed a little dis-
tance in front of the hammer, and resting on the caps.

There are three caps and three small balls, with a view to making
sure that one or another of them, if not all, shall be struck by the
hammer on impiict. The caps and small balls are placed in a sepamte
piec«, which is screwed into the front of the lK>dy of the fuse. This
front piece contains the ix)wder train and a special valve to retaixl the
explosion slightly or to allow instantaneous explosion on impact. The
ball hammer is held in place until the discharge of the piece by two
retainei-s on opposite sidps of the ball. Two tripping plungers, pass-
ing through recesseji in the rear face of the fuse, rest against these
retainers, and the force of discharge presses these tripping plungers
forward and releases the retainers from the ball, so that the ball is
free to move forward when the projectile strikes, being held against
accidental dislodgment by a light spring in front.

Gras checks are placed in rear of the tripping plungers in the recessas
in the base of the fuse to prevent gas being forced in b}^ the explosion
of the propelling charge.

PRIMERS Ft)R CANNON.

309. friction prnner^s, — The service friction primer consists of a
small tube drawn from a flat disk of copper, filled with rifle powder
and fitted with a branch tube at the closed end. This branch contains
friction powder, and a serrated brass wire passes through it, ending
in a loop outside. To fire the gun, the long tube is ins<*rted in the
vent and a lanyard is hooked to the loop of the wire. Pulling on the
lanyard draws out the wire, igniting the composition bv friction, dis-
charging the powder, and communicating fire to the charge in the gun.
An improved lanyard having a sliding handle is shown. The lanvard
is held taut, and the slide is brought sharply up against a knot on the
top. Besides the American, the German friction primer is shown.

310. Electric primers. — In these the tube is enlarged at the top for
the insertion of an electric fuse, with wire connections for exploding
the primer by electric battery or magneto-electric exploder.

311. Ohturatlng primers. — These primers are so constructed that
they prevent the escape of gas through the vent in firing. The tube
is made of bi-ass, larger in diameter than the old primer, and a screw
thread near the closed end allows them to be screwed into the vent,
enlarged and tapped at the outer end for this purjx)se. On some of

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WOEJLD's COLUMBIAN ENPOSITION, 1893. 1265

these obturating primers the screw threads are cut away in sections
corresponding to slots cut through the threads in the vent, so that the
primer can be pushed in and secured by one-sixth of a turn, as with
the breech screw of the 3.2-inch rifle. The gas pressure forces the
mouth of the tube against the walls of the vent and prevents escape
of gas, the action being similar to that of the metallic cartridge.
They are of two kinds, friction and electric primers. A hole in the
solid end admits the wire for the friction primer, or the insulated wires
for the electric primer. In the friction primers the wire has a swell-
ing within the tube to prevent its being dmwn completely out, and
this fills the hole after ignition, preventing escape of gas. The elec-
tric wires of the electric primer pass through a disk of insulating mate-
rial— vulcanized fiber — which covers the aperture from the inside and
prevents escape of gas past the wires. Besides American forms of
obturating primers, electric and friction, the Armstrong electric primer
is shown.

312. Percussion jyrirners. — Of these the following are exhibited:
Vent-sealing Seabury primers and Armstrong percussion primers.

313. Pet*cicssion primer pistol for Jiring cannon. — This consists of a
wooden stock about 3 feet long, having a pistol handle at the rear end
and a percussion lock at the front end. A trigger close to the handle
works by means of a long lever to release the hammer and allow it to
fall on the percussion primer, which rests in a perforated holder fixed
to the front end of the stock. In use the primer would be placed over
the vent of the cannon and there exploded. A spring is arranged under
the foi*ward end of the stock, this spring being drawn up before firing
and secured by a catch which is released as the hammer falls, the blow
of the spring striking up the end of the pistol out of the way of the
blast from the vent. The date when this was used is not known. The
pistol was contributed by Mr. John H. Martin, superintendent of
Washington's headquarters, Newburgh, N. Y., where it was found
when the building was occupied as a museum.

3H. Cannon vents. — Board containing 21 specimens showing enlarge-
ment of cannon vents by firing.

POWDERS FOR CANNON.

315. Black and hrown powders. — Until within a few years the com-
position of gunpowder has varied but very slightly from the ancient
formula. In early times powder was used simply in the form of meal,
and granulation of powder was not known until about 1429. Toward
the end of the fifteenth century three sizes of powder are said to have
been known, but extreme attention to granulation of cannon powders
was not paid until very recent years, when the size, regularity, and
density of grain were carefully proportioned to the guns of difiFerent
caliber. To General Rodman, of the Ordnance Department, is due the

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1266 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

development of a powder which would burn on an increasing surface
so as to produce more and more gas as the grains burned. This was
exemplified in his perforated cake powder, which, in a modified form,
is shown in the prismatic powder which was developed in Russia and
other European countries and then reimported for use in our service.
Many attempts were made to produce the desired result of lessening
the initial pressure and the maximum pressure, and maintaining the
pressure while the projectile was in the bore (these being the effects of
the Rodman powder), and as early as 1873 Dr. Woodbridge introduced
a progressive powder, so called, in which a mass of fine-grained powder
was inclosed in an envelope of compressed powder. The object of
this was to produce slow burning until the envelope was burned
through, when the interior grains would be consumed rapidly. Another
powder intended to produce this result was the Italian Fossano powdcT'.
This might be called a conglomerate powder, in the manufacture of
which grained powder was mixed with meal powder, and the mass
compressed in cakes, which were then broken up into grains of the
size desired. The first marked change in composition was illustrated
in the brown or cocoa powder, in which the ordinary charcoal pre-
viously used in the manufacture of gunpowder is replaced by a grade
of under burnt charcoal, which retains a certain proportion of hydro-
gen and oxygen and maintains its cellular state, even after having been
ground very fine, so jis to more readily combine with the oxygen lib-
erated from the niter upon explosion of the charge. To this charcoal
"carbohydrates" are also added.

This powder possesses great ballistic force, and the smoke produced
is much less than with the ordinary black powder, })ut great difficulty
has been encountered in obtaining uniformity in its manufacture and
uniformity of effect in its use. On account of its hydroscopic nature
it is liable to vary, and the pressure in the gun modifies its rate of
burning much more than with black powder. Specimens of powder
of various grains are shown, from that used for field guns to the large
blocks used for heavy guns. Samples of large grain powder — ^hexag-
onal, spherohexagonal, mammoth and cubical — with some of the pris-
matic perforated graint*, both of black and brown (''cocoa") powder,
are shown; and cartridges, such as are used for the United States
12-inch rifle, are exhibited, made up of wooden blocks representing the
prismatic grains.

316. S?nol'eIeM jjowder. — The introduction of smokeless powders for
small arms led to attempts to apply them to large guns, but the greatest
diflGiculty found at first was in the high pressures produced by these
powders, the explosion of the early powders possessing something of
the nature of a detonation. It was not until it was found that they
could be deprived of the property of detonating, and until their rate
of burning could be regulated by size and form of grain, that they
offered much promise for cannon. r^^^^T^

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1267

Nitre compounds and organic nitrates are most extensively used for
smokeless powders. A number of difiFerent varieties of foreign and
domestic make have been tested. The following specimens are ex-
hibited: Leonard's tubular (American), for 3.2-inch breech-loading
steel rifle; Gorman smokeless powder, for 8-inch breech-loading steel
rifle; Troisdorff, for field guns; cordite (English), for field guns; B.N.
(French), for field guns.

SMALL- ARM CARTRIDGES.

Historical collection of t^niall-arni cartridges,

317. Board ofhxdlets. — This shows about 100 varieties, and embrac-
ing the French bullet for the carabine d, tige, one of the earliest forms,
made to rest on a pin projecting from the bottom of the bore, and
forced into the rifling by blows of the ramrod; the Minie bullet, made
with a hollow base to allow expansion by pressure of powder in firing;
Jennings, containing powder charge in base; the Austrian explosive
bullet for blowing up ammunition chests; also many others, showing
steps of improvement to the present day.

In addition to these bullets there is shown a steel bullet with a cop-
per ring, like that on the Butler shot for heavy guns, to take the
rifling. This was devised by Maj. Geo. W. McKee, Ordnance Depart-
ment, to be fired from the .^5 caliber service Springfield rifle in experi-
ments on iron and steel plates of moderate thickness, for calculation of
eflfect of large steel shot on heavy armor.

A bullet coated with copper, made at Colt's armory as early as 1884,
is also shown, with specimens of the new small caliber lead bullets
sheathed with copper and steel, and one of very recent pattern wound
with steel wire.

An interesting revolver bullet of recent invention is shown in figure
25. This is made up of two parts, one solid forming the base, and one
split at the rear into three sections, but united
at the point. The figure shows the separate parts,
and on their right the appearance of the whole
bullet prepared for loading. In firing, the parts
separate, and though the penetration is not very
great, it is claimed that at short range it is
very effective, particularly for mounted practice.
This bullet is the invention ot Capt. Heniy J.
Nowlan, Seventh Cavalry, who claims that pistol
practice should not be attempted by mounted men except at very
short ranges.

318. Cartridge pi'imers. — A collection of cartridge primers and
parts of primer is shown, embracing different varieties — Berdan,
Orcutt, Sharp, Wesson, etc.

319^ Board of cartridges. — Fifty-six specimens of foreign and

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1268 REPORT OF COMMirrEE ON AWARDS.

American cartridges are ari'anged on a board received from the Mili-
tary Academy. These include, with many others, some of the earlier
forms of self-primed cartridges; the needle gun caitridge; Morse's
American cartridge, with metallic shell and rubber base, 1858; Boxer
cartridge, thin brass, wrapped, with iron head, for Martini-Henry
rifle.

3W, Cabinet of cartridges. — This shows the progressive stages of
manufacture from early cartridges for muzzle-loaders to the United
States .45-caliber cartridge. The cartridges in this collection are from
Frankford Arsenal, having been prepared for the ordnance exhibit at
the Centennial Exposition. A detailed description of these cartridges
will be found in Captain Metcalfe's report on that exhibit:

1. Pai)er ammunition, not fixed : Round and elongate<l bullet and buckshot cartridges;

powder and bullet wrapped in a imper cover. Twenty-five 8|)ecimen8.

2. Paper and linen ammunition, fixed: Wrapper round the powder inflammable.

Could l>e in8erte<l whole. Used both for muzzle-loaders and for the earlier
breechloatlers. Cartridges for Merrits's, Hall's, Sharps's, Colt's, and Starr's
arms are note<l. Twenty-nine .specimens.

3. Transition from inflammable wrapper to metallic cartridges: This includes the

Gallagher foil cartridpe; the Maynard brass-shell cartridge, with a flange at
rear, as in modern cartridges, but having no priming, a central perforation in
the base a<lmitting flame from a primer fireil on a nipple outside the barrel; the
Bumside copper-shell cartridge, with flange at forward end, and central perfora-
tion at base; also some foreign gun cartridges. Thirty-seven Hi)ecimen8.

4. Early self-primed cartridges, rim-primed and center-primed cartridges: Poultney

brass foil with iron base; Crispin zinc foil; Hotchkiss solid head, pressed up
from solid base; Remington-Martin l)ase; Winchester (Milbank primer). The
primer is a flange<l percussion cap inserted in a pocket without anvil; United
States Cartridge Company solid head, both inside and outside primed cartridges;
Berdan, early forms with outside pocket, and impressed shallow cup; Mead's
explosive bullet cartridge; Spencer; Ballard; Morse; Henry; various experi-
mental cartridges, including Colonel I^idley's; and several pistol cartridges by
various makers, including inside and outside cap, teat and rim-primed cartridges.

5. Foreign and sporting cartridges, metallic, etc. : English Boxer, Snyder; English

Boxer, Henry; French chassepot and mitrailleuse, pasteboard, with metal base;
Prussian needle gun, paper cylinder, choke<l in front of bullet; Austrian
" Werndl,'* with annular copper anvil; Dutch Beaumont, with solid brass head
and pocket, cap with anvil primer; Swiss Vetterlin, rim primed; and various
sporting cartridges for shot, nearly all pasteboard, w4th metal base, pocket, and
anvil primed.

6. Modifications made in the charge (calilxjr .50 cartridges): Charges of Oriental,

Hazard, and DuPont musket i)owdei*s 70 grains. These show the various effects
of compressing the charge, either from front, rear, or from both ends, and either
* perforating it from end to end, or leaving a conical rear cavity; Sleeper's chlorate
powder is also shown in charges of from 15 to 30 grains, as is also Gomez's iron
gunpowder.

7. Modifications in bullet and lubricant: Tliese show the various effects of deeixining

the cannelures to hold more lubricant; use of two broad cannelures instead of
three; use of lubricant with wad under the bullet, either alone or in addition to
lubricant in the cannelures; use of a front lubricant; patching bullet with bank-
note paper and use of bullet hardened by the addition of tin. Various forms of

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1269

bullete are also shown, the usual one being the frustum of a cone on a cylinder;
various reductions in weight are also ina<le, usually by conical cavity in base.

8. Center-primed cartridges, disk and bar anvils: These show the center swell base,

copper-disk anvil, two vents, short case; Martin straight bar reenforce, tinned
iron, with reenforce copper cup held in by indents in wall of shell; various disk
and tmr anvils of copper or iron, held in by indents or reentrant fold; and the
Martin pocket with reentrant fold. Cap-primed cases are included. These
show the solid nipple head in brass pockt't in base of case; various star and cup
cap-receivers; front ignition cases; the Laidley arch anvil; Treadwell cube
anvil; Berdan anvil; and cup anvils. One of the earliest was the Ben^t, 1866.
One of Berdan' s early models was made on the same principle. They also
comprise the tinneii cup anvil, held in by crimps or indents; side-vent cup
anvil; corrugated base, ('opper-cup anvil; copper-cup anvils of various shapes;
Treadwel's open ba^Hi, with double cup; Berdan's solid head teat anvil, and
various cup-anvil ammunition for pistols.

9. Modifications in caliber. Re<iuctions: Nearly all the first ballets of .45 caliber

are in bottle-shaped cases, either for 70 or 80 grains charge, weighing from 400
to 425 grains; they are nearly all cannelure<l, with cases about 2.5 inches long.
The bullets for the .42 caliber are used with from 70 to 80 grains of powder,
and weigh from 350 to 385 grains. The early forms all appear in bottle-shaped
cases, and are nearly all cannelured. The .40 caliber, nearly all in straight
cases, are used with from 65 to 80 grains of powder, and weigh from 290 to 350
grains. They nearly all have four or five cannelures.
10. United States folded head, center-primed cartridges; caliber .45; nonreloading,
showing stages of manufacture: The'shell is slightly tapering from flange to
bullet, where it becomes cylindrical and extends to cover the cannelures. It
is made from a thin plate of copper. First a disk is punched out and slightly
cupped in a single machine. The cup is then drawn out more and more,
becoming of smaller and smaller diameter by successive operations. It is
then trimme<i to length, and the head is formed by a press which buckles out
the metal at the sides of the closed end, forming a folded flange. A perfo-
rated cup anvil, with a shallow pocket in the bottom, is inserted and pushed
down, l)eing fixe<l in place by crimps made just in front of it at two opposite
points in the wall of the shell. The bullet weighs 404 grains; charge of powder
for carbine, 55 grains; for rifle, 70 grains, the same shell being used for both,
with wads l)ehind bullet in the former to fill the space and give the cartridge
the same size. The bullet is made from round cast bars of lead and tin; 16
parts lead to 1 of tin. These are rolled down to size, and then a single machine
cuts to lengths and forms a Imllet from each length between three dies, one
die for the base and two for the sides. There are three shallow cannelures for
lubricant. Samples are given of carbine, rifle, and revolver shells and bullets,
showing stages of manufacture.

3S1. United Staten solid-Jiead cartridge^ caliber .J^S. — ^This diflfers
from those just described, in being made with a solid flange at the head,
and arranged for the insertion of a primer from the outside, so that the
shell can be reprimed and reloaded. It has usually been made of
copper, but it is now made of brass. It is made from thicker metal than
the folded-head cartridge. The sheet from which the disks are punched
is shown, with the various stages in development of the tube, primer,
and bullet. Weight of bullet, 500 grains ; weight of powder, 70 grains.
The Mirrse shell of caliher .J/J) — This has a movable base, with

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1270 REPORT OF COMMITTEE OK AWARDS.

rubl)er packing. It is a folded-head brass shell, with the center of the
base cut out for the insertion of a solid cup containing an outside
primer. A rubber ring inside covers the joint. With the solid-head
cartridge, expansion of the front part caused it to clamp against the
wall of the chamber, the pressure on the base tending to pull it away
from the front part so held. This caused breaking, particularly with
copper shells. The Morse shell was designed to obviate this trouble
and make the shells last longer for reloading.

Neio mnall caliher cartridges.

The tendency to reduction of caliber has been constant from the old
musket caliber, seventy one-hundredths of an inch, to the prevailing
calibers of recent yeare, .45 (the United States caliber) to .40.

To Professor Hebler, of Germany, and Major Rubin, of Switzerland,
is due the credit of experiments within the last fifteen years which
have led to recent reduction of calil)ei's in Europe. The limit of
advantage in reduction was at first thought to be about 0.295 inches,
and a caliber of about .31 was regarded as the best, but calibers of
.256 are now in use, and our Navy has adopted a caliber of .235.
The new United States Army caliber is .30.

The object of reduction, besides the saving in weight of cartridges
and of space occupied by them in packing, and the diminution of recoil,
lies in the flatter trajectory obtained with a bullet of diameter so
slight as compared with its length. Such a bullet in moving point on
suffers less resistance from the air in proportion to the weight, since
the weight of projectile compared with resisting surface is greater.
The retardation of the bullet is therefore less. Moreover, the area of
the longitudinal section is greater in relation to the weight, and this
increases the effect of the air in retarding the drop of the bullet. The
result is that the velocity given it io the gun is maintained longer and
the drop is less over a given range, as well as in a given time, making
the path of the bullet straighter and increasing the "dangerous space,"
or the distance over which, for aim at any particular mnge, the bullet
would keep within a man's height from the ground. This effect is
augmented by greatly increasing the charge in comparison with the
weight of the bullet, or by using a higher explosive, and so getting
greater initial velocity, 1,800 to 2,000 or even 2,3(X) feet per second,
instead of 1,300 to 1,400 feet. To keep a long, thin bullet point on in
its flight requires and increased rate of rotation, and the twist of the
rifling is increased to 1 turn in 9 or 10 inches, while the twist in our
seiTice rifle is 1 turn in 22 in(»hes. Lead bullets, unprotected, will
not stand this under high charges without stripping, so the lead bullet
is sheathed with copper, German silver, or steel, and this covering
ssists, too, in penetration. A copper-covered bullet recovered from

wd into which it had been fired is shown. It bears the marks of the

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1271

rifling, but shows no deformation.* The Hebler and Rubin cartridges
differ in details as follows:

3£3. The HAler cartridge, — In one form of this cartridge the case is
of steel, nickel plated, with a copper head which contains the center-
fire capsule and expands to serve as a gas check. The charge of pow-
der, 83 grains, is compressed in the case, and has a centi-al canal for
the rapid ignition of the whole charge. It is arranged in layers of
different densities, to give greater unifoimity of pressure by increasing
the rate of burning toward the end. The form shown in the exhibit,
from the National Armory, represented actual size in figure 28, has a
brass, solid-head, bottle-shaped shell, with the usual flange.

The Lorenz bullet, used with these cartridges, is covered with a thin
steel jacket, nickel plated. This jacket is drawn and pressed into shape,
tinned inside, and filled with compressed pieces of soft lead slightly
hardened by tin and antimony. The whole is then heated to melt the
lead and cause it to unite with the wall of the cover, and the lead is
afterwards compressed and solidified. The steel jacket is tempered at
the point, but it is softer at the sides. Six thousand rounds have been
fired from a rifle without perceptible wear or injury to the grooves,
the bullet taking the grooves perfectly. The bullet has no cannelures.

The following figures regarding the Hebler bullet, caliber .295, are
taken from various sources: Initial velocity, 1,850 feet; weight of
bullet, 224 grains; weight of charge, 83 grains; weight of cartridge
complete, 521 grains; length of bullet, 4.46 calibers. Peneti*ation of
Hebler at muzzle, 39.4 inches in pine; at distance of 2,500 meters, 21
inches. Of Mauser at muzzle, 9.5 inches; at 1,600 meters, 2.16 inches.

The Lebel rifle cartridge, of the Hebler pattern, is said to be as
follows: Length of bullet, 1.32 inches; total length of case, 3.07
inches; caliber, .304; weight, 211.42 grains. Front lubricant is sup-
posed to be used. This cartridge has a smokeless powder, but its
composition is not definitely known, and there is some doubt about its
standing storage and answering the requirements of service.

S2J^. The Ruhifi cartridge^ leiid hidlet^ copper covered, — Two speci-
mens are shown, of form indicated in figure 29; one from the National
armory, and one presented by Herr Schulhoff and Major Glentworth,
of the Austrian service. This is used in the Shulhoff magazine gun,
shown in the exhibit, as well as in the Rubin rifle, of which a trial is
now being made at the National armory. This shell is of a novel
pattern. It is made without a projecting flange, a groove for the
extractor to engage in being cut round the base, which is made thicker
to give room for it. The walls of the shell are thick, and at the mouth
this is increased by an inner ring, forming a shoulder round the bullet,
and this, with the taper of the shell, prevents forcing the cartridge too

*This jackete<l bullet originated with the Winchester Cbnipany, of New Haven, in
1879, for uae in the Hotchkiss gun.

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1272 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

far into the firing chamber. One advantage of this form of shell in
box magazines is obvious, as no care' has to be taken to keep the
flanges of the cartridges from catching on to each other to prevent
pushing the top one forward in loading the piece. The Schulhoff gun
is also made to fire the Hebler flanged cartridge. The following
information regarding the Rubin cartridge, of form shown in figure
29, is derived from experiments in this countr}^ with the Rubin rifle:
Caliber, .295 inches. The charge is ordinary grain powder, com-
pressed, with an axial perforation. Weight of powder, 69.48 grains;
weight of projectile, 216.16 grains; velocity at muzzle, 1,800 feet per
second; maximum penetration in soft pine, 17 inches at 500 yards;
9.78 inches at 1,000 yards; ordinates in firing at 500-yard target, 100
yards, 2.97 feet; 200 yards, 4.8; 300 yards, 5.19; 400 yards, 3.73;
maximum ordinate firing at 1,000-yard target, 34.226.

325. The Hurst accelerating cartridge^ caliber .32. — A cartridge
invented by H. P. Hurst, of Mississippi, has attracted considerable
attention. (It is shown only by drawings and description.) Remark-
a}>le results are claimed for such a cartridge, with the weight of charge
nearly double that of the projectile.

The base of the cartridge shell has attached to it a strong central
tube, which contains the initial charge of powder, and extends beyond
it over nearly all of the cylindrical portion of the bullet. Outside of
this case is disposed a second charge, composed of rings of compressed
powder considerably less in diameter than the chamber of the gun.
The bullets are made of steel, and are of various lengths. The firing
of the central charge is effected in. the usual manner, and the bullet is
driven from the tube, but the very instant it is clear the flame is com-
municated to the second charge, and the projectile leaves the bore
with a greatly accelerated velocity.

326. Cartmdges of various nations. — Specimens of the following
small-caliber cartridges are shown in the exhibit. The dimensions,
weight of charge, kind of powder, etc., will be found in the table fol-
lowing the review of magazine guns. The accompanying figures show
the cartridges in real size: Lee-Speed (English), Mannlicher (Aus-
trian), Mannlicher (Roumanian), German models of 1876 and 1878,
Belgian, Italian, Norwegian, Danish, Portuguese, Japanese, and
United States models.

327. Samples of powder for small arm^. — Besides samples of ordi-
nary black gunpowder, the following smokeless powders appear:
Leonard, Peyton, Wetteren, Troisdorf, cordite, French B. N. F.,
Riflette, and Axtell.

Of the domestic smokeless powders, the Peyton and Leonard varie-
ties have given the best results. So far these powders have not been
obtained in quantity, and for experiment the Wetteren powder, made
in Belgium, has been most extensively used. The early forms of this

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1273

powder contained nitroglycerin, but on account of its corroding the
gun this has been abandoned as an ingredient.

Ballistic effect of tww cartridges.

The natural result of the disposition to adopt a small-caliber cartridge
was to stimulate the efforts to obtain a powder which would not foul
the gun. Attention was thus forcibly drawn to improvement of the
nitrate powders already used to some extent for sporting pui'poses,
and success has followed in many instances. Incidentally it appeared
that the smoke resulting from discharge was very slight, obviating the
clouds of smoke that usually followed the discharge of firearms, and
this is now regarded as a very valuable element in the cartridge, as it
is more di£Scult for the enemy to detect the point from which shots are
fired. The new powders give very high chamber pressure, varying
from 14 to 21 tons per square inch, demanding increased strength of
barrel and breech mechanism. Much less smokeless powder is required
to make up a charge than with other powders, the weight being a little
more or less than half the old weight, according to the nature of the
powder used. Although a smokeless powder for the ammunition has
not yet been adopted for service, a sufficient quantity of the Wetteren
powder has been ordered to f uniish what is required for immediate
needs, pending the now very encouraging outlook for securing a suit-
able powder of domestic production.

The new bullets are now much longer in proportion than the old,
being about 4 calibers in length, and they have a much higher velocity.
This gives to the bullet, especially as its envelope is of harder material
than the lead, an increased penetration at all distances.

The specifications of the board for the United States ammunition
require a weight of bullet of 220 grains and a charge of 36 to 40 grains
of smokeless powder, or such lesser weight as will give a muzzle
velocity of about 2,000 feet per second, with a chamber pressure not
exceeding 45,000 pounds per square inch. These conditions it is found
in practice, however, can be considerably ameliorated, and a higher
velocity obtained with considerably less pressure from several of the
samples of smokeless powder that have been tested. This ammunition
will not be reloaded by troops.

The changes made in the components of the experimental .30-caliber
cartridge to adapt it to the magazine rifle, model 1892, consist in a
reduction of the weight of the bullet from 230 to 220 grains, and of
its diameter from 0.309 to 0.308 of an inch, and the substitution of
German silver for the copper covering (jacket) of the bullet, which is
made without cannelures and is not lubricated. The exterior dimen-
sions of the cartridge remaining the same, there is a consequent
increase in the powder space due to the shortening of the bullet. The
bullet (within the cover) is made of an alloy of 12.5 per cent tin and

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1274 REPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

87.5 per cent lead. The German silver jacket may be regarded as
tentative, since experiments with a cupro-nickeled steel jacket have
shown superior results as regards penetration and resistance to defor-
mation. Fired into oak, against the grain, at a distance of 3 feet,
penetrations were found as follows: 230 grains, copper jacket, 4 inches,
bullet badly deformed; 220 grains, German silver, 5.3 inches, bullet
badly deformed; 220 grains, nickeled steel, 19.5 inches, bullet not
deformed.

Compared with this, the uncovered .45-caliber bullet of the Spring-
field rifle gave a penetration of 3.2 inches at a distance of 50 feet;
bullet badly deformed. Fired into dry, well-seasoned oak, at a dis-
tance of 3 feet, the .30-caliber 220-grain bullet with cupro-nickeled
steel jacket gave a penetration of 24.2 inches, bullet not deformed.
The range being 500 yards, it is found that the greatest height of
trajectory of the .30-calil)er rifle is 3.85 feet (this point of the trajec-
tory is 300 yards from the muzzle). The same greatest height for the
.45-caliber Springfield rifle is 8. 16 feet, and for a .40-caliber Remington-
Hepburn rifle 7.7 feet. These results show the flatness of trajectory
and consequently increased danger space of the .30-caliber rifle in com-
parison with the others.

Recent experiments were made at Frankford Arsenal by Assistant
Surgeon Ija Garde, of the United States Amiy, and Lieutenant Bendt,
of the Ordnance Department, to test the effect of the .30-caliber bullet
upon animal tissues and bone.

It waa made the object of these experiments to compare the effect of bullets of
lai^e and of small caliber upon the same parts of the human boily at various ranges
up to and including 2,000 yards. The arms U8e<l were the .45 caliber Springfield
rifle and the experimental .30 caliber Springfield rifle, using the ammunition of and
having the same ballistic qualities as the magazine rifle, model 1892. The objects
to be fired at were placed at short range, and reduced charges were determined for
the rifle to obtain the striking velocity of bullet incident to actual ranges simulated.
As regards the nature of wounds produced, it is concluded that tlieir severity is much
less with the smaller caliber, and that the severity at short ranges will be further
lessened by using a bullet which will be seldom or never deformed at the highest
striking velocities against the hardest human bones.

As the reduction of velocity due to diminishing the charge also dimin-
ishes the i*ate of rotation, and in a greater proportion than would occur
from the flight of the bullet through the air, experiments at long ranges
will be made to determine the actual effect due to the spinning of the
bullet under service conditions.

It is said that experiments on animals demonstrate that the wound
caused by a Hebler bullet is much less serious than that from others,
as the Hebler bullet makes a clean hole, while the others make ragged
and splintered holes, producing wounds that remain serious for years,
even if vital parts are not struck. In one case a man shot l)y a Hebler
bullet in the upper left arm entirely recovered in three months, though
'le was hors de combat for two months. ^ ,

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1275

A bullet which will not be deformed is preferable on account of its
penetrative power and ability to wound several instead of one man.

The caliber .30 is the same as that of the Russian arm, and inter-
mediate l)etween the arms of Austria, Belgium, England, France, and
Germany, which are the larger, ranging from 0.301 to 0.316 of an
inch, and those of Holland, Italy, Spain, Roumania, and Switzerland,
which are smaller, ranging from 0.256 to 0.295 of an inch. At the
present time there is a tendency of professional opinion to the use of
a smaller caliber than .30. The gain at most can be but slight.

3S8. Bullets recovered after firing. — ^The deformation produced in
bullets by firing them into sand and against iron plates is shown in the
accompanying illustration, the United States service bullets, caliber
.45 lead and caliber .30 jacketed, being used in the experiments:

First row.

[Fired into sand at 100 yards.]

Caliber 30

Weight of bullet grains.. 220

Charge of powder Wetteren do 36

Second row.

[Fired against iron plate at 100 feet.]

Caliber 30

Weight of bullet grains. . 220

Charge of powder do 14

Jliird rowy except last buUel.

[Fired into sand at 100 yards.]

Caliber 45

Weight of bullet grains. . 500

Charge of powder do 70

Fourth row.

[Fired against iron plate at 50 feet.]

Caliber 45

Weight of bullet grains.. 500

Chaises of powder:

No. 1 do.... 3

No. 2 do.... 5

No. 3 do.... 6

No. 4 do.... 7

No. 5 do.... 8

No. 6 do.... 9

No. 7 do.... 10

No. 8 do.... 69

Last bullet, third row do 12

Supply of smoill-arm ammunition.

The supply of ammunition in the field has become a question of
increased importance with the introduction of magazine guns and auto-
matic machine guns, the po8sil)le i-apidity of fire far exceeding in pro-

1276i REPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

portion the increased number of cartridges that can be carried with the
same transportation on account of decrease of weight. For the small
arm of caliber .30 this amounts to 175, to 100 of the .45-caliber car-
tridges, and the reduction of caliber to less than .25 still further
increases the proportion.

A method proposed for the old .45 caliber cartridge was to strap
together in square packages of 10, the paper l)oxes containing 20 car-
tridges, these packages being of convenient size to be readily carried
1)3' hand to supply troops, or packed in the liml)er chest of machine
guns. For ordinary transportation three of these packages would l)e
placed in a wooden box which one man could readily handle, and
which could be conveniently packed on mule back when necessary or
in special ammunition carts. This was projected by Col. K. B. Wil-
liston, who made the Ikjxcs with a fastening that could be opened
without tools to get at the ammunitton. In the old form with a fixed
lid, to save waste of time in unscrewing the lid in action, the boxes
often had to be broken open by dashing them to the ground.

The use of packages as above described was suggested before the
late improvements in magazine guns and machine guns. It was sup-
posed that the ordinary paper packing boxes would continue to be used
with machine guns, as in the Bruce feed, while at the same time it was
thought that the small-arm magazines might be arranged to fill directly
from the same paper boxes.

The tendency now is, however, to feed ammunition to machine guns
from a tape or strip, and unless a similar method is adopted for small
arms, it seems probable that machine guns and small arms will require
distinct methods of packing, particularly if the use of magazine charg-
ers or clips continues. A woven belt with a double row of loops for
cartridges has been made for our service, and one holding cartridges
in groups of five has been proposed. The original use of cartridge
belts in the old form, called the Prairie belt, with loops of cloth or
leather bound on to the belt, seems to be due to Col. Anson Mills, of
our Army, who afterwards invented machiner}' for weaving the belts
in one piece. The Mills woven cartridge belt with arrangement for
carrying Lee magazines is shown; also the Orndorff modified form as
recently proposed, with illustration of a method of packing these belts
(already filled with cartridges at the arsenals) in wooden boxes for
transportation.

It is believed that the use in this manner of a light, cheap l)elt of
this description was first proposed l)y Maj. G. S. Wilson, of the
Adjutant-General's Department, while a lieutenant in the Twelfth
United States Infantry, who made his belt by simply folding a strip
of cloth lengthwise, catchmg the folds together at intervals and allow-
ing place for the cartridges. The loops for the cartridges were then
closed at the bottom. The Orndorff form is wovimi in one piece to

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 127T

produce the same result. By thus supplying belts ready filled, a great
many cartridges can be carried readily by men running between the
fighting line and the boxen where they obtain the belts. The new arm
in our service is not dependent on magazine chargers, but some pro-
vision may have to be made for candying them, as in the belt illustrated
in description of the Lee magazine gun, and in the Mills belt shown
above.

The waste of ammunition in the days of flintlock guns, and later
with muzzle-loading percussion-lock guns, made the expense and
difliculty of supplying munitions many times greater than with the
modern metallic cartridge, notwithstanding the more rapid fire of
breechloadei's and the increased cost of single cartridges.

METALLIC SHELL CARTRIDGES.

To Lefaucheux, in 1832, belongs the credit of giving the first
impulse toward the adoption of the modern self-primed cartridge.
His was a paper-covered cartridge, having a base formed of two
disks, one of brass and the other of pressed paper, with the priming
composition placed between. A metal pin, projecting at the side,
fitted into this base. This pin, when struck b}' the hammer, exploded
the charge.

Flobert, in 1845, developed this principle, and used the cap itself as
the cartridge shell containing the powder and shot, thereby making
the cartridge its own obturator. The Lefaucheux cartridges com-
monly in use after this combined both principles. The pin also
assisted in extiucting. About 1857 United States manufacturers took
up the development of the metallic shell cartridge in the improved
form devised by the American, G. W. Morse, and they have carried
it to its perfection.

It is said that Pauly, who tried to introduce the Ferguson percussion
system into France in 1808, devised a breech-loading gun with a
hinged breech similar to the Palmer and'Allin forms, and that as
early as the year 1812 he introduced a gas-tight metal cartridge
shell of sheet brass, for central fire, which was fitted with a flange.
This had a separate head of wood or metal with lead to close the joint,
after the manner of the Morse cartridge, in which India rubber was
used. The ignition was produced by the compression of air by means
of a small piston.

Some of the early shells were unprimed, like the Maynard and
Burnside, and in the transition stage some were made with tin or
brass foil sides attached to a rigid base. The solid drawn shell of
copper or brass is now universally used.

One great advantage of the metallic shell, besides its convenience
in holding the whole cartridge together, is that it acts as a complete
gas check, on account of the expansibility of the shell at the front

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edge. This is not so apparent with the steel forms used in the first
two guns, and steel is now practically replaced by copper or, prefera-
bly, brass. The difficulties encountered in providing a proper gas
check for guns using paper cartridges led to the adoption of the
metallic shell in spite of its additional weight. Though for shotguns
the shells are often made of thin steel, and shells with paper walls
are common, they are not now used for military arms. The paper
shell, so called, of the present day, is quite distinct from the old
'* paper cartridge.'^ The metallic ammunition has been the chief fac-
tor in making breechloaders, and particularly magazine guns, a succes.

Even for cannon of medium size the tendency is to use metallic
shell ammunition to facilitate rapid loading.

l]fi. Roberts hreech-loadirig rifle^ 1862^ metaUic cartridge. — ^The
breechblock is attached to the under part of a lever which is hinged
to the top of the barrel a little in front of the breech. When open,
the lever is swung upward and forward, carrying with it the breech-
block, the lever lying on top of the barrel. In closing, the lever is
swung backward and downward, the breechblock dropping into a ver-
tical mortise in rear of the barrel. To allow this motion of the block,
the block has a limited sliding play along the lever. The cartridge
shell is made of steel so that it can.be used over again. It has a little
hole in the right side of the shell, facing the tube from the nipple, to
admit fire from the percussion cap.

14,1. Spencer siiigU-Jiring rifle^ retnovahh steel loading chamher. —
This has a thin removable steel loading chamber, like the system
described above as of the earliest model known. The chamber can be
taken out and reloaded. It was probably intended to have a number
of these chambers loaded for use, and therefore the gun is placed in
this class.

H2. Early French hreech-loadin^ "f^ifi^t caliber .58, — System some-
what resembles "Sharps" (no marks); probably used with Lefau-
cheux cartridge. Pin fire.

lJi3, Burnside rifle carbine^ caliber ,51^,^ 1856, — Movable chamber
pivoted in front under barrel, held close by cover on transverse shaft,
operated by side lever. Used an unprimed metallic cartridge, the
front part of the shell covering the joint between the breechblock and
the barrel to prevent leakage of gas. Centml fire, perforation in
center of base admitting flame from cap placed on an outside nipple.
In closing, the breechblock has a forward movement, so that the
bullet projecting from forward end of chamber is pushed into the rear
of the barrel. A number of these arms were used at one time by
the United States for cavalry.

Ili4, Burnside carbiiie^ caliber .5^, — ^This differs from the above in
the locking device, consisting of a barbed catch on the receiver, con-
nected with a pivoted thumb piece on the inner side of the guard.

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WOBLD's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1279

Fifty-five thousand five hundred and sixty-seven of these gxins were
purchased for use in the Army during the civil war.

IJiS. Maynard hreech-loading cai'bine^ caliper .60, 1850. — ^Leaf sight,
metallic cartridge, unprimed, with hole in base to receive flame from
percussion cap. A lever underneath, pressed down and forward,
moves the breech end of the barrel upward to receive the charge.
Closed by reverse motion; extraction by hand. The cartridge shell
from Maynard gun has a flange at the base to keep the charge from
going too far into the chamber, and to assist extraction. Except that
it was not self -primed, and that it had to be fired by use of an exterior
primer, the flame being admitted through a central opening in the
base, this cartridge corresponded closely with the modern center-
primed cartridge. The gun was fired either with the common per-
cussion cap or with the Maynard tape primer described under muzzle
loaders. There were 20,002 of these guns purchased by the United
States Government for use in the civil war.

146. Howard? s hreech-loading carbhie, foAvcet h*eech^ caliber .J^S^ pat-
enty 1863. — Loaned by Colt's Patent Fire- Arms Manufacturing (^Jom-
pany. Rim-tire. Firing pin worked by hammer on side. A small
cylinder revolves on its axis, and contains the charge. When fired
the firing pin presses this forward against the barrel.

147. Morsels system^ 1858. Wilson and Flather^s alteration of smooth
hore^ calihei* .58. — Essentially the same principle as the Moi*se. The
cartridge is rim-fire, fired by a side lock; the parts not so well propor-
tioned as in the Morse, and the breech not so securely locked as in that
arm. This arm is provided with an automatic ejector, rising from the
bottom of the receiver to throw out the cartridge after it has been with-
drawn by the extractor.

The Morse system is opened by raising a flap hinged at rear to butt
of barrel. This, by means of a link from the middle point, operates a
breechblock which travels back and forth in the cavity exposed by
raising the flap. A center-fire cartridge, with rubber base, was used,
one of the earliest of the metallic shells.

H8. FreemavUs breech-loading rifle, caliber .50, 1870, metallic car-
tridge.— Opened by swinging back breechblock by the thumb piece in
front. Locked by the position of the breechblock and by help of
hammer. Extraction and ejection by sliding extractor underneath seat
of block, which operates in connection with it.

149. SharjPs mrJ^V^^.— This works on the same principle as that
described for paper cartridges, except that it is adapted to metallic
shell, rim-fire cartridge. The nipple is removed, and the hammer
strikes a firing pin which slides obliquely on the right-hand side of the
sliding block. Many of these arms were issued to troops during the
rebellion, and were used in the cavalry after the war until replaced by
the Springfield breechloader; 80,512 guns of the Sharp system were

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1280 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

purchased by the United States Government for use in the civil
war.

160. All^s hreech'loading carbine^ hreeck slides in vertical mortise^
caliber .Jfi^ 1860. — Loaned by Colt's Patent Fire- Arms Manufacturing
Company. The breechblock slides up and down in a mortise just in
rear of the barrel, and it is operated by a lever also serving as a trig-
ger guard. The hammer is in the center of the stock and strikes a
firing pin passing through the breechblock.

151. National hreech-loading rifle^ .52 caliber^ rim-fire^ D. Maoris
patent^ 1861. — Loaned by Colt's Patent Fire-Arms Manufacturing
Company. The breechblock consists of two parts, the rear one slid-
ing in a vertical mortise, and the front one sliding to the rear, both
operated by a brass lever which also serves as a trigger guard. The
front one carries the extractor and also the tiring pin. The with-
drawal of the front section of the block by the lever forces the ham-
mer back to the half cock.

152. Cornhlaiti vifie^ with saber bayonet .^ caliber .45. — Partially
adopted by the Belgian Government. By depressing the lever the
breechblock slides downward to expose the chamber; the motion of
the lever cocks the hammer meanwhile.

153. Ballard rifle., caliber .5^. — By depressinga lever the breech-
block is caused first to recede from the barrel and then to drop down-
ward, revolving about a shifting horizontal axis at its lower and
rearmost corner. Hammer and lock concealed in the breechblock.
Rim-fire cartridge. The cartridge shell is extracted by means of a
sliding extractor beneath the barrel, moved independently by hand by
means of a finger piece projecting beneath the tip stock. Depressing
the stock leaves the hammer at half-cock. Block can not be depressed
when hammer is cocked. One thousand five hundred and nine of these
guns were purchased for use in the Army during the civil war.

15^. Nor7iy^8 alteration of tmczzh loader., calibei' .58. — Opened by
drawing back a lever pivoted underneath the stock in front of the trig-
ger guard. The lever has a link connecting it with the butt of the
barrel, so that by the above operation the entire barrel is slid forward
in its bed between the stock and the band. Loaded with a cartridge
inserted by hand into the chamber. Closed by reversing the move-
ment of the lever, which is secured when closed by means of a turn
screw at its forward end. Fired by the ordinary side lock, the face
of the hammer being prolonged and sharpened to strike the rim of the
cartridge. Cartridges extracted by the beveled stud on the face of
the breech screw.

155. Slim'p and IIa?ikins^8 breech-loadiyig rifle carbine^ caliber .52^
1859^ metallic cartridge. — Operated by a lever underneath the barrel.
Depressing the lever moves the barrel forward for the insertion of
the cartridge. Closed by reverse movement.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1281

156, Row^s hreech-loading carhins; harrd turns on longitvdinal
pin^ calihet* .50^ 186j^, — Loaned by Colt's Patent Fire-Arms Manu-
facturing Company. The barrel rotates to the right on a horizontal
longitudinal axis below the barrel. There are two triggers, one for
cocking and the other for firing, the hammer not being in sight.

157, Stevens* 8 shotgun^ 186 Jf,^ IS hare. — Loaned by Colt's Patent
Fire-Arms Manufacturing Company. Barrel rotates on horizontal
axis about 3 inches from breech, and extractor on under side of barrel
is worked when the breech of the barrel is thrown up.

158, Wesson hreech-loadin^ rifle carbine ^ caliher ,]fi^ 1856^ metallic
ca/rtridge. — The rear of barrel tilts up for loading, it being hinged to
the stock below. When the charge is in, the barrel is depressed and
held by a spring catch. To open the breech this catch is released by
a second trigger in front of the trigger for lock; 161 of these guns
were purchased by the United States Government for use in the civil
war.

159, Breech-loading rifle musket {unhnovm)^ 1863,, caliber ,50. —
Breechblock opened by hammer, closed by hand. By cocking the
hammer a parallel projection on the shaft of the tumbler strikes
against a hinged stud within the breechblock, first lifts it out of its
seat in the receiver, and then draws it back until the breech is fully
exposed. The hammer is stopped at the half-cock by a projection on
the side of the breechblock, against which it strikes. The block is
closed by hand. It is locked when in place by setting into its mortise
or seat in the receiver. One remarkable feature, especially, consid-
ering its date, consists in the absence of screws, the entire breech
mechanism, including the lock, having but one screw, and that one
free from many objections of its kind.

160, Roofs hreech-loading carhine^ lifting and sliding hreech^ caU-
her ,50^ 1867, — Loaned by Colt's Patent Fire-Arms Manufacturing
Company. Has a breechblock which is lifted slightly and then slides
to the rear like a bolt. The extractor slides to the rear under the
bolt, a lug on the bolt engaging it, when its motion is almost com-
pleted. The lock is adapted for rim-fire and there is a cocking ham-
mer on the side.

161, Root a^nd Lord^s muzzle loader,, converted to breechloader,, cali-
ber ,58^ 1868. — Loaned by Colt's Patent Fire-Arms Manufacturing
Company. Has a lifting and sliding breechblock, the operations being
done by hand. The ejector is drawn back by the block and the empty
shell knocked out by a lever from below. Rim-fire.

162, Joslyn carbvne^ caliber ,50. — Opens by turning block to the left.
Extractor on block.

163, Warner's breech-loading carbine^ caliher ,50, — Metallic cartridge,
brass frame. Breechblock hinged to right side and held down by a
catch on the left side. The extractor is worked separately by a sj

COL EXPO — 02 81 ^ , , ,

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1282 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARI>8.

underneath the barrel. Four thousand and one of these guns were
purchased by the United States Government for use in the civil war.
IGJf,, Berdan^s hreech-loading carbine^ breech swings sideways to the
left^ caliher ,1^5^ 1865. — Loaned by Colt's Patent Firearms Manufac-
turing Company. The breechblock has a longitudinal hinge on the
left side and can only be opened when the gun is at a halfcock. The
hammer is on the right side and strikes a plunger for rim fire. The
extractor is pulled to the rear by hand. The barrel is round and the
bore hexagonal. This gun fired a paper cartridge with brass rim and
base. There is a tubular cavity in the butt for tools.

165. Collin^s alteration of muzzle loader^ caliber .58. — ^The breech-
block is opened by liberating a spring catch on its right side and
swinging it over to the left. The extractor slides under the well of
the receiver and is moved by a separate trigger beneath the barrel.
This trigger has a cogged section on its upper surface, which meshes
into an intermediate pinion between itself and the cogged lower sur-
face of the extractor. This causes a pull on the trigger to slide the
extractor backward.

166. Axtstrian Wemdl rijle., caliber .^5, /57^, saber bayonet. — ^!Fired
by side lock. The breechblock swings on an axis below the line of the
barrel, but parallel thereto, and it has a slot when rotated for the inser-
tion of the ammunition. This is turned by means of a thumb piece.
A spiral groove in the shaft serves to work the extractor.

167. Peabody breech-load inq riile^ caliber .IfB. — This is the type gun
of the class with breechblock hinged in rear and dropping in front to
expose the cartridge chamber, and its principle is the foundation of
the Martini-Henry. It is operated by depressing the guard lever,
which is hinged in front and provided with a short arm extending up
and engaging in a notch in the bottom of the block. The movement of
this arm to the rear forces down the front end of the block. The nose
of the block strikes the arm of an extractor hinged below and drives
the cartridge shell back with force; closed by a reverse motion of
the lever. When closed the block is held up by the short arm of the
lever acting as a brace. This has a back-action side lock of usual
pattern, with exterior hammer striking a curved firing pin running
obliquely through the block. This arm was used extensively and
effectively b}' the Turks in the recent Turko-Russian war.

168. Werder hreech-loading rifie^ Bavarian^ caliber .IfB. — This has a
falling breechblock hinged in rear like the Peabody. It is held up by
an arm attached to a small lever in front of the trigger. Pressing this
lever forward allows the front of breechblock to drop to open the
breech. The hammer swings centrally in rear, and strikes a firing pin
running lengthwise through the bolt. When the block is down,
drawing back the hammer not only cocks it, but closes the breech by
tilting up the block.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1283

169. Lee g^m^ ccdiher .^5, 1875^ opened Jyy pressing fonoard the
hammer, — ^The breechblock in this gun and the next one is hinged in
rear, falling in front like the Peabody, but the block is depressed and
raised by pressure on the hammer, which is placed centrally in rear of
the block and which acts on a longitudinal firing pin. In this piece,
when the hammer is down, pressing forward on the hammer throws
down the front of the block to the position of loading, where it is held
b3^ the lip of the extractor engaging over its forward end. Inserting
the cartridge moves the extractor forward and lets the block move up
under the action of an extension of the mainspring. The block is
held up by a projection on the rear portion of the trigger.

170. Lee gun^ caliher .4^, 1875^ opened hy Iialf cocking Jiammer. —
A link, pivoted to the front end of the hammer piece, engages the
under side of the block, so that drawing back the hanuner to halfcock
pulls down the block, which is held down, as described for Lee gun No.
62. The operation of closing is the same in the two guns. In both
the motions of loading are greatly simplified. A still greater simpli-
fication of breech mechanism, devised by Col. J. M. Whittemore about
the same time, provided for pulling the trigger before the breech
was closed, the breech closing before the firing pin could strike the
cartridge.

171. Martini' nenry rifle., caliber .J^S. — Very similar to the Peabody
mechanism. Its main peculiarity consists in the concealed lock cocked
by the depression of the lever in opening. An indicator on the right
side serves to show the position of the "cock," and a sliding safety
piece, also on the side, serves to secure the hammer. Has a long saber
bayonet.

17^. Fi/oe guns^ sh/noing modifl^cationa of the Remington system. —
In this, the breech is closed by a block revolving backward on an
axis below, perpendicular to barrel. A cylindrical shoulder at the
base of the hammer in rear is made to support this block. The
specimens show different modifications — Benton, Laidley, etc. — of the
locking device, to give security from premature explosion or to render
the opening easier. Twenty thousand guns of the Remington system
were purchased by the United States Government for use in the civil
war.

173. German Mauser rifle., caliher .4^, 1870., for saber hayonet. —
The breech action is similar to that of the later forms of needle gun,
but the needle is abolished and a firing pin substituted, as the piece is
used with central-fire metallic cartridges. An extractor, working in a
slot in the left side of the shoe, is fastened to the bolt, projecting
forward. The needle gun had been much improved before the change
was made. The earlier ones required to be cocked by the hand before
the bolt could be tunied and drawn out. In later patterns the opera-
tion of turning the bolt cocks the piece. The nose of the bolt is he' ^

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1284 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

from turning, and this steadier the striking mechanism. One great
improvement shown in this bolt is the camming action obtained in
turning the bolt at the end in closing and at the start in opening.
This is obtained by having the top of housing beveled off to the right
in front of the receiver so that a rib projecting forward along the bolt
from the handle shall strike it and be guided by it Besides giving
greater power in starting the extraction of the cartridge, this makes the
sliding and turning of the bolt practically one continuous movement.
This improvement is attributed to B. B. Hotchkiss.

17 1^. French graa rifie^ caliber .j^SS^ modd^ 187 ^^ — ^This is the develop-
ment of the Chassepot, as adapted to the metallic cartridge. The rub-
ber washer f onnerly used as gas check is therefore omitted as unnec-
essary, and a heavy extractor placed on the bolt. The camming action
above described for the Mauser bolt is here secured by a groove at the
right side of the bolt, curved up at the rear. A screw projecting into
the receiver through the housing on that side entera this groove, act-
ing to turn the bolt.

175. IHerie or Glisenti rifle. — ^This is a bolt gun, and the special
peculiarity is that the trigger extends to the rear of the bolt, so as to
be operated by the thumb instead of the forefinger.

176. Va7i Choat^s hreech-loadhig rifle^ caliher .4^, 1869. — Loaned by
Clolt's Patent Fire Arms Manufacturing Company. A bolt gun with
rotating handle, which engages lug for locking and taking the strain.
The gun is cocked by withdrawal of bolt, and has also a second trigger
for cocking.

177. BerdarUB hreech-loading rifle^ caliber .4^^ Rvssian army^ ^'Slam-
bang.^^ — Loaned by Colt's Patent Fire Arms Manufacturing Company.
Has a rotating and sliding bolt. The extractor is on top, and it rotates
with the head of the bolt. The lock has a full cock only, and cocking
is performed by pushing bolt forward. Can also be cocked by hand.
The bolt pushes way in and turns squarely down, with no screw motion
forward, as in the Mauser and Chassepot guns.

178. Beamnont 7mi8het^ Ilolldnd^ caliber* .^5. — Presented to the
United States by the Government of the Netherlands in 1872. A bolt
gun. Cocked automatically by turning up the handle to open the
breech. It operates otherwise very much as the Chassepot.' This
has a spiral spring. A safety catch on the right side of the receiver
locks the bolt in place after loading, and permits the arm to be carried
without danger either of accidental opening or of discharge.

179. Palmer carbine^ caliber .50^ 1865, — Bolt gun with side lock.
Instead of being secured like an ordinary door bolt, as in the needle
gun and Chassepot, the bolt has a sectional screw at the rear end,
engaging, when turned, with corresponding screw sections in the
receiver. Essentially the same as the ''French breech screw"
described under 3.2-inch rifle. Rim-tire cartridge. Spring extractor

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lying on bolt and fastened to it. The bolt revolves independent of
extractor. Ejection accomplished by a side lever thrown outward by
a spring as the shell passes it. Fired by ordinary side lock, the ham-
mer striking cartridge directly on rim. One thousand and one of
these arms were purchased for use of Army during the civil war.

180, Lindm£r^8 hreech-loadhig rifie^ caliber ,537^ Atiatrian^ Tnetallw
cartridge^ 1867. — Loaned by Colt's Patent Fire Arms Manufacturing
Company. Same method of securing bolt, with a side hanuner for
striking firing pin. Rim fire. The bolt has an extractor on its lower
surface traveling in a groove in the bottom of the receiver.

181, Ward Burton rijle^ caliber ,50^ models 1870,, alteratixm ofnvuzzle-
loading Spring-fidd, — Same method as above of securing bolt. Lock
concealed in bolt. Self-cocking by operation of loading. Ejector, a
pin driven out of front face of bolt when well back. Issued for expe-
rimental trial in the field with the Springfield Remington and Sharp's
arms. One thousand of each.

18^, Berdan^s breech-loading carbine^ breechblock syringing up on
front hinge,, caliber ,4^^ 1869, — Loaned by Colt's Patent Fire Arms
Manufacturing Company. This gun has a breechblock and extractor
very similar to the Springfield rifle. The breechblock has a firing pin
extending only part way to the rear, and for the remaining distance
the block is counterbored to admit the striker, which acts axially in
extention of the barrel to the rear. The mechanism has a half and
full cock, but the block can only be opened when the gun is at full
cock. Adopted by Russia.

183, Russian Berdan breech-goading rifle,, with bayonet^ caliber .4^,
1870, — Similar to the above.

18 Jf, Braervdlin AXbini Hjle^ caliber .^5, 1868, — Presented by Bel-
gian minister. The breechblock is hinged in front at top of barrel as
in Springfield breechloader. It is locked in place when closed by a
bolt connected with a hammer, which entered an axial cavity in the
block. The firing pin lies forward of this cavity, and is struck by the
bolt when the hammer falls. Opening the breechblock operates a
double extractor, which is without an accelemtirig device. This arm
is used by the line of the Belgian army. The first Berdan rifle adopted
by the Russian Government is a combination of the Braendlin Albini
and the Chassepot. The lock is in line of barrel, and it is worked by
a spiral spring. Berdan's later model is a bolt gun. . He also invented
a double-jointed block, which is claimed to be the basis of the present
Springfield model.

186, Austrian Womzel rifle^ caliber ,oi, 1870, — Action similar to that
of Braendlin Albini. By cocking the hammer a bolt attached to the
tumbler ia drawn back from its cavity in the body of the breechblock.
The breechblock is then raised by the handle on its right. The bolt
above referred to locks down the breechblock against the sti*ain of the

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1286 REPOM OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

discharge. The extractor slides along the side of the receiver, being
connected with a projection on one of the hinge pieces of the breech-
block forward of the joint. The projection is cam-shaped, and bears
against a flat spring on the side of the receiver. This spring tends to
keep the breechblock ojien until forcibly shut. The hammer strikes a
special firing pin, traversing the block diagonally to the lowest point
on the face of the breechblock. The cleaning implements accompany
this piece.

186. Swiss MilXbank Ansler^ caliber .^5, 1870. — Essentially like the
Springfield rifle, the cam latch in the gun stretching across the full
width of the receiver. Browned barrel and mountings. It has no
spring. There is no ejecting device. The hammer has no half-cock.

187. Springfield rifle musket., caliber .50., model 1862. — Altered on
Allin's plan. Leaf spring ejector stud. Five thousand of these guns
were made in 1866, as soon as the I'eturn of peace permitted the atten-
tion of the Ordnance Department to be directed from the question of
the immediate supply of the most easily manufactured arms. The arm
is the first of the series of alterations of the muzzle-loading rifle musket
which have developed into the Springfield rifle, caliber .46, of the pres-
ent day. It is opened by raising the cam latch by means of the thumb
piece, as at present, fired by a side lock in the same way. It differs
from the present gun mainly in the detail of its parts, and in the
extractor. This slides back and forth in a groove cut in the side of the
barrel. Upon its upper edge it bears a rack, into which meshes a series
of similar teeth in a curved arm running up from the front of the
breechblock. A spring serves to draw it back. The objection to this
arrangement was its delicacy, and the liability of the stock to being
blown away through the cut made for the extractor, in case the car-
tridge head should burst.

188. MlllbanJc's alteration of Sprlngfidd muzzle-loader., caliber .58^
model 1866. — Block on side hinged in front, swings to the right and
forward. Block is locked by point of hammer.

189. Miller'' H alteration of Springfield m^izzU-loader., caliher .68^
model 1866. — The breechblock, which is hinged above the barrel, is
made with an L-shaped ann covering the mouth of the chamber, and
provided with a tenon entering a mortise in the bottom of the receiver.
This mortise is a little longer than the tenon, and receives the lower
end of a vertical bolt sliding in the back surface of the breechblock.
When this bolt is down, the mortise is filled and the breech can not be
opened. When it is lifted, sufficient space is given for the tenon to
clear the end of the mortise in opening. A spring tends to keep the
bolt always down. A projecting arm at its forward end moves a
sliding extractor in the side of the barrel.

190. Springfield rifie musket^ caliber .50., model 1866. — Differs from
Allin's alteration in the greatest strength of its parts, and in the

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WORLD^S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1287

extractor, which consists of a U-shaped spring against the side of the
receiver. One point of this spring projects into the receiver and
catches against the rim of the cartridge as the cartridge is passed into
the chamber. Closing the breechblock compresses this spring, which
is released on opening with sufficient force to throw out the empty
shell. The caliber of this barrel is reduced from .58 to .60 by the
insertion and bi'azing of a lining tube.

191, Springjldd rifle musksty calibe7' ,50^ model 1868, — The main
point of the improvement over the last arm consists in the use of a
separate receiver for the barrel and parts of the mechanism, and in the
improvement of the extractor, which is the same as that now employed,
a lever turning on hinge pin and started positively by the block, the
motion being completed by an ejector spring acting on the extractor.

19^. Sprvngfidd rifle Tmisket,^ caliher .60^ model 1870^ E, S, Allifi^s
improved center lock, — The essential feature of this consists in its dis-
pensing with the number of parts forming the ordinary side lock.
The mainspring in this case lies under the receiver. The other parts
lie beneath the tang of the breech screw.

193, Springfield rifle " Officer^ s'^'* model,, 1873^ caliber .i6, — Detacha-
ble pistol grip, checked stock, peep and globe sight.

191/,, Sprimgiield '^Markmnan^s^^ ^^? model 1873^ caliber ,If5, — Pistol
grip, peep and globe sight, covered front sight with level attached.

195, Twenty Springfield carbines,^ service tnodel^ 188i^ caliber ,J^^
Bujfingtan sight, — A description of this sight is given later on.

196, Twenty Spi^higfield rifies,, service mx>del,, 188^-^ caliber ,^2^
with Buffington sight,

197, Two Springfield rifles^ with ramrod bayonets^ one bayonet rounds
latent 7nodel^ 1886^ the other trnungvlar^ 1873, — See Hall's carbine for
note of very early form of ramrod bayonet. The rod fits in the ram-
rod groove, and when slipped forward to serve as bayonet it is held
by spring catches.

198, Springfield long^arrel carbine^ neio modd.^ caliber ,1^5^ experi-
mental^ 1^87, — Barrel 24 inches long. Stock runs nearly whole length
of barrel. Has no lower band. Buffington sight.

199 SpringfiAd h^eech-loading shotgun^ model 1881,, 20 5^^.— This
IS a single-barrel gun. Two are issued to each company in service,
for hunting puiposes.

200 Keltonh hammeiless Springfield rifle,, model 1887. — In this model
the lock is concealed in the breechblock. Opening the block compresses
the firing spring by means of a side lever and arm. The sear projects
below the block and catches in the trigger. For note of another
hammerless device, see Clemens's magazine Springfield gun, under
head of '' Repeating arms."

Wl. Spnngfield rifie, caliber .Iff},, trowel bayonet,

Spiingfield rifie,, caliber ,30^ model i^^i.— This is an experi-

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1288 BEPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

mental gun made for trial in competition with the magazine gun8 tried
before the army board in 1892. The special peculiarit}' in the breech
mechanism consists in the action of the locking cam of breechblock.
Instead of simply turning in its seat it has also a slight lateral motion,
the surface of cam and seat being tapered, so that the cam is set up
more closely in the seat, giving less danger of accidental opening.

MACHINERY USED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF SPRINGFIELD BREECH-
LOADING RIFLES, CALIBER .45.

This is conducted by workmen specially detailed for this purpose.
It was manifestly impossible to transfer to the exhibition the entire
plant of the armory, and only representative machines were selected
for the display. In this manufacture are shown types of every" proc-
ess used in gun manufacture, many of them originating in the armory
workshops. The United States national armory at Springfield, Mass.,
was first set in operation in 1794. Its production during the recent
civil war was at one time 1,000 new muzzle-loading rifled muskets per
day of twenty-four hours, employing about 3,000 men, at a cost of
about 112 per musket. Its capacity for breech-loading rifles has not
since been tested to extremes.

The successful development of the interchangeable system of parts
in the manufacture of firearms was first made at United States arsenals.
Attempts had been made as early as 1717 in France, but they^ were
abandoned in 1732 as impracticable; again taken up in 1785 by Gri-
beauval, they were abandoned after a trial of ten years. In 1792 a
lathe was used in France to turn the exterior of barrels, except the
flats, which had to be filed. In 1816 Blanchard, at the Springfield
Armory, introduced lathes for turning the barrels, flats and all. In
1817 Hall, at Harpers Ferry arsenal, succeeded in making his breech-
loading gun with parts interchangeable. Eli Whitney had previously
used this method for certain parts.

In 1820 Blanchard, at Springfield Armor}^, introduced his lathe for
turning stocks with a guide for the cutters. As late as 1862 English
Enfield arms bought for use in this country were lac^king in inter-
changeability of pails, even the bayonets being specially fitted to par-
ticular guns. The gun-making and cartridge-making machinery of
the United States has been copied by all nations.

Most of the machines shown here were adapted to making the .45
caliber Springfield rifle, as the manufacture of the new small-ciiliber
rifle was not sufficiently advanced to exhibit it and the method used on
the same. The onl}^ machine in this exhibit for the new gun is that
for drilling the barrels. The preparations for the manufacture of the
new arm were begun at the armory in September, 1892. Such a change
of manufacture in an establishment of the magnitude of the Spring-
field Armor}'^ always involves an immense amount of detail and study

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1289

in developing the best methods of making each component piece of
the arm, of performing the operations upon each piece, of arranging
the tools and fixtures for these operations, and, finally, in preparing the
large number of gauges needed to verify the correctness of the work
and secure interchangeability of parts. The total number of parts in
the .45 caliber Springfield rod-bayonet rifle is eighty-four, and in the
manufacture of that arm, omitting the stock, there were employed
449 "fixtures" and 1,097 "gauges." The new magazine rifle has 88
parts, or four more than the .45 caliber Springfield single loader.
The manufacture of the .45 caliber rifle was brought to a close during
the month of June, with the termination of the fiscal year.

All this machinery, including that for cartridge making and the testing
machines, was driven by a 25-horsepower Edison electric motor placed
under the floor, and run by electricity supplied by the Exposition.

396. Stock turning^ Blanchard lathe for turning irregular forms. —
This machine was devised by Thomas Blanchard and James Stillman,
employees of the national armory, Springfield, Mass., in about 1820.
The original machine obtained from the annory stands near the mod-
ern machine in the exhibit. It was the parent of a great variety of
similar machines used in turning spokes, ax handles, shoe lasts, etc.,
which have been of inestimable benefit to American manufacturers,
and the guide principle used in it is followed in profiling and bedding
maehinas described below.

The stock, having been sawed, centered, and roughly turned at the
tip, is brought to this machine, being set by the center marks in the
butt, the tip being passed through a revolving holder and clamped.
A little below the part to be turned and parallel to it is placed an iron
pattern called the "former" (see profiling machine No. 405), and
made of the shape of the finished stock. Rising behind the "former"
and the rough stock is a rocker lever, the lower end of which, near
the floor, is traversed by a shaft running theJ length of the machine.
This permits it to swing back and forth at right angles to the work,
which, with the former, has a motion of translation in the direction of
the length of the machine. The rocker carries near its upper end two
wheels of equal diameter, one a blank wheel of iron called the "guide-
wheel," resting against the iron "former;" the other, consisting of
several spokes armed at their extremities with shai-p steel cutters, occu-
pying a similar position higher up against the wooden stock. The
cutter wheel has an independent connection for giving it an extreme
velocity of rotation. Now the function of the machine is clear.
Being set in motion, the gun stock and former both move slowly about
parallel axes and at the same time pass along in front of the revolving
cutter and guide wheel. The " former," acting upon the guide wheel,
throws the cutter above it out and in, according as the guide wheel
happens to rest upon projections or retired points upon the surface of

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1290 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

the "former." The result is that the cutters follow the movements
of the guide wheel, and, having also, as before described, a relative
motion of translation along the stock, reduce it by a long spiral cut to
the form' desired. This operation is repeated in the finish turning
which, making a fine and narrower groove, leaves less prominent ribs
to be scraped off by hand by the finishers. The operation of turning
the tip, before referred to, is conducted in the same way, and it was
therefore omitted from the exhibit, the operation shown being of
greater interest on account of the great irregularity of the butt portion
of the stock.

397. Barrd-heddmg machine. — For cutting out the groove for the
barrel in the stock. This is a complicated machine with many cutters.
The stock is held horizontally on a platform, and the flat surface in
which the groove is to be cut is uppermost, the platform having a slid-
ing motion lengthwise of the stock. Vertical revolving cutters are
fastened above to a transverse rack, having a horizontal sliding motion
across the stock. One cutter after another is brought over the stock
and lowered to position, and the stock is moved lengthwise under it
until the proper cut is made or the desired holes bored. To finish
smoothing the groove a horizontal revolving cutter is used, fastened
to the end of an arm hinged on a ball and socket joint to the table in
prolongation of the small end of the stock, and projecting along the
stock. The stock is run forward under this cutter, and by means of a
treadle the workman rocks the cutter back and forth in the groove.
This operation over the stock is run under another cutter, tuniing
about a horizontal axis, and the end of the groove is squared up for
the breech of the barrel.

Of special note in the bedding machines, this and those described
below, is the arrangement for shifting belts to and from the pulleys of
the different cutters, so that only the cutter to be used is in motion.

398. Stock-planitig Tnachine. — For facing off the outlines of the stock
to fit in the lock-bedding and guard-bedding machines. The stock, rest-
ing on a guide plate hinged to swing and slide horizontally on a table,
is brought in contact with rapidly revolving vertical cutters, the edges
of the guide plate serving to keep the stock at the proper distance from
the cutter.

399. LocJc-hedding machine. — For cutting out the seat of the lock in
the gunstock. This operates precisely upon the principle of the profil-
ing machine before described. The only essential difference being that
in this case, on account of the greater variety in the diameters of the
holes and curves to be produced, and the consequentl}" increased num-
ber of cutters and guide pins, the latter are arranged upon a reel
instead of side by side, as in the profiler, so as to save room. The
arrangement for automatically shifting the belt on and off the spindle
is especially interesting. Cost, ^1,900. Use, bedding gunlocks. Made
by Ames Manufacturing Company, Chicopee, Mass.

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WORLD^S OOLTtMBlAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1291

IfiO, Guard-hedding machine. — For cutting out the seat of the
guard plate in the stock. This operates in a similar way to that for
lock bedding, but fewer cutters are needed, and a rocking motion is
given to the stock as it moves lengthwise, so that the cut will follow
the curve of the stock where the guard plate is to rest.

IfOl. Assembling bench. — Designed to illustrate the manner of
assembling or putting together the component parts of the Springfield
breech-loading rifle, caliber .45; also to manifest the complete inter-
changeability of its parts.

4^. Drop hammei\ — The hammer, weighing 400 pounds, is raised
by means of the *' belt-board," a narrow board fastened to the top of
the weight, and passing between two rollers at the upper end of the
ways. These rollera revolve in opposite directions, and ordinarily
without touching the board. By means of a treadle the rollers are
brought together, and, pinching the board between them, they raise the
hammer to the required height. It may be held there by a pawl upon
one of the ways and dropped with a fixed blow, or may be let fall from
an intermediate point with a varying blow. The other principal fea-
tures of this machine are the solid ways, with their adjustment for
wear, and the continuous treadle. This machine represents the opera-
tion of breaking down or shaping, forging, or bending, hammers,
butt plates, and side-screw washers. Lead is used for this purpose in
the exhibit, instead of bars of hot iron and steel, used at the armory.
Loaned by Merrill Brothers, Brooklyn, N. Y.

IfiS. Milling machines. — The revolving '* mills" are provided with
teeth which, as they turn,, cut upon the work a profile matching their
own. By suitable connections the work is gradually drawn beneath
them and this profile indefinitely repeated across the area of the
whole piece. Thus a cylindrical mill cuts a plane surface, as seen in
the machine-milling lock plate. A barrel-shaped mill cuts a hollow
surface whose elements are straight lines at right angles to the axis of
the mill. By combining cutters of different form upon the same shaft
a great variety of surfaces can be cut. Even this arrangement is
varied, however, in the two machines engaged in milling curved butt
plates. Here, in order to suit the wavy form of the line of the plate,
and to turn the corner at the junction of the sole and the tang, a
reciprocating motion is given to the fixture holding the butt plate as
it p^oes under the mill. The fixture holding the work is hinged at its
forward end on a horizontal axis. Beneath the upper flap so formed,
and fastened to it, is a web cut out to correspond to the line of the
butt plate. As this web moves on it passes over a stationary cross-
bar, which causes both the web and the butt plate above it to rise or
fall under the mill according as the web projects or is cut away.
This is called a bridge-milling fixture. The work is gradually carried
under the mill by a screw motion, which stops automatically as soon
as the cut is completed. The work is then rapidly withdrawn by

1292 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

hand. A similar rocking movement is seen in the machine for bed-
ding stock for guard plate. Cost, $270 each. Works upon butt
plates, receivers, hinges, pins, washers, lock plates, etc. Made by
Ames Manufacturing Company, Chicopee, Mass. Specimen boards
show all the shapes milled in making the .45-caliber Springfield rifle,
with the cutters therefor.

Ifili^ Cflmnp milling ^nachine. — For cutting out irregular forms of
a circular cross section whose axis is a straight line. For this work
generally a wire or a blank screw is clamped firmly in a holder con-
nected with the headstock, and this is made to revolve between a pair
of stationary I'aws provided with longitudinal teeth, and formed so as
to partly inclose the work. The file of the jaws corresponds with the
form desired to be given to the piece. Cost, $270. Used in making
the firing-pin, head of the ramrod, circumferential grooves in end of
i-amrod, mill forged butt-plate screws preparatory to cutting thread,
etc. Made by R. Hoe & Co., New York and Boston.

i05. Profiling machine {sometimes called edging-machine), — This
works on the guide principle illustrated in the Blanchard lathe for
turning irregular form. Its use is to edge off pieces of irregular
form. These pieces are laid flat and clamped in place on a hori-
zontal platform, having a sliding motion forward and back. Verti-
cal revolving cutters made like the cutters of the milling machine
project fi-om an overhead frame, which has a sliding transverse
motion, and the cutter's are made to run around the edge of the piece,
the cutters being guided by guide-pins which project downward
parallel to the cutters from the overhead frame, these pins being made
to follow the edges of a flat stud pattern or "former" fixed to the
table by the side of the "work." The pins can be lowered so that the
guide-pin will enter the "former," and when in position a catch upon
the frame keeps them from rising. Having set the cuttera in motion,
they are brought against the work at any desired point by means of the
two handles on the table, one of these handles giving a longitudinal
motion to the fixture holding the work, and the other handle giving a
transverse motion to the frame to which the cutter and guide-pins are
fastened. The perfect parallelism of motion thus obtained between
the cutter and its guide-pin secures a perfect reproduction of the
former. The second cutter and guide-pin are employed to finish
the cut roughed out by the first pair. The guide-pins are made taper
at the portion in contact with the " former," so that by driving them
in or drawing them back the cutter may be adjusted so as to trim off
less or more of the work. Cost, $545. Works upon lock and butt-
plates, hinge-pin. Made by Wood & Light, Worcester, Mass.

406. Bain'el-twrning lathe^ second twming, — Resembles an ordinary
engine lathe except in the following points: The turning tool is made
to approach and recede from the center of the barrel, so as to give it

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WOBLD's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1293

its form by means of a tapered slide upon which the outer end of the
slide-rest travels. Opposite the high part of this guide the tool is
thrown in toward the center; at the low point it is drawn back from
it. The progress of the slide-rest, when the end of the barrlBl is
reached, throws out of gear a clutch upon the head of the lathe and
brings the operation automatically to a close. For the first turning
the barrel is supported by a rest at its middle point. At this point
upon the barrel is cast a ring of Babbitt metal truned off from the
center of the bore. The barrel is second-turned without the use of
this ring, as in this case, but a light chip is removed. A can, fastened
to the slide rest, travels with and keeps a stream of water constantly
running upon thetool. Cost, $440; use, turning barrels. Made at
United States Armory, Springfield, Mass.

Jifft. Barrel-drilling machine. — ^This machine marks a decided change
in the manufacture of the gun barrel, rendered necessary by the
adoption of a very small caliber. It is used for the caliber .30 barrel,
in which it is necessary to drill a small hole through the entire length
of the barrel. The special peculiarity of the machine lies in the drill,
which is a twist drill perforated throughout its length by a hole
through which oil is pumped to the point, this oil forcing back the
chips of steel through a channel in the side of the drill; but for this
a drill would clog in the long hole of such small diameter. The drill
is held from turning, and it has only a sliding motion forward to press
it against the revolving barrel piece to be drilled. This machine was
made by Pratt & Whitney. In making steel barrels of larger caliber the
cylinder of steel used was bored through before it was rolled to full
length, and a mandrel inserted in the hole was held at the point under
the rolls, preventing the reduction of the hole; but the new bore is so
small that this method is impracticable, since such a small mandrel
would become quickly heated in the hot barrel prepared for rolling.
The barrels ai-e therefore rolled out solid to full length and then
drilled as described.

IfiS. Straightening stand. — Inasmuch as the operations of boring,
etc., are apt to leave the bore not absolutely cylindrical, it is straight-
ened by laying the barrel across the two blocks on the anvil belonging
to the stand and rapping it with a hammer. The irregularity of the
bore is ascertained by looking through it at a horizontal line upon a
ground glass shade, turning the barrel meanwhile upon its own axis.
The image of this line is reflected upon the polished sides of the bore,
in straight converging lines, if the bore be true. If not true, a wave
is observed at the crooked point, which is rendered more evident by
the revolution of the barrel. The straightening has all to be done
before the barrel is rifled; after that the grooves interfere with the
clearness of the lines.

J^9. Biflvng machine. — The three cutters are arranged in slots at

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1294 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

equal distances apart around the head of the hollow rifling rod, which is
made to reciprocate longitudinally through the barrel by means of an
endless chain connected with the driving pulley. A transverse rotaiy
motion is also given by means of a rack attached to the side of the frame.
The combination of these two motions produces the spiral twist or
rifling. In order to produce uniformity in the cut at each stroke of the
rifling rod, the bell-crank lever on the side causes the barrel to make
one-third revolution. This brings each one of the three cutters suc-
cessively into every one of the three grooves. As the rod moves for-
ward a projection on the ways strikes against a sliding transverse arm
upon the carriage which carries a pawl and causes it to give a partial
revolution to a toothed wheel at the end of the rifling rod. This wheel
is connected with a spindle running longitudinally through the rod,
having a conical termination at its further end, just beneath the cutters
on the rifling head. (A sectional specimen is shown with rifling
machine.) As this wheel revolves it pushes the conical head farther
in under the cutters and forces them out slightly so as to deepen their
cut in the barrel. As the rifling tool emerges from the barrel it passes
through a jet of oil forced up by a pump attached to the driving pulley,
which effectually washes off the chips and lubricates it for a fresh
stroke. The oil runs back and is used over and over again. Twist,
one turn in 22 inches. Made by R. Hoe & CJo. , New York and Boston.
Cost, 11,100. Use, rifling barrels of caliber .45 rifle.

If,10. Engine lathe. — An ordinary engine lathe used in making repairs
to tools, fixtures, etc. Cost, $320. Used in making and repairing of
tools.

jm. Cu7nming portable forge^ with hand hlower. — ^This consists of a
circular wrought-iron basin connected by a wrought-iron pipe with a
small revolving hand blower in the rear, and supported upon legs of
gas pipe. The whole varies in weight from 90 to 220 pounds, accord-
ing to model, and is readily separated into parts and packed in small
space. The blower furnishes a strong and continuous blast by an occa-
sional turn of the crank. There are no chains, belts, or bellows, and
all running parts are protected from dirt and damage by a gear cover.
Loaned by David Gumming, 30 North Desplaines street, Chicago, and
used to great advantage for blacksmith work and repairs.

Iil2. Polishing stand. — ^The " buff wheels" are made of wood, covered
with a tire of leather secured by pegs. The leather is coated with glue
and rolled in powdered emery or corundum. Used in polishing various
components of arms, many varieties of wheels being used. Works
upon butt plates and bayonets. Made at United States Armory,
Springfield, Mass.

i.13. Rotary filing machine. — For smoothing out the interior of the
*' receiver " of the Springfield rifle. A roughened steel cylinder or file
is revolved rapidly around a longitudinal axis, the file projecting from

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1295

the end of the shaft, and the tubular piece to be smoothed is pushed on
over the file.

in,. Emery ^Wn<^.— Consists of a spindle revolving at a very high
velocity, upon which are fastened wheel, composed of emery, or corun-
dum, and glue pressed up in a mold. Used in grinding the edges of all
sorts of cutting tools, particularly for the mills, the true cylindricity
of which is preserved by their being held during the grinding on an
arbor upon which they revolve. This special feature is not represented
on this machine. Made at United States Armory, Springfield, Mass.
Use, grinding cutters.

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KRUPP EXHIBIT.

BY

^\r. O. DODGE.

COL EXPO— 02 82 1297

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KRUPP EXHIBIT.

By W. C. Dodge.

This exhibit is remarkable for its extent and the variety of guns
exhibited, ranging from the largest and most powerful gun in exist-
ence to the smallest capable of being transported by men, thus pro-
viding for every conceivable military condition. The special points of
excellence are quality of material, excellence of workmanship, pro-
portion of parts by which the several guns are adapted to the special
service for which they are designed, and their effectiveness, as shown
by the diagrams and tables exhibiting their ballistic qualities. The
following is a brief description of the several guns composing the
exhibit:

LABOE COAST OUN.

This is the largest gun in existence, its weight being 120.46 tons,
length 45.93 feet, length of bore 41.66 feet, caliber 16.64 inches, num-
ber of grooves 120. Its barrel is a jacketed built-up tube of special
gun steel, with Krupp's round-edged breech closure, with traversing
screw, steel ring and plate obturater, and fired by friction fuse.

It is mounted on a front pivot carriage with mechanism for lateral
adjustment, the gun being elevated by toothed gearing, operated by
hand wheels. The recoil is regulated by hydmulic brakes, the gun
carriage being run out by a chain windlass. Maximum elevation 10^
degrees, depression 4 degrees. It has a crane for lifting shot, with
ram, draw ropes, and windlass for loading. It fires cast-iron fuse
shells, steel ditto, steel armor shells, and steel shrapnels, weighing from
2204.6 to 2513. 2 pounds. Bursting chargesfrom 22.04to 143.29 pounds.
Powder charge 903. 89 pounds. Maximum penetration of wrought iron
3.53 feet near the muzzle, 3.26 feet at 1,000 yards, and 3.01 feet at 2,000
yards. Initial velocity 1,981.6 feet. It has been fired 16 shots.
The workmanship is fine and, taken as a whole, it is undoubtedly the
most superb piece of ordnance ever produced.

11-INCH COAST GUN.

This is similar to the preceding gun in construction, but has a length
of 40 calibers while the other is 35. Length, 36.75 inches; length of
bore, 83.99 inches; weight, 42.62 tons; 84 grooves. It is mounted on
a coast carriage and arranged for an elevation of 45 degrees. The ver-

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tical elevation is accomplished by hydraulic pressui-e operating on the
rear portion of the slide which is j[ournaIed at its front end. The f i*ame
and turntable are connected and rest on a ring of balls, there being a
stand on the turntable for the gun captain. This gun fires the four
styles of shells similar to the preceding. Weight of loaded projectile,
760.59 pounds; bursting charge, 4.49 to 7.61 pounds; powder charge,
352.74 pounds; initial velocity, 2,067 feet; penetration of wrought iron,
2 feet 10 inches at muzzle; 2 feet 6.74 inches at 1,000 yards and 2 feet
3.58 inches at 2,000 yards.

9.45-INOH OOAST GUN — OENTER-PTVOT CARRIAGE.

Construction of gun same as preceding. Caliber, 9.45 inches; length,
31 feet 6.13 inches, or 40 calibers; length of bore, 29 feet 1.75 inches;
weight, 30.51 tons. Carriage center pivoted, with hydraulic recoil
brakes located on outside of carriage in protected position, and so
arranged as to permit an elevation of 44 degrees. A portion of the
weight is supported on balls; lateral training by a pinion in a toothed
ring on the base; vertical training by worm gear and a toothed arc.
Minute training is effected by means of wonn gear that can be
thrown into or out of gear by the gun captain at will. The gun also
fires the four styles of shells previousl}'^ described. Weight of loaded
projectile, 353 to 474 pounds; bursting charges from 3.53 to 26.4
pounds; powder charge, 92.7 to 254 pounds. Initial velocity, 2,100
feet to 2,623 feet; penetration of wrought iron, near the muzzle, 29.5
inches; at 1,094 yards, 26.5 inches; at 2,187 yards, 23.13 inches.
The gun is remarkable for having made the longest range of any gun
in the world with a projectile of the same weight, viz, 22,120 yards,
or 12 miles and 1,000 yards. This was done April 28, 1892, at
Krupp's practice grounds at Meppen, and is well illustrated in the
accompanying diagram (p. 1301).

9.45-INCH FORTRESS AND ««EGE MORTAR.

This exhibit possesses the same merits as the guns previously
described. The barrel is mounted on a plate carriage, resting on a
fixed foundation with a center pivot, and without recoil. They are
arranged for transportation by means of an axle with two wheels and
a pole, or by the addition of a limber, as a four-wheeled vehicle. This
and the other sized mortars and howitzers are designed to use projec-
tiles corresponding in weight with those of the Krupp guns of same
caliber. Length of barrel, 59.85 inches; length of bore, 47.24 inches;
number of grooves, 28; weight, 1.72 tons; elevation, 60 degrees; initial
velocity, 656 feet; range, 3,645 yards; penetration of soil, 7 feet 6.5
inches to 8 feet 2.4 inches, according to elevation, making funnel-
shaped hole about 20-foot diameter at top. This mortar has been fired
266 times.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.
4.13-INCH FORTKESS AND SIEGE GCN.

1301

The barrel is a jacketed tube 12 feet .088 inches long; bore, 11 feet
.186 inches; caliber, 4.13 inches; 32 grooves; weight, 1,156 tons.
Maximum elevation, 35 degrees; depression, 5 degrees; mounted on a
wheeled carriage with brackets of plate steel; has double elevating

screw and hydraulic brakes for recoil. Gun fires cast-iron shells with
fuze, steel shells with fuze, steel armor shells, steel shrapnels and case
shots. Weight of projectile, 35.27 pounds, with bursting charge of
0.58. to 2.64 pounds; powder charge, 4.96 to 10.36 pounds; initial

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1302 REl'ORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

velocity, 1,591 to 2,034 feet; penetration of iron near the muzzle, 9.84:
inches; at 1,093 yards, 7.09 inches; at 2,187 yards, 6.12 inches. This
exhibit has been fired with full charge 1,843 rounds, showing great
power and endurance, rendering it a most valuable arm.

PORTABLE 2.95-INCH MORTAR.

This gun has a solid tube barrel with flat breech closure and remov-
able crank. It is designed for use on rough ground wherever a vertical
fire is desired, and is adapted to use the same ammunition as the
mountain and field gun of same caliber. Length of barrel, 1 foot 6.89
inches; of bore, 1 foot 2.57 inches; caliber, 2.95 inches; 12 grooves;
elevation, 45 degrees; depression, 25 degrees; weight of shells from
9.48 to 14.33 pounds, with bursting charge from 0.22 to 1.76 pounds;
charge, 0.44 pounds; velocity, 524. 6 feet to 656 feet; iungeat45 degrees
elevation, from 2,625 to 3,576 yards; weight of gun, 110.3 pounds; of
carriage, 106 pounds. It can be transported and seized by four men,
rendering it specially useful in rough or broken regions, and should
be considered in connection with the mountain gun.

2.95-INCH FIELD GUN.

The gun is constructed to use either a metallic cartridge or the
ordinary bag cartridges. In using metallic shells the gun is provided
with Krupp's quick-fire breech closure. When bag cartridges are
used, and a more intense ignition is required, an extended igniting
tube is used. With metallic shells, Krupp's fire lock or central firing
obturating device is used. Length of barrel, 6 feet 10.68 inches;
bore, 6 feet 28 inches; weight of barrel with breech closure, 683.42
pounds. Steel plate carriage, with automatic recoil brake, which also
serves as a brake on the march. Elevation, 20 degrees; depression, 5
degrees; weight of limber, empty, 1,124.3 pounds; of equipment, 101.4
pounds; number of packed projectiles, 36; weight, 515.8 pounds;
weight of projectile, 12.89 pounds; bursting charge, 0.198 to 0.308
pounds; powder charge, 1,124 pounds; initial velocity, 1,640 feet; range,
6,300 to 6,890 yards. The gun exhibited had been fired 322 shots,
with excellent results, as shown by a table accompan^'ing the exhibit

2.95-INCH LIGHT FIELD GUN.

This gun is designed for use midway between the larger gun and
the mountain gun. It has a jacketed tube, and is made with either the
flat-wedge breech closure and obturating ring for loose ammunition
or the quick-firing breech closure for metallic cartridges. Length of
barrel, 5 feet 10.87 inches; of bore, 5 feet 5.55 inches; weight of
gun, 518.09 pounds, and has 24 grooves. It is mounted on plate-steel
carriage with wheels weighing 573.20 pounds; accessories, 11.02

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WOKLD's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1308

pounds. It fires cast-iron shells, steel shrapnels, and cast shots.
Weight of projectiles, 9.48 pounds; powder charge, 0.639 to 1,764
pounds; initial velocity 1,394 to 1,509 feet; range, 5,470 to 5,900
yards.

2.95-INCH MOUNTAIN GUN.

This gun is designed for use in mountainous and broken regions
where wheeled vehicles can not be hauled, and the gun and its carriage
are so constructed as to be carried by three pack animals. Length of
barrel, 3 feet 2.38 inches; of bore, 2 feet 9.27 inches; weight of gun,
220.45 pounds; weight of carriage with wheels, 123.45 pounds; weight
of ammunition box, 28.66 pounds; packed ammunition, 83.77 pounds;
weight of projectile, 9.48 pounds; powder charge, 0.296 to 0.882
pounds; elevation, 20 degrees; depression, 10 degrees; i*ange, 4,265
yards at 20 degrees elevation. Its great range and accuracy, as shown
by accompanying diagrams of targets made, show it to be a remarkable
gun considering its light weight. It can be transported by three
mules when packed, or drawn by a single mule on an ordinary road.

2.36-INCH MOUNTAIN GUN.

This is a light gun intended for use in mountain districts with grape
shot. Weight of gun, 198.41 pounds; of carriage with wheels, 198.41
pounds; total, 396.82 pounds. Length of barrel, 3.28 feet; of bore,
2.88 feet; caliber, 2.36 inches; elevation, 20 degrees; depression, 5
degrees; weight of projectile, 5.18 pounds; powder charge, 0.441
pound; initial velocity, 918.6 feet; range, 3,720 yards.

2.95-INCH QUICK-FIRING GUN.

The gun exhibited has a jacketed tube, with Krupp's quick-firing
breech closure, with device for automatically firing on closing the
breech. Length, 6 feet 1.82 inches; bore, 5 feet 6.14 inches; caliber,
2.95 inches; 28 grooves; weight, 0.315 ton; fires 40 shots per minute.
The upper mount is of cast steel in one piece, mounted on rollers,
with casing on left side for worm wheel of elevating apparatus which
actuates a toothed arc on barrel. The frame is also of cast steel in
single piece, has hydraulic brakes, is mounted on rollers, and permits
training of gun to 150 degrees to each side, by means of worm gear.
The frame is provided with a shoulder piece with a guard for protec-
tion from the ejected shells, and has scales for both vertical and lateral
training of the gun. Elevation 6 degrees, depression 2 degrees, cor-
responding to loop hole or embrasure. Fires cast-iron fuse shells,
cast-iron ring shells, steel shrapnels, and case shots. Powder charge,
1,323 pounds in a bag inserted in brass case, secured to projectile
weighing 13.23 pounds; initial velocity, 1,640 feet; range, 4,156 yards.

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1«304 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

1.46-INCH BUSH GUN.

This gun is designed for use where it is not practicable to use the
mountain gun, and therefore has its several parts so proportioned that
they can be transported by men. It has vertical breech closure, and
uses bi'ass cartridge shells. It is mounted on trunnions in plate-steel
carriage, with pivot by which barrel can be rotated horizontal!}'.
Length of barrel, 4 feet .907 inch; weight, 88.18 pounds; weight of
carriage complete, 101.41 pounds; weight of shell, 0.99 pound; pow-
der charge, 0.154 pound.

2.4-INCH BOAT AND LANDING GUN.

This gun, designed for use in boats and for landing parties on shore,
is mounted on a caiTiage, in a frame having a pivot and ball bearings;
has limber connection also. Length of barrel, 4 feet .121 inch; of
bore, 3 feet 8.29 inches; 24 grooves; weight of gun, 232 pounds;
. mounting, 611.4 pounds; carriage, 750.4 pounds; screw elevation, 15
degrees; depression, 3 degrees; weight of projectiles, 6.6 pounds;
powdercharge, 0.882 pound; velocity, 1,168 feet; mnge at 30 degrees
elevation, 4,876 yards. The diagram of hits at target shows excellent
results.

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ORCHIDS.

BY .

1305

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ORCHIDS.

By F. Sander.

GROUP OP MISCELLANEOUS ORCHIIXS SHOWN BY MESSRS. PITCHER AND
MANDA, OF THE UNITED STATES NURSERIES, SHORTHILLS, N. J.

The exhibit in the great hall consists of 165 specimen orchids in
good medium-sized plants and specimens well grown, in good health
and condition. The largest specimens are:

Leelia purpurata. Fine variety; sepals and petals broad and flat; lip large and deep;

colored; the'specimen with about 80 bulbs; dark-green foliage, and well grown;

4 spikes of bloom.
Oncidiurn hastatum. Specimen in 15-inch pan with 5 flower spikes.
Leelia purpurata. In the way of Brysiana; very fine variety.
Cattleya mendelii. In 15-inch pan; variety in the way of Morgarise, but roee-

colored in sepals and petals; rosy purple blotch on lip; 5 spikes of flowers.
Cypripedium druryii. Fine specimen, having 5 growths; 2 flower spikes. A well-
grown plant.
Laelia purpurata. In 9-inch pot; specimen witli about 30 bulbs; variety good; plant

well grown.
Cattleya massise. In 9-inch basket, with 22 bulbs; sepals and petals rose; broad, and

good lip; light-colored, red center, and yellow veins and stripes.
Cattleya massiae. With 28 bulbs; the variety very good; sepals and petals rosy; lip

cream-colored, heavily fringed, broad: center dark rosy red.
Chysis bractescens. Specimen in 15-inch basket, having 26 bulbs and 2 flower spikes;

the plant very compact and well formed
Cattleya massise. Specimen with 23 bulbs and 3 flower spikes; the variety has the

lip marked in the way of aurorea; lip broad and well fringed.
Cattleya massia*. Specimen in 8-inch pot; sepals and petals deep red; lip very fine

dark crimson and heavily fringed; lower part of lip deep chocolate red; lip high

up into the throat, marked with the same uniform color; good shaped and

formed flower,
Cattleya massise. Three flower spikes; specimen in 9-inch basket; 4 flower spikes

on the plant; sepals and petals dark rose; lip with deep center and edged white.

Brassia verrucosa. Specimen in 6-inch basket, the flower spikes carry-
ing 8 flowers.
The collection also contains well-grown specimens of —

Aerides crispum. Several Odontoglossum pescatomi.

Oncidium crispum. Several Odontoglossum crispum.

28 plants of Epidendrum yitellinum. 60 plants of various sizes of Cattleya

Several Cattleya citrina. massise.

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4 Leelia purpurata.

2 Lfelia purpurata, smaller but fine va-

rietiefl.
OdontoglosBum odoratum.

Odontoglofisam cordatam.
Oncidium superbiens.
12 plants of Cypripedium lawrenoeanam
in 6-inch pots.

Cypripedium enrigne maulei.
Cypripedium eiliolare.
Cypripedium barbatum majus.

Also the following Cypripediums in flower:

Cypripedium druryii.
Cypripedium selligerum.
Cypripedium swanianum.
Cypripedium supercileare.

The firm of Pitcher & Manda, Shortbills, N. J., have also large
collections of orchids in the greenhouses in connection with the flori-
cultural depailment, and these specimens will keep up the floral dis-
play of orchids during the season; in all, there are in the greenhouses
about 1,500 plants and the varieties are as foUows:

Cypripedium domirianum.
Cypripedium lawrenceanum.
Odontogloesum harryanum.
Cypripedium eiliolare.
Oncidium cucullatum.
Cypripedium superciliare.
Cattleya gigas.
Cypripedium parish ii.
Cypripedium purpuratum.
Cypripedium harrisianum superbum.
Cypripedium albopurpureum.
Cypripedium calurum.
Dendrobium thyrsiflorum.
Oncidium papilio.
Oncidium kramerii.

Odontoglossum vexillarium.
Aerides fieldingii.
Odontoglossum citroemum.
Aendee quinquevulnerom.
Aerides odoratum. •
Vanda suavis.
Cattleya gigas sanderiana.
Cattleya maasiae.
Cattleya Trianse.
Cattleya citrina.
Trichopilia tortilis.
Odontogloesum Iseve.
Chysis bractescens.
Oneidium pubes.
Dendrobium farmerii.

There are also in this collection several very large specimens of
Cattleya flossise measuring some 2 and 3 feet in diameter and well fur-
nished with sound bulbs and foliage.

Orchids exhibited by the New York State are displayed in the hor-
ticultural buildings erected by the exhibitors opposite the horticultural
hall, and in all there are 125 well-grown specimens, some of them in
bloom, and others ready to flower as the summer season advances.
They promise a fine display, and to make the respective houses in
which they are placed attractive. They are:

Cattleya mendelii.

Laelia purpurata.
Oncidium cavendishiarum,
Laelia perennii.
F^aelia anceps.
Laeiia albida.
Laelia peduncularis.
Laelia autumnalis.
Oncidium papilio.
Laelia 3innabarina.
Epidendrum dichromum.
Laichopilia suavis.

Epidendrum ciliare.
Cattleya percivaliana
Cattleya torbesii.
Brassavola glauca.
Epidendrum parkinsonianum.
Brassavola nodot<a.
Cattleya specioeissima.
Miltonia clowesii.
Oncidium lanceanum.
Cattleya bowringnana.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1809

Oncidiam sphacelatum.
Miltonia cloweeii.
Braasia verruooea.
Cattleya trianse.
Miltonia spectabile.
Cattleya holfordii.
Schomburghia imdulata.
Cattleya imperialifl.
Dendrobiam pierardii.
Dendrobium thyrsifloram.
Cattleya akinnerii.
Dendrobium nobile.
Cattleya crispa.
Schombuiighia tibicinis.
Epidendrum nemorale.
Cattleya leopoldii.
Cattleya schilleriana.
Cattleya gigas.
125 plants in all.

There are also some 2,000 orchids imported and exhibited by the
Mexican and Central American states. These specimens are partly
very large and fine, and illustrate the way and manner in which
orchids grow in their native homes. The quaintness of the form and
shape of these exhibits attracts much attention from visitors, and is
instructive and full of interest.

Many of the plants are in bloom, and quantities of the spider orchids
{Broad verrucosa) have produced flower spikes 3 and 4 feet long.
These exhibits consist of —

Schomburghia tibicinis growing on native

wood about 3 feet high.
1 block of mixed orchids about2 feet high.
1 block 2 feet«6 inches high of Cattleya

trianse.
Cattleya speciosissima.
Epidendrum macrochilum.
Oncidium papilio.
Epidendrum prismatorocarpum.
Cattleya schroderse.
Coelogyne pandurata.
Stanhopea tigrina.
Cattleya intermedia.
Oncidium jonesianum.
Oncidium truUiferum.
Oncidium sprucei.
Cattleya chocoensis.
Cattleya amethystoglossa.

Stanhopea.

Oncidiiun.

Epidendrum.

Laelia.

OdontoglosBum.

Cattleya.

Chysis.

Brassavola.

Barkeria.

Lycaste.

EXHIBIT fHOM NEW SOUTH WALES.

These consist of immense specimens Dendrobium speciosiim, in all
about 100 plants placed on tree stumps and tree tops, and displayed
very advantageously. The plants have traveled well and are in the
finest possible condition.

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ORNITHOLOGY.

1311

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ORNITHOLOGY.

By Prof. Robert Ridgeway.

Although a large number of exhibits were carefully examined by
me, cards were assigned me for only seven, which were as follows:

No. 122 F. State of Ohio (Columbus, Ohio). Birds of Ohio. Award
recommended as illustrating the bird fauna of the State of Ohio. The
specimens, as a rule, badly mounted, however, and a large proportion
of them wrongly named.

No. 122 C. F. H. Lattin (Albion, N. Y.). Typical collection of North
American birds, showing manner of nesting; birds' eggs; naturalists'
supplies. Award recommended as an excellent exhibit of decorative
taxidermy and naturalists' supplies, and a well selected and arranged
collection of North American birds' eggs.

No. 125.—

No. 132 C—

No. 132 G.—

No. 133 J.—

No. 134 a.—

It was in some respects unfortunate that the various ornithological
exhibits at the Exposition were scattered about in the various build-
ings, often in out-of-the-way places. Perhaps a majority of the
buildings contained at least one collection of birds, and in some of
them (notably the anthropological and agricultural buildings) there
were several. Being thus scattered about over the large area of the
Exposition grounds, and many of them occupying very inconspicuous
places among the bewildering array of surrounding objects, it became
a difficult matter to discover them all, and possibly a few may have
been overlooked. It was, for the same reason, impossible to make as
close a study of the comparative merits of the several exhibits as could
have been done were they nearer together, but, the awards being non-
competitive, this was a matter of less importance.

The various collections of birds exhibited at the Exposition may be
divided into three classes, as follows: (1) Scientific, (2) taxidermic or
decorative, and (3) commercial. This classification is, necessarily,
somewhat arbitrary, it being in the case of some exhibits difficult to
decide to which category the^^ should be referred. Under the head of
"scientific" I would range all those exhibits which illustrate some sci-

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1314 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

entific idea or series of scientific facts. A collection consisting exclu-
sively of the birds of any country would therefore be admissible to
this category, since it illustrates in part the fauna of that country;
and, in accordance with this view, I have recommended an award in
the case of two exhibits which were manifestly of a partly commercial
character. So, also, I would class as scientific the collection exhibited
by Ward's Natural Science Establishment (Rochester, N. Y.), which,
although consisting of a miscellaneous a^ssortment of species from all
parts of the world, was so eflfectively displayed and the specimens, jis a
rule, so well mounted and carefully labeled that it would be unjust to
place it elsewhere. This collection of Professor Ward's, although
intended for sale, and thus to a degree commercial in its nature, was,
with the exception of the United States Government exhibits and that
of the lUinoL State Laboratory of Natural History, much the most
important coUectioi of mounted birds shown at the Exposition. The
specimens were several hundred in number, representing most of the
families of the class Aves^ were arranged in glass-fronted cases, ana
were carefully and for the most part accurately identified.

No other private exhibit of a scientific character was found worthy
of mention; and as the governmental scientific exhibits require special
and detailed description, notice of them is deferreduntil after anaceount
of the minor scientific, taxidennic, and commercial exhibits.

The exhibits of bird taxidermy (artistic and otherwise — chiefly the
latter) were numerous, but only a few of them were of sufficient
importance to merit mention. Unquestionably the best was that of F.
H. Lattin & Co. (Albion, N. Y.), in the anthropological building, which
consisted of a considerable number of panels of game birds under
convex glass covers, a small but choice collection of cabinet skins,
a complete assortment of taxidermists' and collectors' supplies, and a
series of nests and eggs of North American birds.

The exhibits of a purely commercial character were numerous and
varied. Guatemala, Colombia, and other countries of Central and
South America exhibited collections of their native birds in the form
of unlabeled skins, such as find their way into the stocks of dealers in
milliners' supplies, but usually not until such lots have been '* culled"
by one or more ornithologists. Two exhibits of this character, those
of British Guiana and Guatemala, respectively, have, on account of
their greater extent on the better quality of the specimens, been referred
to the category of scientific exhibits.

In addition to these exhibits of a scientific-commercial character may
be mentioned others which were strictly commercial, as the eiderdown
robes from Norway, the ornamental feather work from Brazil and other
tropical American countries and Florida, and the feather pictures from
Mexico.

The various governmental exhibits, excepting those of the United

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1315

States Government and the State of Illinois, which , as previously stated,
are reserved for special description, were those from the following
countries and States:

Japan. — ^The agricultural bureau of the department of agriculture
and commerce of Japan exhibited a very neat collection of "Japanese
wild birds, useful and injurious, "consisting of about 130 specimens,
representing 70 species. The specimens were mounted on neat wooden
blocks with polished surface, on the edge of which was pasted a label
giving the native and scientific names. Nearly all were fairly well
mounted, some of them being really good examples of bird taxidermy.
Unfortunately, they were not under cover, and were thus exposed to
injury from dust and handling by visitors. The exhibit was explained
by a neat printed pamphlet of 32 pages,* in which was given, in a con-
cise form, full information regarding the character of each species, a
sample of which is given below. The species are classified in this cata-
logue as follows:

I. The beneficial birds of forest and farm.

They are all insectivoroufl. As they'catch and eat injurious insects, they are bene-
ficial to forests and farms. [Then follows a list of species numbered from 1 to 21,
inclusive.]

II. Birds which are used for food.

As in the case with the aquatic birds, such as Kamo, Sago, Shigi, and others, or
with the gallinaceous birds, the flesh is delicious and can be used as food. They are
called game birds in common language. [Nob. 22 to 56, inclusive.]

III. The birds for miscellaneous uses.

They are granivorous or omnivorous and are not beneficial to forests and farms.
The flesh is not sold in markets, though it is not uneatable. In short, this group
includes the birds which do not belong to the preceding groups. [Nos, 57 to 70,
inclusive.]

Each of the 70 species is described separately in the following
manner:

(1) ALAUDA JAPONICA, T. & S.

(HiBARi.) (Small Japanese Sky-Lark.)

Passeres. — Alaudidx.

Where found. — It is a native of Jajmn and lives in the plains. y

Characteristics. — Both sexes are alike in the color of the plumage. It sings loudly
and can be heard at a great distance. It builds its nest among bushes and does not
form in flocks. The flight is powerful. It ascends high in the air, flying round and
round, and when it is tired it darts down and gets into bushes. Though it is onmiv-
erous, it feeds chiefly upon insects.

Utility. — It is kept in the cage and its flesh can be used as food.

])rew South Wales. — An unlabeled and badly mounted*" collection of
the birds of New South Wales was exhibited in the manufactures and

'A Descriptive Catalogue of Japanese Wild Birds, Useful and Injurious, Exhibited
in the World's Columbian Exposition.

*>It is but justice to state that these specimens were mounted in Chicago, lack of
time preventing it from being done in Sydney. ^ ^

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1316 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

liberal arts building, and a sniall lot of water birds from tlie same
country in the fislieries building.

Daminion of Canada, — Canada sent two fairly good bird exhibits,
the best being that from Ontario (in the anthropological building),
which contain some examples of good taxidermy, among them a mas-
terpiece in the shape of a captive great honied owl. The Manitoban
exhibit (located in the Manitoban building outside the fair grounds),
although larger than that from Ontario, was of less importance, the
specimens being without labels.

Mexico. — ^The Comisi6n Geogrilfico Exploradora de Mexico made an
extensive and in many ways excellent exhibit of Mexican birds in the
west gallery of the manufactures and liberal arts building. I dis-
covered it casually, while looking for another exhibit. There was no
one in charge of it at the time, and I was unable to inspect it again.
I am, therefore, unable to give a fuller account of it, which 1 much
regret, feeling sure that it was worthy of particular mention. The
comisi6n, under the able supervision of Prof. Fernando Fermri-Perez,
chief of the natural-history section, made a notable exhibit at the
New Orleans Exposition, in 1885, which was awarded the grand
diploma of honor, and it is reasonable to suppose that, having the
advantage of previous experience, their last exhibit would excel the
first one.

Chaatemala, — The Government of Guatemala exhibited a collection
of sevei'al hundred native bird skins, comprising the commoner and
some of the rarer species of that country. Most of these were
unmounted and were placed in narrow bins covered with wire netting,
and consequently exposed to dust and insects. A few specimens were
mounted upon branches projecting from an artificial grotto. The col-
lection was of value only as a faunal exhibit and on account of the
rare species it contained.

Costa Rica, — By far the best exhibit of birds made by any of the
Central or South American countries was that shown by the Republic
of Costa Rica in its own building. This collection, consisting of 267
mounted specimens, representing nearly the same number of species,
represented very fairly the more characteristic birds of Costa Rica.
The specimens were, as a rule, well mounted and carefully labeled;
but some of the labels had been transposed, and the arrangement of
the specimens was hardly satisfactory.

United States of Colamhla, — The Colombian Government exhibited,
in its own building, a collection of some of the characteristic birds of
that country. These consisted of the so-called "Bogota" skins, such
as are exported in large quantities from the capital of that name, but
are gathered by native collectors from the surrounding country, often
at a considerable distance from the city.

British Guiana,— The government of British Guiana exhibited,

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1317

through the Colonial Museum at Georgetown, a very good collection
of the birds of that country, in the form of unlabeled cabinet skins.
Owing to lack of room the greater part of this collection could not be
placed on public view, but was stored in chests beneath the show-cases.
The skins were of excellent preparation, and represented nearly all the
more characteristic and some of the rarer birds of that country. Other
demands upon his time prevented the commissioner (Mr. J. J. Quelch,
curator of the Colonial Museum), who had charge of the exhibit, from
labeling this collection.

Trinidad. — The colonial government exhibited a mounted group of
bright-colored birds, among which were some apparently from the
adjacent mainland, since they are not recognized as species occurring
in Trinidad.

Cvha. — Cuba exhibited one small collection, consisting of the more
characteristic birds of that island.

Few of the United States made exhibits of birds, the only ones mak-
ing a noteworthy attempt in this line being the States of North Caro-
lina, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, and Minnesota. The first and last
mentioned States exhibited only game birds. The effort of Pennsyl-
vania was on a rather extensive scale, but could scarcely be considered
successful. The intention was to show a number of the more character-
istic native birds and other animals, with their natural surroundings,
an idealized mountain slope, with its rocks, ravines, brooks, and
shrubbeiy, forming the foundation and background. Different spe-
cies were brought into wholly unnatuml juxtaposition, and the result,
as might be expected, was disappointing, while the bad taxidermy —
some of the specimens being actually suspended head downward from
the branches to which they were wired — added to the unfavorable
impression received by the critical spectator.

Ohio's exhibit was of a less pretentious character, but unfortunately
also not free from defects, the most serious of which were the fre-
quent and conspicuous errors of naming,* caused apparently by the
transposition of labels at the hands of some assistant having a very
imperfect knowledge of the species. The collection comprised per-
haps the greater part of the species known to occur within the State,
mounted (not very well as a rule) on wooden pedestals.

The various minor governmental and private exhibits at the Expo-
sition having thus been reviewed, it remains to consider those of the
United States Government and that of the State of Illinois.

EXHIBIT OF THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM.

Naturally the exhibit of birds made by the United States National
Museum was by far the largest and in some respects the most impor-
tant of the ornithological exhibits shown at the Expositon. Leaving

'There were 19 glaring errors of this kind; some specimens were not labeled at all.

1318 RBPOKT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

to the Division of Economic Ornithology and Mammalogy of the
Department of Agriculture the exclusive field of economic relations,
the National Museum had choice of all other subjects. Had ample
time been available, and the requisite skilled labor obtainable,^
more satisfactory results could have been obtained; but as both were
wanting a considemble curtailment of the original plan of the exhibit
became necessary, while the limited space assigned to the exhibit in
the Government building required considerable further reduction.

The leading idea of the exhibit was that it should be made attractive
as possible without sacrificing its scientific value; in other words, that
it should educate as well as entertain, and convey to the observer in
a popular manner information that is at the same time scientifically
accurate.

The total number of specimens exhibited was 1017, of which 888
were mounted, singly, on museum pedestals, 5C in pairs or triplets on
museum pedestals, and 73 in artistic groups with naturalistic acces-
sories. Altogether they represented about 850 species, much the
larger pjirt being American, the chief exceptions being the biixis of
paradise (25 species) and foreign game l)irds (74 species).

As finally detemiined by the limitations of time, facilities, and space,
the plan of the exhibit was as follows:

A. Artistic Groups of mounted birds, with naturalistic accessories, showing species

of particular interest from some remarkable peculiarity of habits, or as illus-
trating some scientific cohistorical fact.
I. Species of remarkable habits:

1. Satin bower birds and their playhouse.

2. California woodpeckers and their ston^house.

3. Butcher birds and their larder.

4. Crocodile birds and their host.

5. Lyre birds and their dancing mound.

6. Prairie chickens courting.

7. Flamingoes and their nests.

8. Swallow -tailed kite feeding.

9. Jacanas walking on floating lily-i>ad8.

10. Carolina paroquets roosting.
II. To illustrate protective coloration.

11. Ptarmigans in winter.

12. Ptarmigans in summer.

III. Nearly extinct North American birds.

13. Carolina paroquets.

14. Ivory- billed woodpeckers.

15. Passenger pigeons.

B. Grouped mounted birds, on walnut pedestals, to illustrate and explain the con-

fusion and misapplication of popular names. (See descriptive list on page — .)

'The most serious obstacle encountered was the impossibility of obtaining a suffi-
cient number of skilled taxidermists and artists to model the accessories. The opea
field for expert artists in these sjKicialties has l)een, on account of the importance of
the matter, made the subject of tte concluding paragraphs of this report.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1319

C. Single mounted specimens on walnut pedestals:

a. Synoptical series to illustrate the different American families of birds.

b. Game birds.

c. Birds of paradise.

d. Humming birds.

e. Wild turkey trap of colonial times.

The character of these several component parts of the exhibit ma}^
best be described by reproducing the information contained on the
label which accompanied each, which is as follows:

A. Artistic groups.

I. Species of remarkable habits.

Playhouse of satin bower birds, Plilonorhynchus mofacetis ( Vieill. ) : The bower birds
are a peculiar group of birds found only in Australia and New Guinea, and are
remarkable for the extraordinary structures which they build for recreation and to
please their aesthetic taste. These structures vary in character according to the spe-
cies, some of them being far more wonderful than the one here represented. The
group here shown represents the satin bird or satin bower bird of Australia,. and
explains the nature of this curious habit better than any description. The decora-
tions of these bowers, while usually consisting of brightly colored feathers and shells,
include all sorts of conspicuous objects, as bleached bones, metal buttons, bits of
gaily colored yam or rags, etc. ; and it is said that when the natives miss anything of
the sort, they always search the " runs'* of the bower birds for them. (See label of
subfamily Ptilonorhynchime, family Paradisseidee. )

Storehouse of California woodpeckers, Mehnerpes formicivorus bairdi Ridgw.: The
provident habits of the California woodpecker have often been mentioned in w^orks
on natural history. Small holes, just large enough to hold an acorn driven in
lengthwise, are bored into the dead tnmk or branch of a tree, and afterwards
"plugged" with acorns, driven in so tightly as to be extracted with difficulty.
Sometimes almost an entire dead tree is thus utilized, presenting "the appearance
of being closely studded with brass nails, the heads only being visible." It has
been stated that only those acorns are selected which contain the egg of a grub, and
that the birds wait until the latter are well developed before they open the acorns;
but this story has not been verified.

Butcher birds and their larder: The American butcher bird, or loggerhead shrike
{Lanius ludovicimvus), has the habit, in common with other sv>ecies of shrikes, of
impaling small animals and insects on thorns. The reason why it does so is not
known with certainty. Possibly it is done only when its appetite is satisfied by eat-
ing other victims, or perhaps to assist in eating, its feet being weak and not adapted
for holding objects of this kind, like those of hawks and owls. This group was pre-
pared by Mr. Charles F. Adams, of Champaign, III., who procured the specimens at
that place.

Crocodile birds, Plumanus se^yptiun (Linn.): Herodotus, the Greek historian (B.
C. 484-420), thus describes this interesting bird: "As the crocodile lives chiefly on
the river it has the inside of its mouth constantly covered with leeches; hence it
happens that, while all other birds and beasts avoid it, with the TVochilos it lives at
peace, since it owes much to that bird, for the croco<lile when he leaves the water
and comes out upon the land is in the habit of lying with his mouth wide open and
facing the western breeze; and such times the TrochUm goes into its mouth and
devours the leeches. This benefits the crocodile, who is pleased, and takes care not
to hurt the Trochilos. ' ' More recent travelers confirm all of the above account, except
the statement that the bird enters the crocodile's mouth; it seemsi in fact, that the

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1820 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

TrochiloB is careful not to do so, but with a watchful eye on the monster caationsly
and deftly snatches the leeches from its jaws.

Lyre bird, Menura mperha^ Davies: The lyre bird is peculiar to Australia, where
it inhabits the dense undei^owth of the forests. It is excessively shy, and far
more often heard than seen, its voice being loud, varied, and often musical. ' ' Among
its many curious habits is that of forming small round hillocks, which are constantly
visited during the day, and upon which the male is continually trampling, at the
same time erecting and spreading out his tail in the most graceful manner, and
uttering his various cries, sometimes pouring forth his natural notes, at others mock-
ing those of other birds, and even the howling of the Dingo."

Courtship of prairie chickens, Tifmpanuchufi americanus (Reich.): In the spring,
when the grass upon the prairies grows green, the loud " booming" note of the male
prairie chicken may be heard during the early morning hours from a great distance.
This resounding note is a love call to the females, who come from far and near, and
a challenge to other males who may be within hearing. When all have assembled
the "performance" begins. The males strive to outvie each other in their display
of brilliantly colored, inflated air sacs, erected neck tufts, and spread tails, as they
bow and scrape, and parade before the admiring audience of the weaker sex. As
sometimes happens with entertainments of the human species, these "dances"
usually end in a "free fight" among the males, and the gathering ends in disorder.

American flamingoes and their nests, Phcenicopterus ruber Linn. : It has long been
known that the flamingo builds a tall, chimney-like nest, composed of mud scraped
up from the flats jaid bare at ebb tide and deposited in layers one upon another. It
was formerly supposed that the object in building the nest so high was to enable the
setting female to "straddle" it, and thus easily dispose of her long legs. In fact, so
firmly was this believed that until within a few years past the birds were represented
in this position, both pictorially and by the taxidermist^ s art The real purpose,
however, of these tall nests is to raise the eggs above the highest limits of flood tide,
for they are built upon mud flats which are daily covered by the water. The speci-
mens here shown are from the Bahama Islands, where the nests are made of the
decomposed white coral which chiefly constitutes the localities where the flamingoes
breed; and the position of the bird upon her nest is carefully copied from a photo-
graph taken from life.

Swallow-tailed kite feeding, Elanoides forficatus (Linn.): Of all the so-called birds
of prey the swallow-tailed kite is the most graceful. Living mostly in the air, it
floats, with bouyant flight, over the landscape, scanning the ground or trees beneath
it for the small reptiles or large insects which constitute its food. When an object
to its taste has been seen it swoops upon it, grasps it in -its talons, and mounts again
into the air and feeds upon it at leisure — always on the wing. Sometimes the object
which it has seized slips from its grasp and falls whirling toward the ground; but
with a rapid sweep of its blade-like wings and a twist of its cleft tail it descends with
the swiftness of an arrow and speedily recovers it. This elegant kite inhabits the
warmer parts of America, and is particularly numerous in the more open districts of
the lower Mississippi Valley and Texas, where it is known as the snake hawk, or
forked-tailed hawk, in allusion to its fondness for snakes and the peculiar form of
its tail.

Mexican jacanas, Jacana spinona (Linn. ) : The Jacanas are remarkable for their habit
of walking easily upon the floating leaves of aquatic plants, for which their extremely
long, slender toes and needle-like claws are admirably adapted. The species
shown in this group inhabits Mexico and Central America, as well as the Greater
Antilles and the extreme southeastern part of Texas, though it is rare in the last-
named locality. The sx>ecimens are an adult male and female and a young bird col-
lected on Lake Patzcuaro, in Michoacan, Mexico, by Mr. P. L. Jouy, of Washington.

Carolina paroquets, Conurua carolinenms (Linn.), roosting: The manner in which
the Carolina paroquet sleeps is very curious. Instead of perching on a branch, as

world's COIUMBIAN exposition*, 1893. 1321

moet birds do, this species clings to the vertical inside of a hollow tree, where it
holds on by both feet and bill, its tail being pressed against the wood as a prop.
It may, in ^t, almost be said to hang by its bill, for the tip of the hooked beak
being inserted in a cleft of the wood, this point of contact no doubt supports a con-
siderable part of the bird's weight Frequently dozens, if not hundreds, of these
birds occupy such a cavity as that here shown, a large cypress or sycamore being
usually chosen, though the kind of tree is not so much a matter of importance as the
character of the hollow — an essential point being that the cavity is open at the top
and slants but little from a vertical direction.

Ptarmigans, Lagopiis lagopus (Linn.), in winter plumage: Protective coloring is
well shown in the ptarmigan, which becomes almost wholly white in winter, so as
to be with difficulty distinguishable from the surrounding snow, and mottled brown
in summer, like the dull-colored mosses, lichens, and rocks among which it lives,
as shown in the accompanying group.

Ptarmigans, Lagopus lagopus (Linn.), in summer plumage: Protective coloring is
well shown in the ptarmigan, which in summer is mottled brown, like the dull-
colored rocks, mosses, and lichens which surround it, but in winter white, like the
snowy mantle which at that season continuously covers the country where it resides,
as shown in the accompanying group.

Carolina paroquets, Conurus carolinensis (Linn.), feeding: In Audubon's time this
beautiful bird was common throughout the United States south of the parallel of 40®,
and in places extended beyond that limit. It was particularly numerous in the
Ohio Valley, where it remained during the severest winters. Prince Maximilian hav-
ing observed in^l837, in southern Indiana, flocks flying about and apparently suffer-
ing no discomfort when the thermometer registered 26® below zero. At the present
time the species is nearly extinct and no doubt will become entirely so within a few
years. Several causes have brought about the great diminution in their numbers,
one of the most prominent being their strong attachment to one another, a character-
istic soon learned and taken advantage of by the settlers, as a result of which entire
flocks were exterminated. It was only necessary to wound a specimen and capture
it, when all those within hearing of its cries would fly about, screaming in sympathy,
and allow themselves to be shot, one by one, until all were killed. Their habit of
roosting together in large numbers inside of hollow trees also proved fatal to them,
for the trees in which they roosted were often felled at night and the birds all killed.
There were two incentives to their wholesale slaughter — they were exceedingly
destructive to green com and young fruits, the latter being cut to pieces chiefly for
the seeds; and they were also excellent eating. The accompanying map shows,
approximately, the extreme limits of the former range of the si)ecie8 and exceed-
ingly restricted area to which it had been reduced in 1891, when data were compiled
by Mr. E. M. Hasbrouck and published in The Auk for October, 1891, pages 369-371.
In this group the paroquets are seen feeding on a favorite food, the cocklebur.
Another group in this exhibit shows several birds of this species roosting inside a
a hollow tree.

Ivory-billed woodpecker, Oampephilus principalis (Linn.) : Like the Carolina paro-
quet the ivory-billed woodpecker had formerly an extensive range, but has at present
a very restricted one. In Audubon's time it extended northward along the Atlantic
coast nearly, if not quite, to the , Dismal Swamp, in southeastern Virginia, in the
interior up the Ohio River to near Cincinnati, and along the Missouri River entirely
across the State of the same name. In 1891, when data respecting its more recent
range were compiled by Mr. E. M. Hasbrouck (published in The Auk for April,
1891, pp. 174-186), the extreme limits of its habitat were the southern portion of
North Carolina (latitude 36°) near the coast, to a little above Vicksburg along the
Mississippi, and westward along the Gulf coast to the Brazos River in Texas. The
great reduction in the area inhabited by this lai^e and powerful woodpecker has
been brought about by increased settlement of the country and destruction of the

1322 KEPORT OF COMMlTTfiK ON AWABDS.

forests. It seems unable to withstand contact with dvilised man, but as he
encroaches on its domain retires to more secluded localities of constantly diminishing
extent; and the time is doubtless not far distant when, from want of an abiding
place, it will be numbered among the extinct birds of this country.

Passenger, EdopiHes iniffralorius (Linn.) pigeons feeding: There are doubtless
thousands of the inhabitants of the United States who remember well the immense
flights of "wild pigeons" which, a comparatively few years ago, passed back and
forth between their fee<ling and roosting places, or during their migrations. The
number of individuals which composed some of the flights seen in Audubon's and
Wilson's time was estimated at some thousands of millions; and areas of forest more
than 40 miles long and 3 miles wide were so completely occupied by their nests
that many trees were broken down by the weight of the birds and their nests.
The birds were killed in great numbers, those not wanted for immediate use being
salted down in barrels and the hogs of the settlers turned loose in the woods to feed
on the remainder. These great roosts and flights no longer exist, while in a very
large i>art of the country where the birds were formerly abimdant few, if any, have
been seen for several years, and there is certainly not more than one bird of this
species now where there were thousands only ten or fifteen years ago. The prin-
cipal food of the passenger pigeon consists of beechnuts and acorns, particularly those
of the water oak or pin oak (Quercus palustrU), the species shown in the group here
presented.

B. Mounted birds on walnut pedestals to illustrate and

EXPLAIN THE CONFUSION OP POPULAR NAMES.

[Ctopy of case label.]

The confusion of popular names of many of our native birds, certain game birds
in particular, has given much trouble to sportsmen and others not specially conver-
sant with ornithological nomenclature. The subject is a C9mplicated one, but it is
hoped that the series of specimens herewith exhibited may, in connection with the
labels, to a degree explain the matter.

When the English colonists settled in the United States, it was rarely they were
able to give original names to the birds and other animals found in the new country,
the few instances in which they were able to do so being in the case of species afford-
ing entirely new characteristics of voice, color, or habits, as, for example, the whip-
poor-will, the bobolink, the bluebird, and the humming bird. In other cases they
were content to apply names of more or less similar species they had been familiar
with in England, though usually the resemblance was a distant or superficial one. It
also sometimes happened that the New England and Virginia colonists gave different
names to the same bird, and the same name to different birds, thus still further com-
plicating the matter. This is well illustrated in the case of the names pheasant, par-
tridge, and quail. Although neither of the three European birds so named occurs in
any part of America, the three names were nevertheless transferred to two American
birds — the ruffed grouse (Bonasa timhellua) and the bobwhite (Colinua virgimanus).
The former was called ** partridge'* in New England and "pheasant" in Virginia,
while the latter was called "quail" in New England and "partridge" in Virginia.
It thus occurs that the so-called partridge of New England is a totally different bird
from that of Virginia, both being at the same time .entirely different from the true
partridge {Perdix perdix)^ which is not found in America at all. On the other hand,
the so-called quail of New England is the same bird as the so-called partridge of Vir-
ginia, but is wholly different from the true quail (Cotumix coturnix)^ also not found
in America; while the so-called partridge of New England and the so-called pheas-
ant of Virginia are identical, though the bird is neither a partridge nor a pheasant,
but belongs to the grouse family ( Tetraonidx) , both the true partridge and the true
pheasant belonging to the pheasant family (Phasianidss),

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W0BLD*8 COLUMBIAN JEXPOSITION, 1893.

1323

The name ortolan is similarly misused in the United States, the true ortolan
{Emberiza hortulana) being a European bird of the finch or sparrow family {Fringil'
lidw), while the two American birds, wrongly so called, belong to the hang nest and
rail families {Icteridie and RaUidss), respectively.

Fifty -six specimens compose this series, representing 26 names, fol-
lowing being a complete list:

Name.

American species to which the name is
wrongly applied.

European species to which
the name properly belongs.

1.

2.

3.

4.

6.
6.

7.

8.

9.

10.
11.
12.
13.

14.

15.
16.

17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.

Buzzard

Bee bird

Blackbird

Carrion crow

Coot

Chimney swallow

Goldfinch

Jackdaw

Jackanipe

Kingflsher

Martin

Oriole

Ortolan

Partridge

Pheasant

Quail

Redstart

Redwing

Itobln

Rook

Screech owl

Sparrow hawk...

Tree sparrow

Turtledove

Yellow hammer .
Woodcock

OcUhartes aura (turkey vulture); family

Oathartida.
Tffranmis Ivrannus (king bird); family T)fran-

nidx.
Quiacalus quUcula (purple grackle); family

Icteridse.
OatharigtU airaia (black vulture); family

CathaHidx.

Otdenu'a (8 species); txmilY Anatidx

Chsetura petagica (chimney swift): family

Micropodidx.
Si4nu» trisHs (Acserican goldfinch); family

FnnaiUidae.
QuisccUus major (boat-tailed grackle); family

Icteridse.
(1) GUlinago ddicata (Wilson's snipe); family

(2} Tnnga maeulaia (pectoral sandpiper);

Oerylealcyon (belted kingfisher); family AUx-

dinidx.
Progne mbit (purple martin); family Hirun-

dtnidae.
Icterus gaUntla (Baltimore oriole) ; family Ic-

teridx.
Potomac River, etc., Porzana Carolina (sora);

family RaUidx.
Louisiana, DoUchtmyx oryzivorm (bobolink,

reed bird); family Ideridx.
In New England, etc., £onaMtMii5ettu« (ruffed

grouse); family Tetraonidx.
In Virginia, etc., OoUnus virginianus (bob

white); family Perdicid«.
In Virginia, etc., Bonasa umbeUus (ruffed

grouse) ; family Tetraonidx.
In New &igland, etc., Oolinus virginianus (bob

white) ; family Perdicidx. (The " partridge "

of Virginia, etc.)
Setophaga rutidUa (American redstart); fam-
ily MniotiUdx.
Agelttius phceniceus (red- winged blackbird);

family Icteridx.
Merula migratoria (American robin); family

Turdidx
Potomac River, etc., EriaTnaturaruhida {ruddy

duck) : family AnaHdx.
Megascope Gurid(mottled owl ) ; family Bubonidx.

Falco sparveriua (American sparrow hawk);
family Falconidx.

SpizeUa monticola (American tree sparrow);
family FringiUidx.

Zenaidura carolinenna (mour?'* dove); fam-
ily Columbidx.

Oolaptea auraitts ( flicker) ; fan y Picidx

In longer settled districts, PkOohda minor
(American woodcock); family Scotoporuia;.

In parts of Southern and Western States,
OeopfUcBtu pHeatus (pileated woodpecker);
family Pjcida;.

Bvieo buieo; family Buteo-

nidx.
Meropa ajdaster; family Me-

ropidx.
Merula meruia; family Tur

didx.
Oorvua corone; family Cor-

vidx.
Fulicaatra: family RaUidx.
Chelidon rustica; family Hi-

rundinidx.
Cardudis carduelis; family

FringiUidx.
Oorvus monedula; familv

Oorvidae.
QoUinago gaUinula; family

Scolopacidx.

Alcedo ispida; family Alce-

dinidx.
Ilirundo urbica; family Ili-

rundinidx.
OrUdusgaUmla; family Orio-

Udx.
Emberiza hortulana: family

FringiUidx.

Perdix perdix; family Perdi-
cidx.

Ph€utianu8 colchicus: family

Pfuufianidx.
Ootumix cotumix; family

Perdicidx.

RutieUla tithya; family Tur-
didx.

Turdua iliacua; family Tur-
didx.

Erithacua rubecula; family
Turdidx.

Cbrvua frugUegua; family
Corridx.

Symium aluco; family Bu-
bonidx.

Accipeter niaua; family Bute-
onvdx.

Paaaer montanus; family
FringiUidx.

Turturturtur; i&mUy Colum-
bidx.

Emberiza cUrindla; family
FringiUidx.

Scolopax ruaticola; family
Scolopacidx,

C. Single mounted specimens on pedestals.

A. Synoptical series to illustrate American families ofhirds.
The total number of families shown is 104, these including not only
those which are peculiar to the Western Hemisphere, but also those

..gitized by Google

1324

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

which are common to America and the ''Old World." In most cases,
particularly among the smaller birds, each family was represented by
several specimens in order to show variations of size, form, and plum-
age within each. The families were arranged as nearly as possible in
the sequence of the most modern classification, the diflferent ordei-s
being separated by conspicuoas labels. Each family group was accom-
panied by a label upon which was printed, in easily read type, its more
striking characteristics, expressed as much as possible in language
easily understood by the nonscientific reader.

The number of genera and species in this series is shown in the fol-
lowing alphabetical list of the families, of which those peculiar to
America are marked with an asterisk.

1.

2.
a.
4.
6.

*6.
7.
8.

♦9.

10.

11.
♦12.

13.

14.

16.
*16.
♦17

18.
♦19.

20.

21.

22,

23.
♦24.
♦25.

26.

27.
♦28.

29.
♦30.
♦31.

32.
♦33.

34.
♦36.
♦36.

37.

40.
♦41.
♦42.

43.

44.

46.

46.

47.
♦48.

49.

50.

61.
♦52.

63.
♦54.
♦65.
♦86.

57.

68.
♦59.
♦60.

61.

62.

Alandidse O&rkB)

Alcedinidae (kingfishers)

Alcidee (auks)

Ampelidee (wax-winjfs)

AnatidfB (swans, ducks, and gecne) .
Anhimidse (screamers) .

Anhingidse (anhingas) . .
Aphrizldse (tumstones) .

Aramidee fcourlans).

Ardeidse (herons)

Bubonidee (owls)

Bucconidee ^puff-birds)

Buteonldse (nawks. eagles, kites, etc.).
Capitonidffi (barbels).

Caprlmulgidse (goatsuckers) .
Cariamidffi (cariamas)

Cathartidae (American vultures) . .

Certhildee (creepers)

Chamseidse (wren-tits)

Charadrildse (plovers)

Chionldte (sheathbllls)

Ciconlldse (storks)

Cinclida3 (dippers)

CochlearfldfiB (boat-bills)

CoerebidfiB (honey creepers)

Columbidffi (pigeons or doves)

ColymbldEB (grebes)

ConopopbagldsB (ant-pipits)

CorvidsB (crows and Jays)

Cotingidse (cotingas)

Cracidse (ciu-assows)

Cuculidfie (cuckoos)

Deudrocolaptidse (wood-hewers) .

Diomedeidse (albatrosses)

Dulldse (palm chats)

Eurypygfdfie (sun bitterns )

Falconldse (falcons)

FormicariidiB (ant birds)

Fregatidae ( frigate birds)

Fringillldse fflnches)

Fumariidse (oven birds)

Qalbulidse (jacamars)

Gruidte (cranes)

Htematopodidse (oyster-catchers).

Heliomithidse (sun grebes)

Hirun^inidffi (swallows)

Ibididae (ibises)

Icterldse (hang-nests)

Jacanidse (iacanas)

Laniidee (shrikes)

Jjaridte (gulls and tcnis)

Meleagridae (turkeys)

Micropodidae (swifts)

MimiaEe (mocking-thrushes)

Mniotiltidae (wood warblers)

Momotidse (motmots)

Motacillidae (wagtails and pipits) .

CEdicnemldee (thick-knees)

Opisthocomidae (hoatzin)

Oxyrhamphidae (sharp-bills)

Pandionldae (ospreys)

Paridoe (Utmice)

Genera.

Species.

2
4
6
2

21
1
1
2
1
6

12
5
8
2
5
I
5
1
1
5
1
I
1
1
9
8
4
1

15

24
5
7
5
2
1
1
8
9
1

29
6
3
1

1

6
2

18
1
1
5
1
8
11
19
4
3
1
1
1
1

Digitized by

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1325

GeDera.

Species.

63. Pelecanidse (pelicans)

M. Pelecanoididse (diTine petrels)

65. Perdicidee (partridges)

66. PhaetontidaB (tropic birds)

Phalacrocoracidse (cormorants)

Phalaropodidse (phalaropes)

PhoenicopteridsB (flamingoes)

Phytotomidse (plant^cutters)

PicidfiB (woodpeclcers)

Pipridse (manaJcins)

Plataleidse (spoonbills)

ProcellariidsB (petrels)

PBophiidffi (trumpeters)

Psittacidse (parrots)

PteroptochiQse (tapacolas)

Ptilogonadidae (silky flycAtchers)

Rallidse (rails, gallinules and coots) . . .
Recurvirostridse (avocets and stilts) . . .

Rhamphastidse (toucans)

Rheidle (rheas)

R>rDchopidse (skimmers)

ScolopacidsB (snipes, sandpipers, etc.) .

Sittidae (nuthatches)

Spheniscidse (x)enguin8)

Steatomithidse (oil birds)

Stercorariidee (skuas)

Strigidse (bam owls)

Stumidse (starlings)

Sulidae (gannets)

Sylyiidse (warblers)

Tanagridse (tanagers)

Tetraonidee (grouse)

ThinoconidsB (partridge-plovers)

Tinamidse (tinamous)

TodidflB (todies)

TrochilidiB (humming birds)

Troglodytidse (wrens)

Trogonids (trogons).
Turoidee (thrushes) ..

67.

♦70.

71.
♦72.

73.

74.
♦76.

76.
•77.
*78.

79.

80.
*81.

84.
86.
86.
•87.

90.

91.

92.
♦93.

94.
♦96.
♦96.
♦97.
♦98.

99.

100.

101.

♦102,

103.

♦101

(•)

1
1

11
1
1
8
1
1

16

13
1
3
1

19
6
4
6
2

10

1
10
3

Tyrannidse (tyrant flycatchers).

Urinatoridse (loona)

Vireonids (vireos)

C)

2

1
1
2
8
30
7
2
6
1

6
6
7
13
2
6

Total.

445

537

•Specimens of this family being much too large to put in the case, colored drawings of two .species,
representing different genera, were substituted.

^This family was shown by a special collection of 140 specimens, representing 90 species and 67
genera, in a separate case.

To reproduce here each one of the 104 family labels would, of
course, be unnecessary, besides swelling to an undesirable extent the
volume of this report, but several of them are reprinted to show the
character of the information which they conveyed. It may be pre-
mised, by way of apology for any shortcomings which may be apparent
in these labels, that it is far more difficult to express upon so limited
a surface enough of the diagnostic characters of a family to clearly
define it and at the same time a sufficient amount of such other matter
as will render it readable by the general public, than when the neces-
sity for condensation is not so pressing.

Family FregatidfCj the man-o'-war birds: The manV-warbinls, or frigate [x^icans,
are large, long-winged, fork-tailed, four-webbed sea-birds, w^ith connorant-like bill,
excessively short legs, and small,, imperfectly webbed feet. They are most nearly
related to the cormorants, but are very different in habits. Their pow^ers of flight are
nnsurpaased, and it has been said that the same individual man-o'-war bird may,
on the same day, breakfast in Africa and dine in America — doulHless, however, a
considerable exaggeration. Only two 8i)ecies are known, l)oth of which are of inter-
tropical distribution, one of them restricted chiefly to the waters of the southern
hemisphere.

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1326 BEPORT OF COMMITTEE OH AWABD8.

Family Cohimbidse, the pigeons: The pigeons or doves, are a very circamscribed
group of birds, characterized by many peculiarities of structure, both internal and
external. They have the basal portion of the bill covered by a soft skin, in which
are situated the slit-like nostrils, overhung by a fleshy or tumid valve, the tip of the
bill being hanl and somewhat arched; the hind toe is well developed and on a level
with the anterior toes. Most other characters are extremely variable. They are
both terrestrial and aboreal, and their food consists either of seeds of various kinds,
or fruits, some kinds sulwisting chiefly, if not entirely, on the latter. They lay only
two eggs, which are always plain colored, usually white, Wut sometimes buff. The
family is quite cosmopolitan, though wanting in very cold regions, and very numer-
ous in s|)eciea, of which America possesses more than 80, referable to 14 genera.
(See series of s|)ecie8 in game-bird c^ollection. )

F&mily Anatldiej the ducks, geese,and swans: The ducks, geese, and swans t(^^ther
constitute a well-marked group of water birds. They all have a straight, often flat-
tened, bill, the e<lges of which are provided with "strainers** in the form of fine
transverse lamelhe or tooth-like processes, comparatively short legSf and webbed feet,
with a small elevated hind toe.

Next to the gallinaceous birds they constitute the most important group of birds,
on account of their value for food, for their feathers, or their down, and the ease
with which they are domesticated.

The family is entirely cosmopolitan *in its distribution, and numerous in species,
America possessing nearly 100, belonging to some 35 genera.

Family Anhimida\ the screamers: The screamers, notwithstanding their massive
legs and feet, cleft toes, and short-curved beak, have been clearly demonstrated to
be more nearly related to the ducks and geese (family AmUicUe) than to any other
group of living birds. They inhabit marshes and lagoons in open districts, where
they both wade and swim, and they also perch upon trees. The double-edged,
knife-like spur with which their wings are armed renders them formidable antago-
nists; and so bold and pugnacious are these birds that they are often tamed by the
natives and employed as herders and protectors to the poultry, which they effectually
defend against birds of prey and other enemies. The family is peculiar to eastern
South America, where occur three species belonging to two genera.

Family Paradissdds', subfamily PtUonorhynchirurj the bower birds: The bower birds
constitute a distinct group of the Paradisasidipj characterized by absence of orna-
mental plumes, plainer colors (though some of the species are beautiful birds), and
more terrestrial habits; but most of all, by their extraordinary habit of building
bowers or playhouses, which are sometimes wonderful affairs, displaying a highly
aesthetic taste on the part of the builders. One of these structures is reproduced in
a group which forms part of this exhibit; but this is a very ordinary affair compared
with the much more elaborate and artistic structures of certain other species. A
plain brown bin! of the genus AmblyomiSj for example, found in New Guinea, con-
structs, around the slender stem of an upright shrub, a circular edifice of different
mosses which forms the base and support of a conical hut, whose roof is impervious
to the weather. The ''rafters" of this roof are the slender branches of a parasitic
orchid, which retain their leaves, still growing. Directly in front of the hut is a
level space carefully covereil with fine, soft mosses, kept scrupulously free from dirt,
but strewn with brightly colored fruits, flowers, and fungi, so as to present the
appearance of a miniature flower garden; and when these fade or become wilted
they are removed and replaced by a freshly gathered supply. This reads like
romance, but is a well-ascertained fact.

Family 7Vovhilid^% humming birds: The humming birds comprise a very exten-
sive and varie<l group of small Picarian birds, characterized by the highly specialized
bill and tongue and related i>art9, the purpose of which is adaptive. They obtain
their food from flowers, either in the form of nectar or minute insects, in order to

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WOBLD's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1327

obtain which the bill mnst be lengthened so that they can penetrate the deepest
recesses of the flowers, and the tongue extensile to aid them in doing so, as well as
to assist in extracting the nectar from the glands containing it and insects from their
hiding places. In all respects except the construction of the head they resemble the
swifts more closely than any other birds. From all birds, however, the humming
birds differ in the structure of the wing, the secondaries being only 6 in number and
excessively short, not reaching so far as the tips of the primary coverts. In some
respects the humming birds constitute the most interesting of all bird groups. Many
of its members are much the smallest of all birds, while a lai^ proportion of them
are adorned with plumage unparalleled among other birds in the richness and metal-
lic luster of its iridescent colors. It is also one of the most varied and numerous of
all families of birds, about 500 species l3eing already known, among which are no less
than 127 generic tyi)es. The family is exclusively American, chiefly tropical, and
most numerously represented in the headwaters of the Amazon, in Ecuador, and
Peru.

Family Troglodytid^^ wrens: The wrens are small song birds, with 10 primaries,
slender bill without distinct bristles about the gape, the inner toe united by at least
half of its basal joint to the middle toe, and the tarsi distinctly scutellate. They are
birds of variable appearance and habits, though mostly agreeing in a dull brownish,
njore or less barred, coloration, and semiterrestrial habits. Many are fine songsters.
The iamily is poorly represented in the eastern hemisphere, where only 16 species,
referable to 6 genera, are known; these restricted to Europe and the temperate parts
of Asia, chiefly the latter. In America, however, it is numerously developed,
especially within the Tropics, nearly 150 species, belonging to 14 genera, being known
to occur there.

Family PiddsBt the woodpeckers: The woodpeckers are a numerous but sharply
circumscribed group of "yoke-footed" picarian birds, most nearly related, perhaps,
to the barbets (family Capitonidx). They differ from all other birds in the structure
of the beak and tongue, together with related parts, which are highly specialized
for adaptation to their peculiar mode of obtaining their food. The bill is a combined
hammer and chisel, and serves admirably for the puncturing and excavation of
trees, both for the purpose of reaching insects which are hidden in the wood and
preparing a cavity for nesting purposes. The tongue is an extensile barbed lance or
spear, with which they are able to explore the burrow of a grub, transfix it, and
draw it within the mouth; and its fleshy portion is covered with a viscid secretion
which entraps insects with which it comes in contact. Woodpeckers are found in
most parts of the worlds but are entirely wanting in Australia, New Zealand, and
Polynesia. They are most numerous in America, where occur more than 200 species,
referred to about 22 genera — or more than half the known species and a little less
than half the genera of the entire world. Like nearly all picarian birds, the wood-
peckers lay pure white eggs, which they deposit in holes in trees, usually excavated
by themselves, often in the living wood. A few species, inhabiting treeless districts,
make burrows in the ground.

Family ProcellarlidR'j the petrels: The petrels are oceanic birds of buoyant and
protracted flight, with fully webbed anterior toes and rudimentary hind toes; tubular,
"double-barreled*' nostrils, on top of the culmen, and hooked beak. The species
are very numerous, about 70, belonging to some 20 genera, being known and abound
most in the southern hemisphere. They range in size from the diminutive storm
petrels or Mother Carey's chickens, no larger than a sparrow, to the albatross-like
giant Fulmar. They nest in burrows which they make in the soil of hillsides or in
natural recesses among cliffs, and deposit a single white egg. The petrels eject from
their nostrils a fetid oily substance, and it has been suggested, with good reason
apparently, that one purpose of this is to quiet the surrounding waves as they rest
upon the surface of the sea.

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1328 BEPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

Family Oolymbidx, the grebee: The f^rebeaare swimming birds with the 1^[B exserted
from the posterior extremity of the body, the toes lobed and half- webbed and
terminated by broad, flat nails instead of claws of the usual form; tail rudimentary,
consisting merely of an inconspicuous tuft of small, loose- webbed feathers instead of
true tail feathers. Their nest is a floating mass of vegetable material, usually anchored
to some aquatic plant, and their eggs (2 to 5 in number) plain whitish, though
usually stained by contact with the decaying v^etable matter of the nest.

They are expert divert, feed chiefly on small fishes, and their flesh is unfit for food.

The skin of their under parts, however, is in great demand for trimming ladies'
hats, muffs, etc., on account of its dense glossy covering of silky feathers.

Their range, as a family, is nearly cosmopolitan; about 20'8pecies, referable to 5 or 6
genera, are known, 10 species and 4 genera occurring in America.

Family Alcida', the auks: The auks are three-toed swimming birds with feet situated
far back, the anterior toes fully webbed, their (;laws normal, sometimes strongly
hooked, the bill extremely variable in shape. They differ from the loons, their
nearest allies, in the entire absence of a hind toe, and of a membrane overhanging
the nostril. Peculiar to the seas and coasts of the more northern parts of the northern
hemisphere, they represent there the penguins of the Antarctic seas — with one excep-
tion, however — they possess the power of flight, usually to a marked degree; but the
great auk {Plauius impennis) , extinct since 1844, was quite unable to fly. The family
is represented by about 12 genera and 28 species, all of the former and all but 3 of
the latter occurring in North America.

Family Spheniitcidx, the penguins: The penguins are oceanic birds, peculiar to the
Antarctic seas, where they represent the auks (family Alddce) of the Arctic waters.
They are peculiar in having their feathers uniformly distributed over their whole
surfaces (except bill and feet), and in having the quill feathers rudimentary, or
hardly distinguishable from the closely set, scale-like feathers which correspond to
the wing coverts of other birds. Hence the penguins are incapable of flight, the only
function of their wings being as propellers, their feet l)eing used to guide rather than
force them through the vvater. They are as much at home in the sea as are the seals
among mammals, and resort to the land chiefly for the purpose of reproduction.
They breed in large colonies on rocky coasts. About 8 genera and 18 species are
known, more than half of them inhabiting the seas skirting the extreme southern
portion of America.

In addition to these family labels, each individual specimen bore a species label, a
sample of which is herew^ith given, on which was printed the English and scientific
names (with authority for the latter) and the geographical range.

B. GAME BIROS.

The collection of game birds comprised 179 specimens, representing 132 species,
belonging to 79 genera, distributed among the several families, as follows:

Genera.

Tetraonidse (jfrouae), Amoriean fomui

Jetmonidae (grouse), Old-World forms

Perdicidae (partridges and quailB), American forms »

Perdicidse (partridges and quails) . Old-World forms

Pbasianidffi ( pheasants) , Old World exclusively

Meleagridae (turkeys), American exclusively

Numididse (guinea fowls) , peculiar to Africa

Meganodidse (mound fowl), peculiar to the Australian region.

Craciaoe (curassows) , peculiar to tropical America ^

Gouridaj (crowned and pigeons), peculiar to New Guinea

Columbido) (pigeons or doves), Old-World forms only *

AnatidtB (swans, ducks, and geese), American forms only ^ ...

Total

79

Species.

182

Speci-
mens.

47
7
22
13
S3
6
3
S
2
2
21
20

179

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1329

Game birds: The collection of game birds here exhibited includes the principal
kinds, it being necessary, on account of inadequate space, to limit its extent. The
exhibition of foreign species is attempted only with the gallinaceous birds and
pigeons, the various waterfowl classed as game birds being restricted to North Ameri-
can species. Special attention has naturally been paid to the North American species
of gallinaceous birds, of which every known species and race is represented.

C. BIRDS OF PARADISE.

Birds of paradise, family Paradisieidss: The birds of paradise are famed for the
magnificence of their plumage, and in the extraordinary development of ornamental
plumes they certainly excel all other birds. Their early history was involved in
much that is purely mythical. They were supposed to live entirely in the air, never
touching the earth until they died; and having, therefore, no use for feet did not
possess them. The last-mentioned myth resulted from the circumstance that the
dried skins of these birds which came into possession of the early Dutch and Portu-
guese traders had been deprived of their legs by the natives, who, to explain their
absence, told the traders that the birds did not possess such useless appendages. It
was on this account that Linnseus named the great bird of paradise ParadisaBa apoda —
i. e., the footless bird of paradise — ^and so it is known to this day.

Through the observations of Mr. Alfred Russell Wallace and others, who have seen
the living birds in their native forests, their general habits are now fairly well kno'^n;
and the systematists who have studied their structure have shown them to be closely
allied to several families of ordinary passerine birds; indeed, it has been found that
the typical birds of paradise are so closely allied to the crows (family Corvidse and
Orioles (family OrioUdse) that it is difficult to find characters to sharply define them
as a distinct family.

Remarkable as the ornamental plumes of these birds appear in stuffed specimens,
they are far more wonderful in the living birds, for they can be raised, spread, and
moved about at the owner's will, and thus made to produce most startling effects.
Observe, for example, the specimens of the six-shafted bird of paradise {ParoHa
sefikUa ) . The Count d* Albertis, who was the first naturalist who saw living examples
of this species, says, of one which he subsequently shot, that it b^an its display by
moving the long feathers of the head and raising and lowering the small tuft of white
feathers above its beak, which shone in the sun like polished silver; the burnished
golden feathers on the throat were then raised and lowered, glittering the while like
bits of bright metal; the long feathers of the sides were alternately spread and closed,
making him appear now lai^r, then smaller, than his real size; '' and jumping first
on one side, then on the other, he placed himself proudly in an attitude of combat,
as though he imagined himself fighting with an invisible foe.''

The males of the species of Paradiscea are said to alight upon the summit of a tall
dead tree, overlooking the forest, and there in the full sunlight spread their plumes
and pose before an admiring audience of the plainer sex.

The birds of paradise are peculiar to Papua, or New Guinea, with its attendant
islands, and neighboring parts of Australia, though none of the subfamily Paradir
8«i7ix occur in the latter country.

D. HUMMING BIRDS.

Humming birds, family TrochUidse: Of all the many groups into which the class of
birds is divided, there is none other so varied in form, so brilliant in plumage, and
so different from all others in their mode of feeding, while few, if any, are so numer-
ous in species. Inhabitants exclusively of the tropical and temperate portions of
America, they constitute the most charming element in the wonderfully varied bird
life of the New World.

COL EXPO — 02 84

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1330 BEPOBT OF OOMMITTEE ON AWABD8.

The general habits of humming birds are similar to those of other birds. They
are both arboreal and aerial, but are unable to progress upon the ground or any flat
surface by means of their legs and feet alone. They perch frequently upon trees or
bushes, or even in rare instances cling to rocks, and their mode of nidification pre-
sents nothing that may be deemed peculiar or even specially characteristic. But in
their flight and manner of procuring their food they differ strikingly from other
birds, in these respects much more closely resembling certain insects than members
of the ** feathered tribe."

In feeding from flower to flower humming birds, like bees and butterflies, besides
obtaining nourishment for themselves, perform in the economy of nature the same
office as insects, by transferring pollen from one bloom to another, and thus assisting
in the fertilization of plants.

Diminutiveness of size and brilliancy of coloring are the chief external character-
istics of humming birds, and in these respects, they, as a rule, have no rivals.
Unfortunately, stuffed specimens convey but a faint idea of their splendid coloring;
the perfection of their changeable refulgence can be fully realized only in the living
bird, whose every motion produces a flash-like change of hue — emerald green
replacing ruby red, or either becoming velvet black — according to the angle at
which the sun's rays touch the feathers; while stuffed specimens, being always in one
position, can only show one set of colors at the expense of another. For example,
some kinds have an intensely brilliant spot of emerald green on the forehead and a
spot of metallic blue, purple, or crimson on the throat. Of course only one of these
ornaments can be seen in the stuffed specimen at the same instant or from one posi-
tion. Again, some species have a spot of one brilliant color on the throat and
another of a totally different hue just beneath it; these can not be seen together,
though slight changes in the position of the body will show first one, then the other.

(See also the label for the family Trochilid^,

EXHIBIT OP DIVISION OF ECONOMIC OBNITHOLOGY AND MAMMALOGY,
DEPABTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE.

This fine exhibit was based upon the work done in the two branches
of research conducted by the division, namely, the geographic dis-
tribution of birds and mammals and the food habits of the various
species; both subjects of direct economic importance to agriculture,
the former by determining, with an exactness to be otherwise reached
only by protracted and costly experiment, the geographic areas suited
by climate and local conditions to the cultivation of standard products,
the latter as showing whether a given species is, from the character of
its food, beneficial or injurious to the farmer. Each of these subjects,
in its various details, was graphically illustrated by models, maps, and
mounted specimens, the latter accompanied by appropriate accessories
to show the natural environment, food, and other pertinent matters in
the life history of the various species.

The several individual subjects together constituting this exhibit
may be classified as follows:

A. Geographic illustrations.

1. Idealized mountain slope to show successive faunas and floras of different

elevations.

2. Topographic relief map of the area covered by the Death Valley Expedition.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION^ 1893. 1331

3. Relief map of the United States showing faunal areas or life zones, accom-

panied by enlarged photographs of desert scenery with characteristic ani-
mals and plants.

4. Maps (about 50 in number) of the United States colored to show areas inhab-

ited by particular species.
B. Economic relations.

a. Individual species with artistic accessories to show natural environment and

food supply.

1. Group of crows {Corvus americanus) feeding in a rife wly planted corn-

field.

2. Northern shrike or butcher bird {Danius borealu) perched on a thorny

branch eating an English sparrow; impaled on neighboring thorns
are remains of field mice and grasshoppers.

3. English sparrow {Passer domesticus) destroying peach buds and blos-

soms.

4. King birds or bee martins ( Tyrannus tyrannwi) and nest, the latter on

an apple bough bearing leaves and green fruit. One bird has a
honeybee in its bill, the other catching rose bugs.

5. English sparrow (Passer domesticus) attacking a robin {AfervUa migra-

toria) on a lawn.

6. Crow blackbirds (Quiscalus quiscula) searching among meadow grass

for insects and larvse.

7. Yellow-billed cuckoo ( Coccyzus americaniLs) , eating caterpillars among

fresh foliage and blossoms of an apple tree.

8. Cedar birds or cedar wax wings (Ampelis cedrortim ) , feeding on the elm-

leaf beetle on a drooping branch of an elm.

9. Bobolinks ( Dolichonyx oryzivorus) on their nesting ground, representing

a pair with their nest and eggs.

10. Bobolinks transformed (by post nuptial molt) into " rice birds," gorg-

ing themselves with ripening rice.

11. Red-tailed hawks (BtUeo borealis) perched on a dead tree top, one of

them with a meadow mouse under its foot.

12. Red-shouldered Hawks (Buteolineatus); two adults and an immature

bird.

13. Sparrow hawks ( Falco sparveriiis ) , one of them eating a meadow mouse.

14. Cooper's hawk {Accipiter cooperi) with a dying flicker or golden-

winged woodpecker in its claws.

15. Mottled owls {Megascops asio),

16. Long-eared owl {Asio wUsonianus),

b. Special food exhibits:

1. Characteristic food materials of various hawks and owls.

2. Characteristic food materials of crows, blackbirds, bobolinks, cuckoos,

shrikes, and cedar birds.

c. Samples of nesting boxes for the protection and encouragement of valuable

native birds.

These separate features of the exhibit may be described as follows:

MODRL OF A MOUNTAIN SLOPE IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA, SHOWING THE DIFFERENT

LIFE ZONES.

[Copy of label.]

This model is intended to bring before the eye at a glance characteristic represen-
tatives of the faunas of successive elevations from the Sonoran desert at the base to

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1332 REPOET OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

the arctic-alpine summit, thos illastniting all the life zones of North America, from
the tahle-lancl of Mexico to the Arctic Circle. The particular area represented is the
East or Great Basin slope of the Sierra Nevada, opposite Owens Lake, with a strip
of desert at the base. Two species are included from the west slope, and one from
the deserts farther east
The following zones and species are represented, be^^nning at the bottom:

1. Lower Sonoran Zone. — Covers the deserts east of the Sierra, including Panamint
and Death valleys, and the Amaigoea desert. The most conspicuous and wide-
spread plant of this zone is the creosote bush (Larrea tridentala). The most charac-
teristic mammals are the 4-toed kangaroo rats (Dipodomytt) , the large pocket mice
(ChdodipuM) , the scorpion mice {Onychomys)^ the cliff mice (Sitomys eremicus)^ the
white-tailed or antelope ground squirrel {SjtermophUus cttairtu), the desert wood rat
(Neotoma mexicana), and the Sonoran desert fox {Vulpes macrotis). The most
characteristic birds are Le Conte's thrasher {Harporhynchus lecontei)^ cactus wren
(HeUodyUs hrunneicapiUug)^ the black-throated desert sparrow {Amphispiza bUineata),
the chaparral ?ock {Geococq^s caUforfiiantu), and Gambel's quail ( Cnllipq[}la gamheli).

2. Upper Sonoran Zone. — Covers the greater part of Owens Valley and the lower
slopes of the Sierra. The most conspicuous and widespread plant of this zone is
the sagebrush (Artemesia tridentala). The most characteristic mammals are the
5-toed kangaroo rats (Rerodopus), the small pocket jnice (Rerognathm) , and the sage-
brush spermophile (Spermophilus mollis) . The gray fox {Ihroq/on) and the badger
( Taxidea) occur, but inhabit some of the other zones also. The most characteristic
birds are Brewer's sparrow (SpizeUa breweri) , sage thrasher (Oroscopies monianus), the
lark finch (Chondestes grammacus striffatus)^ and Woodhouse's jay {Aphelocoma icood-
housei). The California Valley quail {QUlipepa calif omica vallicola) is abundant in
parts of this 2one.

3. Dramition Zone. — A narrow zone intervening between the Upper Sonoran and
the Boreal. Like the Upper Sonoran, it is covered by sagebrush {Artemisia triden-
taia)f and parts of it are sparsely wooded by junipers and nut pine. The most char-
acteristic mammal in this region is the sage plains chipmunk ( Tamias minimus pio-
tu8)f which is replaced on the west slope by Tamias merriami. The most character-
istic birds are the Nevada sage sparrow (Amphispiza bellii nevadentds) ^ the green-
tailed towhee (Pipilo chlorurtis), and the plumed quail {Oreortijx pictxts jUumiferous).

4. Boreal Zone. — A broad zone comprising the timber-covered upper slopes, on
which the dominant trees are spruces and firs. In the High Sierra the most charac-
teristic mammals are the golden-shouldered ground squirrel {SpermophUus chryso-
deirus)j Belding's ground squirrel (Spermophilus beldmgi), California pine squirrel
(Sdurus c(difomicus)t the Sierra chipmimk (Tamias spedosvs), and bushy-tailed
wood rat (Neotoma dnerea), mice of the genus ArvvcoUij and shrews of the genus Sorex.
The characteristic birds are Clark's crow or nutcracker (Picicorous columbianus)^
blue-fronted jay (Cyanocitta stellerifronlalis), mountain bluebird (Sialia ardico), and
the dipper or water ouzel ( Cindus m£xicaniui) .

5. Arctic-Alpine Zonf. -Comprises the higher summits of the mountains above the
upper limit of tree growth. This zone is characterized by a number of small flower-
ing plants, and is inhabited by the mountain sheep or bighorn ( Ot^is canadensis) , the
pika (Lagomys)y and the mountain marmot (Arctomys flaviventer). The most char-
acteristic bird of the Arctic-Alpine zone in the High Sierra is the gray-crowned rosy
finch (Leucosticte tephrocotis).

Then follows a '^Key to species on the model," which, being a mere
list of names with numbers to correspond with those attached to the
specimens, it is unnecessary to reproduce here. The species number
29 of mammals and 19 of birds.

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W0BLD*8 COULMBIAN EXPOSITION, 18d3. 1838

TOPOGRAPHIC RELIEF MAP OF THE AREA COVERED BY THE DEATH VALLEY EXPEDITION. *

The area covered by this relief map, comprising about 100,000 square
miles in California, Nevada, Utah, and Arizona, contains the highest
elevations and deepest depressions in the United States, and is of very
great interest both to the physiographer and biologist. The life zones,
as on the adjoining relief map of the United States, were shown in
diflFerent colors.

RELIEF MAP OF THE UNITED STATES, SHOWING FAUNAL AREAS OR LIFE ZONES, ETC.

The scale of the model is 1 inch = 40 miles. It shows the correct curvature at sea
level, and is a section of a globe 16} feet in diameter. Elevations and depressions
above and below sea level exaggerated five times. Original model made for the United
States Geological Survey by Edwin E. Howell.

The scheme of colors used is as follows: Boreal life zone equals green;
Upper Austroriparian life zone equals yellow; Lower Austroriparian
life zone equals dark yellow; Tropical life zone equals pink.

MAPS OF THE UNITED STATES COLORED TO SHOW AREAS INHABITED BY PARTICULAR

SPECIES.

These maps (on a reduced scale) illustrated the geographic distribution
of about 50 species of birds and mammals from data gathered by the
division. The species were nearly all of western range.

ARTISTIC GROUPS WTTH NATURAL ACCESSORIES.

Each group label is headed by a reduced outline map of the United
States, with the area inhabited by the species to which it pertains col-
ored. A reproduction of this heading, with the map uncolored, is
given herewith, it being omitted from the labels which follow:

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, DIVISION OF ORNITHOLOGY AND

MAMMALOGY.

Common crow, Conms americanus: A group of crows seeking food in a cornfield.
Some keep watch while the others pull the young sprouts, nip off the swollen kernels
at the roots, and drop the blades on the ground. Incidentally the crow eats cutworms,
wireworms, and white grubs in the cornfield, but his visits there are due principally
to fondness for the sprouting com. If the seed com be lightly coated with a solution
of tar before planting, the crows sample it and let the rest alone. An exhibit of crow
food is shown in another case.

Butcher bird, Lanius borealu: The butcher bird, or northem shrike, nests mainly
or entirely north of the United States, coming south only in cold weather. It pos-
sesses in a marked degree the habit, more or less common to all shrikes, of killing
more food than is needed and suspending the surplus on thorns or sharp twigs near
its favorite perch. The points of a barbed-wire fence frequently are utilized lor this

*A biological survey conducted by the United States Department of Agriculture,
Dr. C. Hart Merriam (Chief of Division of Economic Ornithology and Mammalogy),
in charge. The map was com pi led under the direction of A. H. Thompson, geographer,
United States Geological Survey.

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Google

1834

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

purpose. The batcher bird eats field mice, small birds, and insects, and has proved
very oseful in some city parks in winter by lessening the number of English spar-
rows. The origin and purpose of the habit of impaling its food never have been
satisfactorily explained.

English sparrow, Piisser domeglicus: English sparrows, the world over, habitnaUj
destroy the buds and blossoms of fruit and shade trees. Sometimes the harm done
is trifling, but in many cases the loss is serious. Generally the sparrows eat the cen-
ters of most of the buds, but in some cases they liave been seen to mutilate the blos-
soms wantonly, eating no part of them. Pea(;h trees are always attacked, but many
others suffer almost as much, particularly the pear, cherry, plum, quince, apple,
maple, beech, and elm.

Kingbird or bee martin, Tyrannua tyrannus: The nest, as usual, is placed on one of
the upper branches of a neglected apple tree, the small green apples surroimding the
nest. One of the birds holds a honeybee in its bill. Kingbirds are abundant and
well known for their daring attacks on hawks and crows, as well as for their mischiev-
ous habit of cat<!hing hive l)ces. The latter habit does not seem to be universal.

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V \J-~~i~~i ]

\)-tI^^

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rXV

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ly-*^

The Hhadinf? on map showfl area of distribution.

but is confined to a few individuals. When the habit becomes fixed, however, the
bird becomes a serious nuisance to bee keepers. The ordinary food includes many
harmful insects, among them the well-known rose bug Macrodactylus gubgpinosus.
These and other insects commonly eaten may be seen in a neighboring table case.

English sparrow, Passer domegticus; American robin, Merula migrcUoria: This group
illustrates an incident of everyday occurrence during the nesting season of the robin.
Two or more sparrows watch a female robin which is searching for earthworms or
insects on the lawn. They keep at some distance and pretend to look for food them-
selves until the robin locates a worm and attempts to unearth it. Then the sparrows
approach quickly and take positions on either side and usually a little behind her.
When at last, with considerable effort, the robin drags the worm out of the ground,
one of the robbers makes a dash at it, and if the robin eludes him by throwing
her head in the opposite direction, another stands ready to snatch it. In places
where sparrows are abundant this habit makes it almost impossible for robins to
take food enough to their young to keep them from starving.

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WOBLD's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1335

Crow blackbird, purple grackle, Quiscedtts quisada: Adult male and female, and
jfull-fledged yoong, hunting for June bugs and their larvse (white grubs) in damp
grass land. The June bugs {AUorhina) and their allies, the May bugs {Lachno9-
tema)y are eagerly sought for by blackbirds, and as the insects are serious pests to
the agriculturist, the birds do icood service by eating them. During spring and early
summer the food of the crow blackbird is mainly of an animal nature, and insects
form the larger part of it At other seasons the diet is more largely vegetal, and
the destruction of corn and other grain sometimes causes serious loss to the farmer.
For exhibit of customary food see table case.

Yellow-billed cuckoo, Coccyzun americanius: Cuckoos feeding on caterpillars among
apple blossoms. The caterpillar shown is the larva of the white-marked tussock
moth {Orgyia leucostigma)^ one of the species most destructive to shade and fruit
trees. Cuckoos eat insects of almost all kinds, but are particularly valuable because
of their fondness for hairy caterpillars, which other birds can not or will not eat
The cuckoos of the United States, unlike those of Europe, usually build nests for
themselves and rear their own young. They should be protected and fostered by
every possible means. An exhibit of the customary food of cuckoos will be found
in an adjoining table case.

Cedar bird, cedar waxwing, Ampelis cedrorum: Five birds on a bough of the conmion
elm which is infested with elm-leaf beetles (Galeruca xanthomelaena). The bird is
well known to fruit growers under the name of cherry bird from its fondness for that
fruit. It also eats various other fruits, such as raspberries, blackberries, and mul-
berries, and, moving usually in flocks, it often does considerable damage. In spite
of this it is a valuable friend to the farmer, since it eats immense numbers of harm-
ful insects, among them the imported elm-leaf beetle, which in some cities has
stripped the elms completely year after year. It also eats other beetles belonging to
the same family {Chrysomdidte), though all seem to be distasteful to most other
birds. See food exhibit in table case.^

Bobolink, Dolichonyx orynvcrusy male, female, and nest: Bobolinks during the
nesting season are among the most musical and delightful of birds. The male in his
black and white dress is a marvelous singer, and old and young feed laigely on insects,
rarely doing any harm whatever. Soon after the young are able to care for them-
selves the parents undergo a complete moult, and the male appears in nearly the
same garb as his mate and young. In this plumage they migrate southward, and
under the name of ricebirds do incalculable damage in the rice fields. See food
exhibit in table case.

Ricebirds, Dolichonyx oryzivorus: During the nesting season at the North, the bob
olink or ricebird is seen only in pairs or small family groups. In autumn, however,
the birds unite in immense flocks in the rice fields of the Carolinas, Geoi^gia, and the
Gulf States, and cause untold loss to the planters. At this season male and female,
old and young, are nearly alike in color and voice, and their buffy plumage liarmon-
izes with the tints of the ripening grain, doubtless protecting them to a large extent
from their natural enemies. Other birds, particularly the red-winged blackbirds
(one of which appears in this group), unite with the ricebirds to pillage the rice
fields, but the loss caused by blackbirds is comparatively small. See food exhibit in
table case.

Bed-tailed hawk, Buteo borealis: Two adults, male and female, and an immature
bird, perched in the top of a dead tree. One of the adult birds holds a meadow
mouse (Arvicola riparius) under its foot This is one of the so-called hen hawks,
but in reality it seldom attacks poultry, and is of great benefit to the farmer, since it
feeds very laigely on small rodents, particularly meadow mice, chipmunks, squirrels,
and rabbits. See food exhibit in adjoining table case.

Bed-shouldered hawk, Buteo Uneaius: Adult male and female and immature male,
perched in the top of a bare tree. This hawk is more often beneficial than harmful

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1836 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

to the agriculturist, though commonly called a "hen hawk" and confounded with
other species. Its food is extremely varied, including mammals, birds, snakes,
frogs, fish, insects, spiders, centipeds, crawfish, earthworms, and snails. A larf^
part of the food, however, consists of injurious mice and squirrels. See table case
for samples of the food eaten.

Sparrow hawk, Falro sparrtrius: Two males and a female, all adult and in winter
plumage. The female holds under her foot a freshly killed meadow mouse (ArvicxAa
riparius). This little falcon, so abundant in most parts of the United States, is of
marked value to the agriculturist, since it prefers field mice and large inserts to all
other food, though occasionally it does catch a small bird, and, exceptionally, has
been known to attack birds heavier than itself. It should not be confounded with
the sparrow^ hawk of Europe (AccipUer nimis)^ the latter being a true bird hawk
belonging to the same genus as the American sharp-shinned and Cooper's hawks. See
exhibit of food of hawks in neighboring table case.

Cooper's hawk, AccipUer cooperi: A female in the act of killing a flicker or golden-
winged woodpecker (Colaptes auratus). This is one of the few harmful hawks of the
United States, and in most districts perhaps the most common. Farmers know it
generally under the name of chicken hawk or little chicken hawk, and doubtless it
kills most of the smaller chickens and domesticated doves whose disappearance oom-
monly is attributed to the larger hawks. It is very destructive to feathered game and
prefers wild birds to all other meat. However, it does some good by eating mice,
squirrels, and the smaller rodents generally. See exhibit of food of hawks in neigh-
boring table case.

Mottled or screech owl, Magascops agio: This is the most abundant and best known
of the small owls, frequenting woods, orchards, and even city parks. In the latter
situation it is a wholesome check on the English sparrow, and should be protei'ted
and encouraged unless native birds outnumber the sparrows. It eats great numbers
of mice and injurious insects and is also fond of fish and crawfish. Under ortlinary
circumstances it is decidedly beneficial to the agriculturist. See food exhibit in
adjoining table case.

Long-eared owl, Asio wiUonianus: A common owl in wooded r^ions, and, like
most owls, decidedly beneficial to the farmer by consuming mice and insects. Occa-
sionally it kills a small bird, but such variations are exceptional, the regular diet con-
sisting of various species of mice and other small mammals.

SPECIAL FOOD EXHIBITS.

These exhibits were arranged under two categories, one consisting'
of an analysis of examinations made of the contents of a large
number of stomachs of various hawks, owls, etc.; the other being
specimens of "pellets or castings" of the same birds. A transcript of
the labels, herewith given, more fully explains the nature of these
exhibits:

Sparrow hawk, Faleo sparverius: Of 320 stomachs examined, 1 contained a game
bird (quail); 53, other birds; 89, mice; 12, other mammals; 12, reptiles or batra-
chians; 215, insects; 29, spiders, and 29 were empty.

Red-tailed hawk, BtUeo borealis: Of 562 stomachs examined, 54 contained poultry
or game birds; 51, other birds; 278, mice; 131, other mammals; 37, batrachians or
reptiles; 47, insects; 8, crawfish; 1, centipeds; 13, offal, and 89 were empty.

Cooper's hawk, Accipiter cooperi: Of 133 stomachs examined, 34 cx)ntained poultry
or game birds; 52, other birds; 11, mammals; 1, frog; 3, lizards; 2, insects, and 39
were empty.

St;reech owl, Megascops amo: Of 225 stomachs examined, 1 containeil iwultry; 38,

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1387

other birds; 91, mice; 11, other mammals; 2, lizards; 4, batrachians; 1, fish; 100,
insects; 5, spiders; 9, crawfish; 7, miscellaneous; 2, scorpions; 2, earthworms, and
43 were empty.

Pellets or castings: In the case of the birds of prey, as in some of the other orders,
the indigestible portions of food, such as feathers, hair, bones, and the hard cover-
ings of insects, are formed into balls by the movements of the stomach, after the
nutritious portions have been absorbed. These masses, which are known as
'^pellets,'* are regurgitated from the stomach before a new supply of food is taken.
The movements of the stomach so shape these "pellets" that every sharp piece of
bone or hard material which might otherwise injure the mucous membrane is care-
fully enveloped by a felty covering of hair or feathers. In the case of some of the
owls which have regular roosting places vast numbers of these pellets collect, and an
examination of them will give a perfect index to the character of the food devoured.

Crow pellets or castings: Crows, as well as hawks and owls, disgorge the indigestible
remnants of their food in the shape of balls or "pellets," the bones, shell, scales,
seeds, and other hard materials being held together more or less perfectly by sand
and gravel which are swallowed in large quantities as an aid to digestion.

Pellets or castings of the common crow, made up mainly of seeds of the poison ivy
or poison oak {Rhus toxicodendron) and sand.

Components of a single pellet of the bam owl, showing the fur and bones of two
meadow mice, 1 jumping mouse, and 1 short-tailed shrew. Skins of these mammals
are shown also.

Bones of rats, mice, shrews, and other small mammals, all contained originally in
200 pellets or castings of the bam owl.

Pellets of the bam owl (Strix praiincola) , showing smooth outer coating of felted
hair.

NBErriNG BOXSS FOR WILD BIBD8.

[€k)py of label.]

These nesting boxes are designed to show forms and sizes weH adapted to the vari-
ous species of wild birds which often nest in the vicinity of dwellings, and whose
presence it is desirable to encourage. In addition to the species here shown, several
other birds are likely to use the same boxes; for example, the purple martin, white-
bellied swallow, and Carolina wren, while many other species may be induced to
nest near the house by providing such trees and shrubs as are preferred for nesting
places or such as will furnish attractive fruit or seed. For birds which habitually
nest in natural cavities, one of the most attractive boxes can be made by sawing off
suitable lengths of hollow stubs or branches, closing one end with a plug or bit of
board, and placing conveniently in shade or fruit trees out of the reach of cats.
Gourds of suitable size form excellent nesting places for wrens, bluebirds, white-
breasted swallows, and chickadees, and even empty fruit cans may be used to
advantage.

EXHIBIT OF THE UNITED STATES PISH COMMISSION.

The United States Fish Commission exhibited a series of fish-eating
birds, comprising 35 species, represented by 77 specimens. These,
instead of being mounted, were simph^ well-made skins, appropriately
labeled and neatly displayed behind glass. In cases of a marked dif-
ference of coloration between the upper and lower parts duplicate
specimens were shown, one exposing the upper surface, the other the
lower parts. Although well-mounted specimens would have been pref-
erable from an artistic point of view, the necessity of condensing the

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1338 RBPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

exhibit, as well as lack of sufficient time, prevented their use. But for
all piucticable purposes the method adopted answered the purpose for
which the exhibit was intended quite as well as mounted specimens.

EXHIBIT OF THE ILLINOIS STATE LABORATORY OF NATURAL HISTORY.

No other State exhibit of birds was in any respect comparable with
that made by Illinois, through the State laboratory of natural history,
located at Champaign. This line exhibit was planned by Prof. S. A.
Forbes, director of that important institution, and approved by the
State board of world's fair commissioners, and was prepared under
the immediate supervision of Mr. C. F. Adams, of Champaign, who
unfortunately died before the result of his work was installed for
public view.

In order that only first-class material, prepared by modern methods
of taxidermy, should be shown, Mr. Adams made a number of field
trips, not only to secure specimens, but also to make careful studies of
the chracteristic attitudes of the various species and their naturalistic
environment, in order that these might be faithfully reproduced in
the objects prepared for exhibition. Work was begun in the autumn
of 1891, but by far the greater part of the material was gathered
within the State during the year 1892 by parties sent out from the
State laboratory of natural history.

Altogether, 775 mounted specimens of birds, representing nearly if
not all the species and subspecies known to occur within the limits of
the State (about 350 in number) were displayed, their classification
and the number of specimens in each series being as follows:

Specimens mounled on museum pedestals.

Specimens.

Summer residents throughout Illinois 207

Summer residents peculiar to northern Illinois 59

Summer residents peculiar to southern Illinois 38

Winter residents throughout Illinois 141

Winter residents of northern Illinois 44

Winter residents of southern Illinois 108

Migrants passing through Illinois 77

Stragglers in Illinois 24

Total number of specimens in faunal exhibit 698

Specimens mounted on plaques, common game birds of Illinois, mounted as

dead game 53

Specimens mounted in artistic groups with naturalistic accessories:

Wild turkeys 6

Prairie chickens 4

Crossbills (on larch bough) 8

Yellow-bellied sapsuckers ( with nest and eggs) 4

Green herons (with nest and eggs) 2

Total number of specimens exhibited 775

In addition to this extensive collection of birds themselves, there
was exhibited, in connection with them, 125 clutches of eggs, repi^e-

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1339

senting bls many of the species which are known to nest within the
limits of the State, the total number of eggs being 525.

As a State exhibit, this collection was in all respects an admirable
one, and, taking into consideration the limited time allowed for its
preparation, it is difficult to imagine how it could have l)een materially
improved. In the conception of its plan Professor Forbes success-
fully solved the difficult problem of producing a popular presentation
of a scientific subject, while the artistic execution of the work, in all
its details, was quite abreast of the most advanced modern methods.

A careful study of the ornithological collections at the World's
Columbian Exposition has clearly developed two conspicuous facts
regarding stuffed-bird exhibits of the present time as compared with
those of the period of the Centennial Exposition of 1876. One is the
very great advance which has been made in the technique of the taxi-
dermic art and the character of museum installation; the other is the
very slight extent to which the improved methods have been utilized.
The obvious explanation of this anou^aly is to be found in the circum-
stance that few taxidermists are artists, and it requires the same degree
of artistic skill to mount a bird well as it does to paint a picture well.
Intimately associated with taxidermy as a factor in the production of
educational exhibits of this kind is another art, as yet in the experi-
mental stage, and in which, so far as it has been developed, still fewer
persons have become proficient. I refer to the preparation of acces-
sories for groups, which are intended to counterfeit the natural envi-
ronment of the species as accurately as the skin stuffed b^'^ a master
hand does the living bird.

The average taxidermist of the present day, even if he practices the
modern methods of work, is capable only of productions which class
him simply as an artisan; he is far from being an artist. He has
"stereotyped" attitudes, more often copied from bad drawings than
from living specimens; there is a lack of character to his work, no
delicacy of finish, or it may be that the finishing is overdone, all resem-
blance to life being destroyed by elaborately smoothing down the
plumage, which looks as if every trifling inequality of surface had
been "ironed" out. If artistic groups are attempted, a more or less
improbable, often impossible, aggregation of species are crowded
, together in a case, with gaudily painted and crudely formed artificial
leaves and flowers, made specially for "the trade," added for embel-
lishment. No special lesson is in view; nothing is thought of, in fact,
but a massing of bright colors to ' ' catch the eye. " This constitutes the
ordinary so-called "shop" taxidermy, too often employed in museums
of the present day. Decorative taxidermy, so called, is not neces-
sarily, and seldom is, artistic taxidermy.

The taxidermic artist, the acceptable one at least, if not competent
to design subjects for representation, must be able to execute the
designs of others. The proreciuisito of every group must be the illus-

1340 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWABDd.

tration of some fact, the teaching of some lepson, and, in order that no
error may l)e conveyed, it is important that it shall contain no incon-
gruities however trifling. A bird from Florida, therefore, would
not be placed in a cranberry bog or upon a spray of arbor vita?, but
among southern aquatics, on a magnolia bough, a branch dmped with
" Spanish" moss, or with other accessories as characteristic as itself of
the locality which it inhabits. The position or attitude of every speci-
men must be carefully studied in order that it may express distinctly
a characteristic of the species.

The taxidermist who is competent to do the work now required by
the more advanced museums must know far more than the relaxing of
dried skins, the cleansing of soiled plumage, wiring, and other mere
technical details of his work. He must even be more than an artist —
he must be something of an ornithologist. For example, he must
possess the elementary knowledge of birds that would prevent him
from mounting a swift perched, like a swallow, upon a twig; from
mounting a humming bird with its wings crossed or laid over the tail;
from raising or arching the tail of a jungle cock as he would that of a
dunghill; he would not think of compressing the body of a duck or
flattening that of a rail; and he would thus be particular about hun-
dreds of other things apparently trifling to the untrained observer, but
really of great significance and importance. He must understand
modeling in wax and other materials in order that soft parts which
shrink or distort in drying may be reproduced permanently in their
natural form, and he must be able to paint skillfully, so that parts
which fade or become discolored may be restored to the natural hues
of the living bird. Combined with the knowledge and ability to do all
these things, he must have that fidelity to truth which will forbid him
painting a wood duck's bill yellow, or giving it blue eyes, or other-
wise "taking liberties" with nature. In other words, if he does not
know what to do in specific cases, he must not supply the deficiency
in his knowledge by guessing and thereby at the same time deceiving
the uninformed and shocking those who happen to detect the fraud.

The acceptable taxidermist will not confine his studies to the work-
shop, but will study the subjects of his art in life wherever he has the
opportunity. He will make free use of the camera whenever and
wherever the opportunity offers; will make careful memoranda on the-
colors of parts which change in hue after death, or, better still, color
sketches of them. In short, he will neglect nothing which may add
to the excellence of his work.

The ideal described above is not impossible, for he does exist; but
such are few in number — fewer, certainly, than the fingers on one
hand. Nor are the qualifications specified unnecessary, for only those
who possess them can hope for continuous employment, unless in the
shop of the ordinary bird stuffer or some museum of the lower i*ank.

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BIRDS.

By Dr. R. W. Shufkli>t.

In the system of classification adopted by the World's Columbian
Commission, the exposition of material pertaining to the science of
Ornithology was provided^for in a general way by the establishment
of class 230, of group 34, wherein the intention was announced that
''Birds of all countries, alive and as stuffed specimens" would form a
part of the world's exhibit at Chicago. Provision was also made for
this important science by the convening of a congress on birds, under
the auspices of the world's congress auxiliar}^, which was designated
as the "Division of Ornithology." Many ornithologists of distinc-
tion and world-wide reputation were present at the convention, and
many papers were there read which were of great value to the prog-
ress of ornithology, but as all this, and more besides, will be incor-
porated in the history of that congress, it does not properly fall to
my duty to have anything to say about it in this place.

Confining myself then more strictly to that part of the subject as
set forth in the title of this report, I would, in the first place, invite
attention to the nature and character of the ornithological exhibits at
the Exposition. In one way or another these have been, in a number
of cases, already alluded to in my report upon taxidermy.

Many foreign countries, as those of South America, and the nations
of Europe and elsewhere, submitted with their general exhibits* cases
of mounted birds and mammals of various pretensions. Some of them
also exhibited collections of skins of birds, as for example the rather
interesting collection sent on by Guatemala and one or two other
countries. In this matter a similar action was taken on the part of.a
number of the States and Territories of this country, and a majority
of the State or Territorial exhibits attempted, among other things, to
show the most chai^acteristic forms and species representing their
respective avifaunsB. In most cases this was but feebly accomplished,
while in others, the very indifferent character of the taxidermical
methods employed, detracted in a marked manner from those more or
less praiseworthy attempts, which, but for it, might have been to a
greater degree successful.

Occasionally we met with an instance woere a few living birds
formed a part of the exhibit. Manitoba may be cited as an example,

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and the value of her wonderfully interesting collection was materially
added to in this way.

Another class of exhibits of ornithological material were those where
one or more private individuals submitted a case of mounted birds, or
even single-mounted specimens, to be placed in atiy suitable connec-
tion on exhibition. For a numl)er of reasons these, as a rule, were of
but little scientific value, though, if not examined from this standpoint,
they often lent a pleasing effect to the general appearance of a number
of the exhibits that possessed them. But we must not so far digress
here as to be guilty of passing into the realms of "decorative taxi-
dermy," a subject quite apart from '* scientific ornithology," to which
this report is to be more especially devoted.

Prof. H. A. Ward placed on exhibition a large scientific collection
from his famous establishment at Rochester, N. Y. In the paleonto-
logical part of this there were a few specimens of interest to the gen-
eral student in ornithology, but there were a great many more in his
mounted collection of existing forms, and especially in the series of
mounted skeletons of birds, which he exhibited in connection with the
latter. The placing in museum cases of well-mounted types of bird
forms, with accurately articulated skeletons of the same on stands
near them, is a most admirable plan, that should be more universally
adopted, and is largely adopted by the zoological museums of such
institutions as the University of Cambridge, England, and the American
Museum of Natural History, in New York City, and some few others.

At the Columbian Exposition, however, the greatest interest for
ornithologists centered about the collections placed on exhibition there
by the Smithsonian Institution and the United States National Museum,
of Washington, D. C. The specimens composing these were not only
very fine examples of the taxidermic art, but they were instructive
from a scientific point of view. In the main, ornithology was here
represented by single mounts of birds and also by a large number
mounted in groups. These latter had been selected from many parts
of the world, and in each and ever^^ instance were designed to show,
in one wa}^ or another, some of the peculiar habits of the bird forms
that composed them. Not only were the specimens themselves excel-
lent pieces of work, but the accessories were equally good, and the
natural haunts and surroundings had been reproduced with a fidelity
to nature, in a manner which is rarely if ever excelled. We met
with flamingoes and their nest; with jacanas skimming over the lily
pads of a placid pool; with snowy-white ptarmigans disporting them
selves upon the surface of the glistening snow; and a great many oth-
ers of a similar kind, too numerous even to name, much less describe,
in detail. Scientific ornithology had not been forgotten in another
direction in this admirable Government display, for we found also
beautiful models showing the various stages of the embryonic devel-
opment of birds; we found the avian skeleton disarticulated and exhib-

world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1343

ited in a way best calculated to illusti'ate the question of serial homol-
ogies of the various bones as compared with the corresponding ones
in the skeletons of other vei'tebrates; and finally, in connection with
tine mounted skeletons of ornithic types, we found an ingenious series
of models of skulls, one of a bird being among the number, in which
the individual bones of that part of the osseous system had been painted
in different colors, so as to show the existing uniformity in plan of
structure.

In some of the exhibits, as for example the one which belonged to
the German Empire, the progress and the present status of a nimitor
of the sciences were shown by placing upon exhibition the published
works in an^- particular instance, as well as by hanging upon the walls
examples of the most recent advances in the art of illustration. These
engravings or photogiuphs or the numerous modern methods of repro-
ducing the photographs for plate work showed how science is taught
in the schools b^^ such means; they showed the manifold means at our
disposal for illustrating the natural objects to which the biologist
directs his attention in nature. This could have been done by similar
means for the science of ornithology, for the progress of that science
during the last century, as exemplified in its literature, has been very
great, even in this country. From the dawn of history to the present
time, as our knowledge of the structure or morphology of birds has
widened, ornithological classification has from time to time been very
materiall}" altered and improved, and our ail of illustrating the forms
of birds and everything that pertains to them has also kept pace with
this knowledge. At any great exposition all this can be easily shown
by exhibiting copies of ornithological publications, illusti-ations, or
inaeea anything showing the advances in our knowledge in the direc-
tions just indicated.

Next in order there should be presented as much as possible of our
knowledge of the origin of birds in time, and the most recent dis-
coveries along such lines. The well-known fact that birds are merely
in their organization an aberrant reptilian type, showing extreme
modification, can very satisfactorilj'^ be shown by models, fossils, casts,
and drawings of the various extinct birds known to us. These should
be properly compared by similar means with extinct and existing
reptiles of genera and species best calculated to demonsti-ate the
alliance. Material of the greatest interest and highest impoitance to
accomplish this end is in our possession, and however well its signifi-
cance may be appreciated upon the part of the scientist, is no valid
reason why it should not with great care and system be duly exhibited
at each and every great international exposition the world is to see.
In the present brief report we can not be expected to do more than to
throw out the suggestion just made, as the enumeration of the fossil
and existing species of animals it would require to illustrate it, would
quite exceed our space limits, and so be impracticable. Another series

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should be exhibited, which will make clear the fact that, as a great
group, existing birds must now be considered as a class Aves, which
by the elimination, from one cause or another of myriads of forms in
geologic time, haveat last become, as a natural group, wholly differ-
entiated from the reptilia. By actual material, and by models show-
ing the anatomical structure of the highest types of existing reptiles,
and the same for the more lowly types of existing birds, this fact would
not require a great outlay for its demonstration. The series should
stand next in order, after the first one suggested, or that part of the
exhibit which demonstrates the ancestry of birds.

As for the morphology of this class, which should next be exhibited,
it can best be done by models, anatomical manikins, and diagrams.
Avian embryology is now very satisfactorily shown in a series of
models of eggs composed of wax, tissue paper, and other materials.
These exactly imitate eggs at various stages of incubation, and are
opened upon one side to show the development of the chick within at
those stages. As I have already remarked, there was an exhibit of
this kind in the Government collection, and my impression is that it was
of French manufacture. Much of the anatomy of the "soft parts" of
existing avian types can now be most perfectly reproduced by the
various plastic methods. Of course for the osseous system there is
nothing better in most cases than the real skeleton itself, and an exam-
ple series of these should be shown, both articulated and disarticulated.

From the exhibition of models, etc., showing the complete devel-
opment of an ordinary existing bird, we should pass to cases
showing comparative moi*phology, within the class and the application
of it to the science of avian taxonomy, or the classification of birds.
Following in natural sequence with this latter exhibit we should find
a series of cases to contain representatives of families of the main
groups of the class as they are understood to be divided, and at the
same time allied to each other, according to the views of the best
authorities on the subject. About 20 such cases would answer, as
frequently 2 or 3 groups could be displayed in each case — they being
horizontally divided by a shelf at the middle after the usual plan
adopted by most museums. As an example of this, we may select the
case containing the flamingoes. It should be made to contain a pair
of those birds and their nests, while in the upper section of it should
be placed a perfect articulated skeleton of one of this species, with
the inner surface of the solid back of the case hung with good draw-
ings showing other structures in their anatomy, especially those parts
which have proved to be of the greatest classiticatory value. On
either side of this case should be another like it, the one to contain
the Herodiones and the other the Anseres; and these should be filled
up in the same manner. Moreover, in these ctvses, we should be
careful to exhibit in their proper places the so-called " outlyers " among

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birds, or, in other words, the more or less generalized types which
appear to have relationships with a number of groups. For instance,
among the Herodiones we would find Scopus, and among the Anseres a
specimen of the horned screamer. A skeleton of each of these forms
would appear, with other systems of their anatomy, so far as known,
in drawings. Printed descriptive cards should be attached to each of
these cases, giving all the necessary information according to the most
recent views accepted by those ornithologists best known to the
science, while the walls of the hall of this exhibit should be hung with
large charts setting forth much additional information. At least a
half a dozen of these charts could be devoted to views of the "avian
tree," with its horizontal sectioos, and others to mercator projections
of the whole world, showing the distribution of the class in the zoo-
geographical areas and their minor divisions, as well as the total
number of species of birds known to exist at the present time, and
other matters of importance to ornithology as a whole. Special cases
could be devoted to the exhibition of such subjects as "protective
mimicry," " hybridization," albinos, dichromatism, avian pathology,
economics, and breeding as applied to birds, or as the class furnishes
examples of the same. Examples, too, of migration (shown upon
charts), and the question of song, causes of extinction and increase,
eggs, and the molt constitute other matters that should not be
overlooked.

In conclusion, I would say that nothing more has been attempted in
this brief sketch beyond the setting forth how the science of orni-
thology should be represented at an international exposition of any
magnitude, and pointing out to what extent such a scheme was per-
fected at the World's Columbian Exposition at Chicago in 1892.
History, I fear, will show that it fell far short of what it ought to have
and might have been. Organization is the great secret of achievement
in such matters, and where the announcement of the intention to have
an international exposition is made several years in advance of the
time set for it, the only plan for ornithologists to adopt is to hold, as
soon as possible after that announcement, an ornithological congress,
and have it refer certain departments of the science to the various
ornithological bodies to have them undertake the exhibition of them.

In this way such fields of research as the geologic history of birds,
their evolution in time, their geographical distribution, literature,
taxonomy, and like departments would be fully illustrated as set foith
above, and as a result, when the exposition came to be a fact the
science would be represented in a manner worthy of the important
place it holds in general biology, and according to methods best calcu-
lated to exhibit its advances during epochs that have passed in its
history and which lead up tq its status at the time of the holding of
the exposition.

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PHARMACY.

BV

J. D. HUMPHREY.

1347

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PHARMACY.

BY

J. D. HUMPHREY.

1347

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PHARMACY.

By J. D. Humphrey, M. D.

On the northwest corner of the gallery floor of the manufactures
building, liberal-arts department, were located the main exhibits relat-
ing to pharmacy, although there were many pharmaceutical prepara-
tions scattered over the entire building and many in the agricultural
hall. The best displays were made by Americans, yet there were some
fine displays in the French and the British sections, and one very
creditable display in the German. It was a matter of some surprise
and regret that the two great countries. Great Britain and Germany,
that lead the world in the production of fine chemicals, and whose
exhibits of these goods elicited such admiration and applause, had
such poor and so few pharmaceutical preparations on exhibition.
While the displays in the United States section were not as numerous
as they might have been, many firms who had made handsome dis-
plays and won many medals and diplomas at previous worlds fairs
were conspicuous by their absence; nevertheless, the exhibits as a
whole were very creditable and showed much taste and skill in their
arrangements. The pharmaceutical displays were more atti-active to
sightseers than any other class of exhibits ip the liberal-arts depart-
ment; they were of such a character as to attract the attention and
admiration of physician, pharmacist, and layman alike. The physician
stopped to wonder at the progress made in the practice of '*• elegant
pharmacy," while the pharmacist looked on in amazement and seemed
to anticipate that the time is coming when the dispensing of physi-
cians' prescriptions by the pharmacist will be exceptional and his pro-
fessional dignity lowered to that of a tradesman simply dealing out to
the patient ready-made prescriptions. From the character of some of
the exhibits we were convinced that there are manufacturers catering
only to the physicians, doing his thinking, diagnosing his cases, mak-
ing his prescriptions, and, I might add, killing his patients; but this
class of exhibitors were few — the great majority were firms of respon-
sibility whose goods have a national reputation for purity and excel-
lence. One fact of great importance in relation to the future of
pharmacy is manifest, and that is the marked tendency in the present
day to the use of what might be termed " ready-made perscriptions."
Almost every exhibitor had a supply of these ready-made prescriptions,
called ''elegant pharmaceutical preparations," on hand; many of them

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protected by letters patent or trade-mark. These proprietary special-
ties are nothing more than patent medicines in disguise, and the physi-
cian who is gulled and humbugged into prescribing them by the dulcet
song of the drummer, or the flaming advertisements of the manufac-
turer, simply turns over his patient to the charlatan and quack; he
robs the druggist of a legitimate profit and reduces him to the level
of a tradesman and insinuates, at least, that the druggist is not com-
petent to compound his prescriptions. In these progressive times the
physician too often forgets the great purpose of his profession and
endangers the life of his patient by prescribing these ready-made pre-
scriptions and giving importance to manufacturers^ compounds; and
the druggist anxious for trade and wishing to keep in with the physi-
cian, and wanting to appear as up with the times, lays in a supply of
every nostrum that comes along and thereby lowers himself as a
vendor of patent nostrums. This state of affairs, the druggist says,
has been brought about by the physician, and the physician says the
fault rests with the druggist in not keeping up with the demands of
practical pharmacy. The trouble rests with both — the doctor is too
indolent to think and the druggist too lazy to work.

The doctor prescribes elixir, bismuth, and pepsin and iron, sugar-
coated pills, iron, quinine, and strychnine, and granules of morphia,
and a multitude of other ready-made compounds. I am free to say I
have no faith in the skill of the physician who prefers prescriptions of
others to his own. There is one consideration that will always have
to be borne in mind in regard to these " elegant pharmaceutical prep-
arations," and that is the reputation of the manufacturer for putting
up articles that are truly.what they are represented to be. No field or
profession offers j-uch chances for sophistication as that of the manu-
facturing pharmacist, and the very fact of such a possibility will
always help to make these compounds repugnant to the true and con-
scientious pharmacist. The Columbian Exposition furnished the
largest and most comprehensive display of articles in the chemical and
pharmaceutical line that the world has ever seen, and the greater por-
tion of this display was located in the sections belonging to the United
States, German}^ Great Britain, France, and Russia. The plea that
this or that country was not fully represented or could have done bet-
ter under more favorable circumstances will not count for much. It
is a matter of considerable regret that that portion of the drug and
chemical line in which the United States excels — the manufacture of
pharmaceuticals— should have been relegated to a gallery in the liberal-
arts department.

ENGLAND.

It is a well-known fact that the chemical industry of Great Britain
's one of great magnitude, but the fact is not strikingly illustrated by

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1351

the extent of the exhibits at the World's Fair; and judging from the
number of displays in the pharmaceutical line one would think this
country stood terribly in need of manufacturing pharmacists, as there
were onl}^ nine manufacturers of pharmaceuticals with displays. These
were: Alfred Bishops & Sons, London, who exhibited a fine line of
effervescent preparations; Thomas Christy & Co., pharmaceuticals;
Newball & Mason, Nottingham, dried herbs and beer extracts;
W. Bansum & Son, London, dried herbs, essential oils, and pharma-
ceuticals; H. H. Smith, London, chemicals; Richard Usher, herbs;
Borroughs, Welcome & Co., London, who have the largest display in
the British section. This last firm had a fine line of tabloids, of excel-
lent quality and finish. They had on exhibition a case of these tab-
loids carried by Stanley during his African exploits, all of which were
in perfect condition, showing the mode of manufacture and coating to
be perfect. The tabloids for hypodermic use made by this firm were
readily soluble, and as near perfect as they can be made. They also
manufacture a malt extract, malt essence, and solution of cod liver
oil. There were also exhibits of veterinary remedies, disinfectants,
and sheep dips in this section, and one very creditable exhibit of chem-
ical stoneware by Doulton & Co., of London.

GERMANY.

It is a matter of very great surprise that Germany had no pharma-
ceutical exhibit proper at the World's Fair. This country had the
finest display, by far, of chemicals, which certainly was a revelation,
and competent judges say it was the most extensive exhibit of its kind
ever known in the world. There was only one display of pharmaceuti-
cals, and this was chiefly a collection of vegetable drugs, extracts,
and juices, but none of the so-called elegant pharmaceuticals. The
absence of these preparations is due to the fact that only such of them are
used in Germany as are made by the " Apotheker" himself. They are
not made on a large scale, as in France and the United States, and besides
the German physician does not take kindly to the many new prepara-
tions, but keeps on prescribing in the old reliable way. He seems to
prefer to do his own thinking and mixing. There was only one dis-
play of pharmaceuticals; the rest of the section was taken up in exhib-
iting the chemical industry of Germany, about which another, more
competent than 1, will report.

FRANCE.

The exhibits of this country were unfortunately withdrawn from
competition, and the writer had very little opportunity for making
examinations and taking notes. The names of Paris and France are
somehow synonymous with elegance and beauty, and the visitor who
was familiar with the names of the French scientists in medicine, sur-

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gery, and pharmacy was not disappointed when he visited the French
section and saw the display of chemicals and pharmaceuticals of that
country. France will no doubt retain its claim to be the home of " phar-
macies ^l^gantes," a term rendered still more appropriate by its exhibits,
surrounded by the most exquisite products of pharmacal art, the
essence and odors of its famous makers. Of the nearly half a hundred
exhibits in this section a considerable portion of the pharmaceuticals
indicated that the status and tendency of pharmacy in France are similar
to that of the United States. The French pharmacist, like his Ameri-
can brother, is too much dependent upon the manufacturer for his
supplies; he is more of a vendor than a producer. It was not hard to
discover that in the line of perfumes France took the lead. The
largest exhibit was that of Pinaud, of Paris, whose display was par
excellence. His was the center of attraction to thousands of visitors,
who lingered around its scented precincts. This salon was one of the
gems of the manufactures building, and its treasures of musk were worth
more than their weight in gold. Rose, sandal, and other precious
woods were examined with infinite pleasure, and after seeing it all
one ceases to wonder why the products of the Parfumerie Ed. Pinaud
have such a reputation the civilized world over. The display of essential
oils and crude perfumes was an attractive one, and the collection of
different kinds of musk won the admiration of all druggists who saw
it. The following firms had exhibits of finished products, all finely
installed in a characteristically Parisian manner: Vaissier, Paris;
Rigaud, Paris (the latter was quite lavish in the use of an atomizer upon
the crowds which passed through the section); Demarson & Chetalet,
Paris, perfumes and soaps; Soci^t^ Hygi^nique, Paris, medicated soaps
and dentifrices; Raspall, Paris, perfumes, soaps, and toilet prepara-
tions; Dorin, Paris, powders and cosmetics; Lamoille & Co., Nice,
perfumes and extracts; Lautier fils, Graese, perfumes, pomades,
extracts, and olive oil.

[From Pharmaceutical Era.]

In the line of chemicals and pharmaceuticals probably no house is better known
to the American public than that of Rigaud & Chapoteaut, of Paris, through their
American agents, E. Fougera & Co., of New York. One very interesting feature of
their exhibit is the display of morrhuolines, consisting of bitartrate of amyiamine,
dihydrolutidine, oxycollidine, morrhuine, chloroplatinate d'amylamine, nico-mor.
rhuine, chlorhydrate de nico-morrhuine, chlorhydrate oxycollidine, bromhydrate
d'amylamine, chlorhydrate d'amylamine, and bitartrate dihydrolutidine. This firm
also displays a line of strontium salts pref>ared by the process of Paraf-Javal, apio-
line, liquid and crystallized guaiacol, essential oil of sandal (Santal-Midy), dialyzed
pepsin, boldo-glucine, and a very complete line of filled capsules — ^pearls, drag^es,
pastilles, etc. Adrian et Cie., of Paris, is one of the representative firms in the
chemical and pharmaceutical line. Their works at Courbevoie, a suburb of Paris,
are quite extensive, giving employment to about 600 men. The firm has on exhibi-
tion a very complete line of well-known chemicals, and besides has many which
are interesting by reason of their rarity. Of this character is a specimen of a prepa-

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ration called lactoee de femme, with similar specimens prepared from the milk of
the goat, cow, donkey, sheep, and mare. This line of investigation is apparently of
a tentative character, the exact therapeutic range of the products not being disclosed.
The firm also exibits salicylamide by Denige's process, eucalypteol or bichlorate of
eucalyptene, bichlorhydrates of citrene, myrtene, cedrene, and cajuputene; alsodigi-
talin, digitaline, digitaleine, digitonine, digitene, berberine, hydrastine, cotoine, eser-
ine, nitrate pilocarpine, podophyllotoxine, picropodophylline, colocynthine, sulph.
sparteine, asparagine, picrotoxine, and xanthropuccine. An adjoining case contains
specimens of Deschien's soluble hemoglobine, which is also manufactured by Adrian et
Cie. The French exhibit would be incomplete without an exhibit by the Sol vay Process
Company, but the smallness of the display is somewhat disappointing when the
extensive operations of the company in France, Germany, Russia, and other coun-
tries is considered. The exhibit consists of specimens of caustic soda of various
degrees of purity, hydrochloric acid, and bicarbonate of soda. Another extensive
chemical manufectory is that called the Pharmacie Centrale de France, Ch. Buchet,
manager, Paris. The factory, located at St. Denis, gives employment to over 500
men and is one of the largest in France. The exhibit consists of cachets with
machines for making them, powdered drugs, medicated cottons, pharmaceutical
preparations, nicotine, guaiacol, sparteine, terpinol, apiol, cicutine, hypnal (chloral-
antipyrine), arbutine, quassine, cocaine, pilocarpine nitrate, guaranine, atropine,
asparagine, caffeine, emetine, aristol, veratrine, dermatol, and salipyrine. Ghas-
saing et Cie., of Paris, make an extensive display of pepsin in various fonna, pure
diastase, dietetic foods, and bidigestive wine.

RUSSIA.

The chemical and pharmaceutical display in the Russian section was
not very large, and yet it was varied enough to show that the Russian
chemist and manufacturer is fully abreast of the times. R. Korhler
& Co., of Moscow, have a veiy complete display of chemicals.
Broemna Brothers, St. Petersburg, make an extensive display of
essences, oils, and colors. A. A. Richter, of Bucharowo, had a display
of wafers and capsules of fine quality. A. Rheinherz, St. Petei*sburg,
showed plasters, capsules, perfumes, and various chemicals. A. RoUet,
Moscow, had a fine display of perfumes. Prof. Alexander Poehl, St.
Petersburg, made a handsome display of pills, filled capsules, and
sterilized solutions of cocaine muriate, pilocarpine mur. ergotini, and
spermini-phoehl.

JAPAN.

In matter of education, engineering, mechanics, and sanitation, the
Japanese made a showing which compared favorably with any other
country, and as to their characteristic pottery they beat the world —
but they had very little of interest to the druggist. There were some
fine specimens of Japanese camphor, refined flowers of camphor, one-
half and one ounce blocks wrapped in tissue paper or tin foil; three or
four samples of saccharated pepsin, U. S. P.; licorice root, valerian,
cinnamon bark, and cantharides, a few native essential oils, and a host
of tooth powders constituted the pharmaceutical products on exhibition.

Other foreign countries made veiy creditable displays in other lines,

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1854 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

but had very little of interest in a phai'maceutical way. Mexico had
more entries, perhaps, than any other country, but they were of a
proprietary chai^acter and elicited very little attention. Spain had
some fine specimens of oils, extracts, and bay rum, and had many
preparations with a strong suspicion of patent medicines. Costa Rica
had an extra large display of medicinal plants, resins, gums, crude
rubber barks, coloring madders, dyestuffs, wines, liquors, animal oik,
mineral waters, etc. These were well displayed in large cabinets, but
the containers had no labels or numbera and the pharmacist had to be
content at guessing at the contents.

UNITED STATES.

The pharmaceutical exhibits in the United States section were very
much greater and more artistically arranged than those of any other
country. Of the 35 exhibits in group 87 of the department of manu-
facturers, and which have been classified as "chemical and pharma-
ceutical products," there were 17 firms displaying perfumeiy, soaps,
and toilet articles, 4 manufacturers of essential oils, and 3 glycerine
manufacturers, the remainder being general chemical manufacturers.
The perfumery and toilet articles display as a whole was quite credit-
able, although not in such a luxurious style as the same class of
exhibits in the French section. Ladd & Coffin, of New York, were
equally as lavish with their special odors in supplying the public as
was Pinand. This firm had a very atti-active display; their goods are
of superior quality, put up in attractive style, and have a reputation
for delicacy of odor, lasting fragrance, and true to namB. Theo.
Ricksecker had a very handsome display of his popular odora. The
products of this firm were the only odors allowed for sale on the Fair
grounds. There were many other displays in this line that deserve
special mention, but as I am requested to write up the pharmaceu-
tical display proper I will pass on to the American pharmiaceutical
display in the gallery. Here we find a certain class of products in
which there is apparently very little competition from our foreign
brethren. From the evidence presented at the Columbian Exposition
the United States stands at the head in the business of pharmaceutical
manufacturing. There were 28 firms having exhibits of this charac-
ter in the gallery referred to, nearly all of them being elegantly
installed, showing a range of products which covers nearly every
want of the modern drug store. Here could be seen what great
improvements had been made in the last decade in pharmaceutical
manufacturing, and the mighty achievements of the manufacturer.
Here the applications of chemistry to medicine are shown in the
splendid exhibits of manufactured drugs. Powders, tablets, and pills
abound, and deserve special mention. Great improvements in the
manufacture of many forms of antiseptic dressing, plasters, and the

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like could be noted, but the improvement in no line of pharmaceu-
ticals has been so great as that of the digestive ferments. In the
production of such articles as pepsin, pancreatine, and other high
digestive feiinents, Swift & Co. and Armour & Co., both of Chicago,
easily lead the world. To make a pepsin so that one grain will digest
3,000 grains of coagulated egg albumen in a given period of time, and
also be odorless, palatable, and aseptic, is an achievement which any
chemist might well be proud of having accomplished. It is proper
and fitting to accord some recognition to the pharmaceutical chemists
who have placed before the public such articles of merit as come
from the laboratories of these two firms.

SWIFT A CO.' 8 BEBP EXTRACT.

Swift & Co. are manufacturers of that justly celebrated brand of
beef extract and fluid known as Swift's pure beef extract and beef
fluid. These goods are made by a process owned and controlled by
Swift & Co., which consists in extracting all the strength, flavor, and
nutrition contained in finely chopped fresh lean beef by percolation
with ice-cold water, and afterwards evaporating the juice thus
obtained in vacuum at a very low temperature. It is essentially a cold
process, and beef extract and fluid made by it have many advantages
over the old cinide processes in strength, flavor, and solubility.

Pepsin, — The manufacture of this article, whose medicinal value is
universally acknowledged, has within the past few years gi'avitated to
the source of supply of the raw material, until to-day nine-tenths of
all the pepsin used in the United States is made in the labomtory of
the Chicago packers, with obvious and gi*atifying results in an
improved and more desirable article. Swift & Co. recently built a
laboratory for the manufacture of this pixxluct, in which all that
money and human skill could do has been done to make it perfect, with
the result that to-day Swift's silver scale pepsin has gained for itself
an enviable reputation by reason of the beauty of its appearance and
its strength and purit3^ Pepsin is made by the Swift process from the
inner lining of hog's stomachs, which, after being thoroughly cleansed,
are put into extracting crocks where the peptic principle is extracted,
after which it is dried on shallow plates which are placed on racks in
a diying room through which is circulated a hot-air blast at a tem-
perature of about 120^ F. Pepsin is a valuable remedy for dyspepsia
and other foims of indigestion.

Pancreatine — Swift & Co. are also large manufacturers of this
article. Commercial pancreatin is sometimes spoken of as pancreatic
extract. It is a mixture of bodies in more or less variable form, and
contains three ferments, two of which are of great importance. It
acts on starch, converting it into dextrin, and on fats, which it emul-
sifies. It acts only in neutral and alkaline solutions, and when taken
by the mouth it should be taken some time before meals in order to

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give it some time to pa«s through the stomach before the process of
digestion of food causes the stomach to become acid. Pancreatin is a
comparatively recent discovery, and until very recently there has been
but little manufactured of any medicinal value; now, however, the
laboi-atory of Swift & Co. is turning out an article which contains all
the digestive and emulsifying principles of true pancreatic acid. It is
made from the pancreas gland, commonly called liver sweetbread, and
its manufacture is much the same as pepsin.

Henn^et, — Scale rennet and rennetine are other products of the Swift
laboratory, and are made from the stomachs of young calves by about
the same process which is used in making or manufacturing pepsin.
One gmin of Swift's rennet scale will coagulate 1 pint of milk. It
is largely used in diet kitchens and hospitals for making junket for
invalids.

ARMOUR A CO.

Ten yeai's ago so little was known about pepsin that it is scarcely
worth recording. The United States Pharmacopceia of 1880 recog-
nized as pepsin an article which would digest 60 times its weight of
coagulated and disintegrated albumen. The revised Pharmacopceia of
1890 (issued this year) raises the minimum standard to a pepsin which
will digest 3,000 times its weight of coagulated egg albumen, and
Armour & Co. can safely claim to be the pioneers and the chief instru-
ments in bringing about the standardization of the article in its purity.
The pepsin produced by Armour & Co. is nonhydroscopic, almost odor-
less, freely soluble in water, and of a digestive power from 1 to 3,000
to 1 to 6,000. They had on exhibition pepsins mnging to 1 to 25,000,
but these were merely to show what could be done in their laboratory.
The one hundred minute test for pepsin originated with Aimour
&Co., while the method of testing pepsin that was adopted in the
United States Pharmacopoeia requires six hours. The products of the
laboratory of Armour & Co. are limited to digestive ferments in their
various solid and liquid forms, used as remedies, surgical solvents,
and for predigesting foods. It was the good fortune of the writer to
visit the laboratory of Armour & Co., which is perhaps the largest of
the kind in the world, and is equipped with the best and most original
apparatus and machinery, especially constructed for carrying out the
various processes in the shortest time possible and under the most
favorable conditions. These advantages of location, machinery, origi-
nal processes, and ample capital have, to a great extent, taken this
class of goods from the hands of those unfavorabl}^ located and with
poor facilities, and have elevated them to a standard of excellence
seldom attained.

W. R. WARNER & CO.

W. R. Warner & Co., manufacturing pharmacists, of Philadelphia,
bad decidedly the largest display- of sugar and gelatin-coated pills in

WOBLD's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1357

the Exposition. They were of many shapes and colors, being round,
flat, oval, and oblong, and white, pink, blue, yellow, and black; all of
perfect finish, accurate in composition, freely soluble in water, hot or
cold. A case of pills made twenty-seven years ago were on exhibition
and found to be in perfect condition, which fact exemplified the per-
manence and keeping qualities of Warner's pills. This firm had on
exhibition also a full line of elegant pharmaceutical preparations, con-
sisting of compressed tablets, hypodermic tablets, fluid extracts, tab-
let triturates, elixirs, sirup, and effervescing salts. The latter were
perfect in granulation, superior effervescing qualities, permanent
and accurate as to composition. The specimen of Aloin exhibited by
Warner & C!o. was of a superior quality, being perfectly free from res-
inous extractive matter, also odorless from the odor of aloes, and of a
beautiful bright color, superior to any we have ever seen, either
imported or domestic. This firm was organized in 1856 and are the
pioneers in the manufacture of sugar-coated pills in the United States.
They have taken medals at all world's fairs (15 in number) in which
they made displays. They have branch stores in Chicago, New York,
and London.

TILDKN A CO.

This firm exhibited a well-selected line of fluid and solid extracts,
elixirs, wines, sirups, pills, solid and powdered exti-acts, tablets, tab-
let triturates, and a few specialties such as elixir, iodo, bromide, cal-
ceum compound, ferwein, beef, iron, and rye and maltopesin. We
believe that it is but right and proper to say that the high standard of
excellence in strength, purity, and finish of the product of this firm is
just matter for congratulation, the preparations having maintained
their character in every test to which they were subjected.

BHABPE A DOHME.

In a tastefully arranged booth and in the dignifiedly modest manner
that has for so many years characterized the business life of the firm,
Sharpe & Dohme exhibit their well-known products. With no attempt
at gorgeous display, but with that earnestness of purpose which is the
privilege of modest merit they have presented representatives of their
large and varied line which, taken as a whole, do them great, because
deserved, credit. Not only have they shown real pharmaceutical prog-
ress in their line of medicinal fluid, solid and powdered extracts,
soluble gelatin and sugar-coated pills, hypodermic tablets, and other
products, but they have produced what has been officially recognized
as the best pepsin. We refer to Webber pepsin, S. & D., guaranteed
standard 1:6,000. This high-grade digestive ferment was exhibited
in a pyramidal case with three compartments, in each of which was
shown one of the three forms — granular, scale, and powdered — in which
this pepsin is offered. As an evidence of still further advance in this

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field of study, this pyramid was crowned by two graceful globes, one
containing a beautiful display of a 1:8,000, the other an equally
attractive exhibit of a 1:10,000 scale pepsin, both produced by the
Webber process. We are assured that a 1: 30,000 pepsin is a pharma-
ceutical possibility, although, as a commercial entity, 1:6,000 seems
to be the most desirable standard. This is just double the United
States Pharaiacopceia standard, which is 1:3,000. Ergot, that desid-
eratum of the obstetricians armamentarium, is fitly represented by
ergotole, S. & D., of which we are assured each minim represents 24
grains of the best Spanish ergot in a palatable nonnauseating liquid
form. The courtesy of their genial Chicago manager, Mr. Charles E. ,
Matthews, and his perennial enthusiasm in the future of the house he
so capably represents, is infectious, and the memory of our official
visit to Sharpe & Dohme's booth is both pleasant and lasting.

JOHN WYETH A BBO.

One of the most pleasing and interesting exhibits in the pharmaceutical
department was that of John Wyeth & Bro., of Philadelphia. This
house enjoys a most enviable reputation for the superior character and
quality of its products. It is among the largest and most noteworthy
of our chemical and pharmaceutical manufacturing establishments.
This firm and its products are as well known in the principal cities of
the world as to every drug house in this country. It was established
in 1861, and was the pioneer in what is termed " elegant pharmacy."
They were the first to introduce what is to-day the most popular mode
of administering medicines — in pill form. Their compressed powders
into pills, hypodermic tablets, lozenges — all compressed from perfectly
dry powder — are marvels of accuracy, of beauty of finish, and bear
the most critical examination. Their products — ^fluid extracts, elixirs,
wines, and sirups, etc. — are fully up to the standard, and the beauty
of the finished product is but a proof of the i*apid strides made in the
progress of pharmacy. It is but just to say that the process adopted
by the United States Pharmacopceia for making fluid extracts origi-
nated with this house. This firm had on exhibition also digestive fer-
ments, liquid malt extract, liquid beef juice, and absorbent cotton, all
of excellent quality. They employ 400 hands, male and female, and
have over 300,000 square feet of floor space in their plant.

BURROUGH BROTHERS MANUFACTURINa COHPANY.

This firm had a very extensive assortment of their products on
exhibition, consisting of fluid and solid extracts, elixirs, sirups, powders,
pills, granules, tablets, triturates, and hypodermic tablets, etc. The
term "manufacturing pharmacists" may mean much or it may mean
little, depending to a great extent upon the firm using the title. In
the case of Burrough Brothers it means a great deal, for the products

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WOBLD's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1859

from the laboratories of this firm cover nearly the whole range of
wants of the retail pharmacist. The multitudinous wants which are sup-
plied by such enterprise as is shown by Burrough Brothers is evidence
that they are abreast of the times. The products of this house are well
and favorably known to every druggist in the land. Their fluid
extracts are too well known to require special mention, but we do feel
that something should be said of the excellent line of phamaceuticals
which, as to purity, beauty of finished product, accuracy of dosage, and
skill displayed in their manufacture, could not be excelled. Their
tablets and hypodermic tablets were elegant specimens of the pharma-
ceutical art — accurate and most easily soluble.

MELLOR A BITTBNHOU8E COMPANY.

The display made by the Mellor & Rittenhouse Company consists of
a plate-glass case containing manufactured products of licorice root in
all its forms — sticks of all sizes, lozenges, and powdered — and some
beautiful scales of ammoniacal glycyrrhizin. The extract of licorice
exhibited by this firm was the purest I have ever seen, either imported
or domestic; it was entirely free from grit or oth^r adulterants and
almost wholly soluble. The yearly output of this firm is from 3,000,000
to 4,000,000 pounds of extract of licorice. Although a great deal of
this extract is disposed of to the dinig trade, yet the great bulk goes to
flavor chewing tobaccos.

HABVEY A CO., SARATOGA, N. Y.

This firm had a very creditable display of pharmaceuticals, consisting
of compressed tablets, tablet triturates, hypodermic tablets, elixirs,
sirups, tinctures, and extracts. This firm makes perhaps the largest
line of tablet triturates of any other manufacturer, except perhaps the
H. K. Mulford Company. They cater to the physician, and look only
to him for a market for their preparations. Their goods are fully up
to the standard and show much skill in their manufacture. Their
hypodermic tablets deserve special mention. They are very soluble
and are sufficiently well made to bear transportation and yet are very
friable.

FAIRCHILD BROS. A FOSTER.

Fairchild Bros. & Foster had one of the most pleasing exhibits in
the liberal arts department. Their exhibit was entirely of their well-
known digestive ferments, embracing every product of the calf ren-
net, pig stomach, and the pancreas, both pure and in proper com-
bination for medicinal use. Fairchild's pepsin is known all over the
civilized world for its high digestive power and comparative freedom
from bad odor. Many of the preparations exhibited by this firm were
originated by them and are not made by any other house.

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1360 REPORT OF COMMITTSE ON AWARDS.

FRBDERICK BTBARN8 A CO.

This wa.s a very handsome and tasty exhibit and a very pleasant
place in which to pass an hour now and then. It was the most ''home-
like" of all exhibits, and the very pleasant greeting by Mr. Stearns, jr.,
and Mr. Penrose Jones made one soon feel at ''at home." This firm
exhibited for competition their elegant line of perfumery and toilet
articles in plain, ornamental, and cut-glass bottles. The reputation
gained by this firm on their perfumery was manifest by the request
for their leaders — crab apple, white rose, heliotrope, four roses, and
amorita. This firm exhibited also a full line of pharmaceuticals,
consisting of fluid and solid extracts, elixirs, sirups, wines, pow-
ders, pills, compressed tablets, and triturates. These goods stood
every test applied and maintained the reputation already enjoyed by
the firm for "purity." The uniformity of size, superior finish, and
freedom from pin holes in the gelatin-coated pills attracted much
attention, this latter feature being original with this house by a proc-
ess peculiarly their own. They also displayed the various prepara-
tions of Dike's pepsin, a very fine article of high digestive power and
almost odorless. This firm were the originators of the ''Nonsecret"
medicines in 1876. Their idea was to relieve the druggist from the
patent medicine^ difficulty and to furnish him with a line of prepara-
tions that would replace the patents. The venture was a success from
the beginning, as evidenced by the large and increased sales of these
goods. F. Stearns & Co. have introduced many very excellent prep-
arations to the trade, the most popular and deserving being cascara
aromatic and wine of cod liver oil with peptonate of iron.

Seabury & Johnson and Johnson & Johnson made very creditable
displays of plasters, ligatures, bandages, absorbent cottons, and various
other important adjuncts to modern surgery.

CHARLB8 MAROHAUD.

This exhibit consisted of a show case of polished oak containing a
pyramid, upon which were displayed the products of the laboratory of
Ch. Marchaud, viz, peroxide of hydrogen and glycozone, both in
marketable packages of 4, 8, and 16 ounce bottles. The peroxide of
hydrogen, which is so favorably known as a powerful antiseptic and
destroyer of germs, bacteria, and microbes m the human system, is a
definite chemical compound. HgO^ can be applied locally, or taken
internally, with perfect safety . Glycozone is a stable compound result-
ing from the chemical reaction which takes place where chemically
pure glycerin is submitted under certain conditions to the action of
fifteen times its own volume of ozone under normal atmospheric pres-
sure at a temperature of 0° C. It is used in all cases where an anti-
septic and stimulant is indicated. These preparations, and especially

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1861

the peroxide of hydrogen, have been before the medical profession
for some years, and have gained the general indorsement of the pro-
fession as to their purity and effectiveness.

H. K. MULFORD COMPANY.

This firm had a most attractive display of tablets and other specialties
on exhibition. The compressed tablets and tablet triturates and hypo-
dermic tablets exhibited by this firm were marvels of beauty, accurate
aa to dosage, and easily friable, being made without gum or other
foreign material, except pure milk and sugar, and hence are freely
soluble. Vaginal tampons made of wool, medicated or plain; digestive
malt extract with small percentage of alcohol (3 per cent) of good
quality, and improved vial cases for physicians were exhibited by
this firm and awarded prizes.

UPJOHN PILL AND GRANULE CX)MPANY.

The exhibit of the Upjohn Pill and Granule Company presented a
unique and attractive appearance, and gave abundant evidence of the
characteristic push and energy of that progressive house. One of the
most striking features of their exhibit was a large and attractive dis-
play of quinine pills in bulk. This consisted of 3,500,000 2-grain
quinine pills contained in a large plate-glass tank, probably the
largest bulk exhibit of pills ever displa^^ed. Reducing the matter
to figures, we find that the pills in question contained 16,000 ounces
of quinine sulphate, and represented a value of about $7,000. Rest-
ing on this tank was an elaborate mahogany and plate-glass case,
containing a large and artistically arranged assortment of pills of vary-
ing kind and color, displayed in handsome glass containers. The well-
known friable and soluble condition of pills manufactured by the
Upjohn Pill and Granule Company has ever been an irrefutable argu-
ment in their favor. The phenomenal growth of their business and
the general adoption of their line of goods by the professions of medi-
cine and pharmacy have been due to merit as well as push. The proc-
ess of reducing dry powders to pill form without the aid of excipient,
and their manner of coating, is original with this house. They manu-
facture a full line of pills, and make all the known standard formulas
by their peculiar method.

The Albany Chemical Company Jiaa a general line of pharmaceuticals
and chemical preparations. They exhibited large quantities of their
chloroform, both commercial and purified, made by the acetone process.

The Ale and Beef Company, of Dayton, Ohio, had a pyramid of their
specialty — liquid beef.

Thompson's Malt Exti^act Company Had a very nice display of their
malt extract and malt preparations. These goods are well known
in the West, and the manufacturers have a large sale on them. They

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1362 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

stood every test applied and were pronounced by the jury of awards
of excellent quality and possessing diastatic properties to a large
degree.

Horlick's Food Company and Reed & Carmick had exhibits of their
well-known products — infant foods.

The Chicago College of Pharmacy had a very elaborate exhibit.
Their exhibit of drawings by Professor Goodman shows an improved
method of teatihing botany by means of typical drawings of plants and
plant life, a great improvement over the pressed natural plants. There
were 553 specimens of organic drugs displayed in glass cases. These
embraced the official drugs in the United States, British, German, and
French pharmacopoeias. A section of the dispensing counter and fix-
tures showed a marked advantage in having the operating table free
from the usual superstructure, the apparatus, containers, etc., being
placed on an independent fixture and thus not obstructing the view of
the manipulations involved in dispensing and compounding. Some
rare old books, including the books of Galen, all the editions of
the Edinburgh Dispensatory, the pharmacopoeia of all countries, and a
number of works printed in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth
centuries were on exhibition.

JOSEPH BURNETT A CO., BOSTON.

One of the most artistic and attractive of our domestic exhibits in
the great manufacturers building was that of Joseph Burnett & Co.,
of Boston. This firm had on exhibition their flavoring extracts,
cologne water, smelling salts, and their wonderful color pastes. The
flavoring extracts of this firm are universal favorites and are perhaps
more widely and generally used than those of any other manufactur-
ing concern in the world. They are made of the very best materials
obtainable, of fine flavor, and true to name. The cologne and lavender
waters, wood violet extract, and other odors displayed are of ex;cep-
tional sweetness, delicate and lasting. The color pastes made bj- Bur-
nett & Co. are simply wonderful productions of the art of chemistry.
They are freely and perfectly soluble in alcohol, water, or milk, odor-
less, tasteless, and perfectly harmless. They are made specially for
confectioners, bakers, ice-cream manufacturers, and housewives; are
put up in various sizes to suit the trade. The reputation of this firm
for integrity and honesty of purpose is known the world over and
their goods are universal favorites.

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PHOTOGRAPHY.

BY

C. T. STUART.

1363

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PHOTOGRAPHY.

By C. T. SruAKT.

As a member of the jury of awards, I respectfully submit that the
art and science of photography, which to-day counts but a half century
of existence, has taken strong hold upon the affections of all the people
who compose the nations of the world, which rests upon the fact of
its influence so potent in human sentiment, educational, refining, and
elevating, and with the strongest tendency in its flight of always soar-
ing to the realms of something better. Photographic competition has
always been very keen and active, with the consequent effect of
enlarging ambition and stimulating individual effort.

Photography has before it, by its own component elements unique,
the possibility of a great future, and is worthy of the most artistic
talent, who shall properly represent her capabilities to the countless
millions yet to come. There is no branch of science and art but in
which photography is every day employed. It is used by the medical
man to record and prove all forms of disease; the surgeon, to record
his opei-ations and condition of patient, as a truthfully illustrated rec-
ord of the facts thus shown to simplify and wonderfully aid the future
treatment of .similar cases; and it is plain to see that while disease is
a condition more or less in the life of every individual, that this phase
of photography is of permanent value for its truth-telling story.
Bellevue Hospital, of New York, and all ' hospitals of prominence
throughout the world now possess their photographical departments,
and high hopes are entertained of this scientific feature in the relief
of human suffering.

Photography shows a large advance since the original daguerreotype
plate (metallic copper), so slow as to require the best portion of one
hour in bright sunlight to produce a picture, to that of the common
feat now instantaneously performed, so sensitive are the prepared sur-
faces to light, of accurately securing in softly diffused light most
swiftly moving objects, such as the modern express trains, trotting
horses, etc. There is hardly an exception the world over where pho-
tography is not used in the make-up of that great educator, the news-
paper, etching in line and stipple for illustrations.

It is now a common occurrence for the photographist to supply the
proof and see the picture printed in the newspaper that comes to him
one hour later. There seems now to be little doubt that a short period

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1366 REPOST OF COMMITTEE ON AWABBS.

of time may elapse before we will be sending any photographic repro-
duction desired from country to country over the electrical wire as
is done with the telegraphic message of to-day. And how fitting will
be this union of photography and electricity is apparent to all when I
recall the devotion of Professor Morse to photography at the very
time of his wonderful invention of practical telegraphy.
An English writer of ability and probity says:

The international survey of the heavens is now in progress, and many thousands
of negatives of the stars have already been obtained, and when this survey is com-
plete, the present face of the sky will be known with an accuracy which the astrono-
mers of a prephotographic age never dreamed.

Orthochromatic (color value) photography, although but in its
infancy, promise great things in the near future. It is of the greatest
assistance to the photographist, enabling him to more truthfully pre-
sent his work. Orthochromatic plates are now made eonunercially in
America, and there is no doubt that in the hands of first-class operators
they must supplant the plain bromide plate, as the latter have the
wet collodion plates. They must materially assist in finally securing
photographs in the colors of nature. To Prof. H. W. Vogel, of Berlin,
are we indebted for this great advance in orthochromatic photography.
The three-color print is now reduced to a certainty, and is practiced in
America as well as Europe, the place of its birth. In this process it
is necessary to make three negatives, one for each of the three primary
colors — one for yellow, one for blue, and one for red — ^then transfer on
zinc and etch. Very much is hoped for this innovation in color work.

One of the great advances in photography is that of a celebrated
French scientist taking pictures direct in all colore of nature, and
more recently, even since the opening of this Columbian Exposition,
still further progress has been made by other scientists of France
from which much can be hoped, for there is every indication they will
impi'ove these processes. Also one of the most wonderful discoveries
in connection with photography is the " tachy scope," of German origin,
and perfected under the auspices and with the aid of the German
Government. In this novel instiniment can be seen men and animals
in motion, not merely silhouettes, but photographs full of detail and
modulation. Lenses and cameras are innumerable; cameras, or
machines, have been perfected and connected with electricity, so that
a picture (portrait or view) is taken, developed, and finished ready
for delivery. Though yet producing work only in small sizes, they
are exceedingly interesting.

And now for portrait photography. What a field for usefulness
herein lies. As was fittingly expressed by Judge James B. Bmdwell,
of Chicago, in his opening address at the World's Congress Auxiliary,
when he said:

Can we folly estimate the value of a photograph of Christopher Columbus if it
could be shown as he landed upon our shores four hundred years ago? Are his por-

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WOKLD'S COLUMBIA^ EXPOSITION, 1893. 1867

traits satisfactory? We may admire the work of the great masters of the past and
the portrait painters of the present, but no human hand or agency can equal the sun-
light o! the Almighty for producing lifelike and accurate features of our friends as
we know them now.

In this connection a word about the exhibit of photographic por-
traiture. The quality of work in many exhibits is simply superb; in
some cases of rather low quality, but the average of all is far above
work usually shown. The four nations, England, France, Germany,
and America, as usual, lead, and all are about equal in merit.

Is there any art or science upon which so much depends as photog-
raphy ? The astronomer, the surgeon and physician, the architect, the
engineer, the minister, the lawyer, and the judge in the administration
of justice, and, it may be added, this World's Columbian Exposition,
are more or less aided by photography, the willing, truthful hand-
maid and servant of alL

In the optics of photography wonderful advance of late has been
made, especially in the constiiiction of lenses with what is known as
the ''Jena glass;" also the invention of Dr. Schroeder, known as the
"concentric lens," which is said to be a wonderful instrument, with-
out "astigmatism" or other defect. The " telephotographic lens" is
also of recent invention, and is novel as well as scientifically useful,
for with this lens, when at times for various reasons the photographist
can not approach near to the subject desired, can be secured a larger
plate by from three to five and a half times than the ordinary lens will
produce. These lenses are made in London, but I am happy to state
that lenses of American manufacture said to possess many advantages
will soon be on the market.

And now, as we stand upon the conquests of the past, representing
achievements progressive in all the various departments of photog-
raphy, what, indeed, may we not confidently hope for in this beautiful
and fascinating art? In conclusion, I feel impelled to again cite the
words of our friend, the learned judge, where he asks:

Who shall say that the camera, adjusted by the hand that feels and focussed by
the eye that sees beyond, with the aid of intensely sensitive plates, shall not bring
to light and view the forms of our departed friends, and thus solve the problem of
immortality and life?

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REFRIGERATORS.

Dr. ROBERT W^. HILL.

1369

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REFRIGERATORS.

By Dr. Robbbt W. Hill.

It is a far cry from tbe porous jar of olden time to the finest
example of a modern refrigerator, but in our methods of food preser-
vation we employ substantially the same principles known to the
ancients. Food preservation is made possible whenever the natural
tendency to decay is arrested, and whatever the means adopted to
secure this result, its success is in proportion to the thoroughness
with which the process of change is stayed. Cooked food, hermet-
ically sealed into glass or tin receptacles, will do wherever the preser-
vation is to be for a long time, and is the plan for fruits. This method,
however, does not meet the daily needs of the household, nor is it
practicable for all things, nor will it meet the vast demands of our
cities where daily immense supplies of fish, flesh, fowl, butter, eggs,
etc., must be carried in stock. The only method which successfully
meets the needs of our time is the method of cold storage, by which
in large establishments cooled with currents of pure, dry air food may
be kept in good condition for indefinite periods. The refrigerator is
a modification of the cold-storage system, and just in proportion as a
circulation of air, pure, dry, and cold is secured in the refrigerator
will the box prove satisfactory. The refrigerator is essentially a very
late invention, fully as much so as the ice machine, for it is but a
comparatively few years since a satisfactory method to secure cold-air
circulation was first presented to the public. At the Paris Exposition
of 1867 the first really successful and economical ice-making machin-
ery was shown, and the way made plain for cold storage on a large
scale. It is true that the principles embodied in these ice-making
plants had been set forth seven years before, but it required seven
years of experiment to demonstrate the practical usefulness of the
plans, and to secure successful and economical plants. It is not to be
wondered at that the methods of household storage had been pai-tially
unsuccessful up to that time, but it is strange that in the reports of
the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia there is no mention of
refrigerators. Either none was shown, or none was deemed worthy
of recognition by award. Up to that time the old-fashioned ice chest
was the best that was available for the household. At the Paris
Exposition there were two representatives of the American ref rigera-

^ 1371 T

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1872 REPORT OF OOMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

tor, one for the household, while the other was a cold-stoi-age room.
The household refrigerator was exhibited by a Baltimore firm, and
received a bronze medal, equivalent to an award of the fourth class.
The cold-storage room, supplied with ice from the Alpine glaciei*s was
used by the Department of Agriculture, and at the close of the Expo-
sition was sold in Paris, to a Paris butcher, where it is in service
to-day. For this exhibit the Wickes Company, of Chicago and Buffalo,
who also exhibited at the Columbian Exposition, received recognition
by a silver medal from the Commissioner of Agriculture.

Since the Paris Exposition of 1867 the manufacture of refrigerators
has made rapid strides in methods of construction and in the more
perfect adaptation to the needs of the household. The so-called ice
chests of twenty years ago have all been relegated to the background,
and few households are to be found willing to purchase even the best
samples of the refrigerator of ten years ago. Since then the circula-
tion has been made more perfect, and the methods adopted to secure
insulation, as well as the many devices used to strengthen the boxes,
the locks, the traps, and the material used have combined to make the
best refrigerators exhibited at the Columbian Exposition almost ideally
perfect. It is true there were some survivals of former years, crude
and imperfect and comparatively useless, but as a group the refrig-
erators in the class were worthy of place in the great Columbian Expo-
sition. It is creditable to American genius that all of the refrigerators
having merit were of American manufacture, and in every respect
superior to any made in other countries. The progress of manufacture
in this class was fitly represented by two exhibits, one representing
the earlier form of unventilated and noninsulated ice chest, while the
other represented the very best form of the household refrigerator.
To anyone carefully examining the Belding refrigerators, with their
perfect insulation, good workmanship, and rapid circulation of cold,
pure, and dry air, it seemed almost ludicrous that they should be
placed for competitive examination in the same class as the ill-made
and unventilated ice chest. But these two, the poorest and the best,
illustrated the progress which had been made within a few years, and
were striking examples of the educational advantages which in every
department were presented by the Exposition.

METHODS OF CX)NSTRUCnON.

The construction of refrigerators to insure good results must follow
along certain lines. The box must be well constructed and properly
divided into compartments for ice and food storage. To economize in
ice consumption there must be some insulation, and this will pi-ovide
the cold air needed to preserve the food; but the interior must be so
arranged that this cold air, freed of ail moisture, shall rapidly circit-
late through all the compartments of the refrigerator, and these coui-

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1873

pai*tmeiits be reachable in all parts for thorough cleansing whenever
it is necessary to wash out the refrigerator. Added to these things
the material and workmanship must be of the best, and the appear-
ance of the completed refrigerator attractive to the eye, for in these
days beauty and utility must be combined.

Almost all late styles of household refrigerators have the boxes so
constructed that the ice chamber is above the food or storage cham-
bers. There are a few exceptions to this geneml plan. In these the
ice is either placed at the bottom or in a central compartment, with
the storage chambers on each side. In one or two instances the ice
chamber is at the side or end, and in the large refrigerators used by
butchers and hotels the ice supply is often placed at the back and on
the top of the storage chambers. The best refrigerators are all con-
structed of hard woods, but for the cheaper grades poplar and pine
take the place of oak and ash. The sections or layers of the casing to
secure insulation vary with different makes from a single thickness in
some ice chests to as many as six divisions or more, as in the Belding
Perfection. This method of construction assures not only strength,
but a large percentage of cold to the pound of ice used. Strength is
also made certain by dovetailing and bolting, which with perfectly
fitted joints and a good inside lining of zinc or other metal makes the
box air and water tight. The cheaper grades are coated with paint,
but the better class are finished in the natural wooods with oils and
varnish. The interior finish mostly used is zinc, but there are tile and
galvanized-iron linings, and in one instance the food chambers are
lined with glass. Where the special lining is not used the interior is
finished in wood so prepared as not to absorb moisture or the taints of
food. To protect the floor or lining of the ice chamber from the
blows of heavy masses office dropped upon it the ice chamber is
equipped with a rack of wood, iron, or steel, upon which the ice
rests and under which the wastage escapes. The shelves in the food
chambers are ordinarily made of galvanized iron or some other non-
absorbing material, and are easily removable for washing. The waste
water from the melted ice is conveyed away through a pipe equipped
with some form of trap at its outlet to prevent the escape of the cooled
air, and this trap is a very important part of the equipment of a first-
class refrigerator, for if the trap fails to work properly the ice will be
consumed with but little good result or the bottom of the refrigerator
will be flooded with the waste water from the melting ice, to the dis-
may of the housekeeper.

INSULATION.

The necessity of some better protection to the ice than the wooden
sides of the box became apparent as soon as the first ice chests were
constructed, for the rapid waste of ice in the uninsulated boxes made

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1374 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

them too expensive for the ordinary family. To prevent flie too rapid
consumption of ice the walls were first increased in thickness, then air
spaces were made in them between the outer and inner casing, and in
turn sawdust packing, felt, charcoal, mineral wool, and various com-
binations of these methods were adopted. To determine the relative
values of all these a careful test has been made, from which it would
appear that walls divided by several separated air spaces present the
greatest resistance to the entrance of heat or the escape of cold. Bat
a wall containing a sufficient number of dead-air spaces would make
the cases too cumbersome, and so some of the packings are generally
used. By test those of equal thickness have heat-conducting power
as follows, when tested separately: Sawdust, 163; loose charcoal, 140;
sheep wool, 136; hair felt, 117; mineral wool, 100; compacted charcoal,
70. From this test it would appear that a wall packed with sawdust will
permit 163 units of heat or cold to enter or escape, while a wall having
a packing of compacted charcoal of the same thickness permits onh' 70
units to pass, demonstrating the fact that the compacted charcoal is
far more valuable as an ice saver than is sawdust or any of the other
forms of insulation. When combined with the wooden casings and
with each other, it becomes comparatively easy to determine the rela-
tive values of the systems used by the manufacturers of refrigerators.
From the above table it will appear that, all other things being equal,
the use of some form of compacted charcoal, such as thick sheathing,
combined with dead-air spaces, gives the very best results. Refrigera-
tors which rely for insulation on a packing of loose charcoal are found
to become compamtively useless after a time, as the loose charcoal
settles down, no matter how firmly it may have been packed in, and
thus the ice chamber is left without protection. Mineral wool, com-
bined with the dead-air space, is a very eflFective insulation, and is to
be preferred next to the charcoal sheathing, but unless it is put
securely into position in the form of covered packets it is liable also
to shake down, for the threadlike filaments of which it is composed
are easily broken. Hair felt gives better results than ^ool felt, but
both are liable to get foul in time. In the large refrigerators or cold-
storage rooms used by butchers and hotels the insulation is secured in
the same way as in the household refrigerators, although as the walls
are thicker, the packing may be of any of the less expensive materials
and still give good results.

CIRCULATION.

Unless there be a circulation of pure, dry cold air, the food placed in
the storage chambers of the refrigator will speedily become unfit for
use, and to secure such circulation is therefore the first aim of all
manufacturers. As cold air is heavier than warm air, it naturally falls
to the lower level, displacing the warm air, and thus induces a move-

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1875

ment which will, if conti'olled and continued, give the desired system
of circulation. In order to secure the fall of the heavier cold air,
most manufacturers place the ice chambers above those intended for
food or storage, and provide for the passage of the cooled air from
the ice chamber by means of openings directly under the ice rack or
at the ends or sides of the chamber. The warm air driven out of the
provision chambers by the heavier chilled air is forced to inside or
end flues, and through these escapes upward to openings above the
ice over which it passes and is cooled, the ice taking out any impuri-
ties which the air may have carried up from the food chambei*s. Thus
the air circulates over and around the ice and through the storage
chambers, becoming thor-
oughly cooled by contact
with the ice, and if the food
chambers are properly
constructed, so as not to
"sweat," the air being de-
prived of moisture, by con-
densation on the flue sur-
faces, will keep dry to a
sufficient extent, and the
food chambers will remain
pure, cold, and dry. Of
course, each manufacturer
claims that only his special
arrangement of flues and
air passages in ice and food
chambers will do the work
thoroughly, and that such
special arrangement is the
best possible, but examina-
tion reveals remarkable
similarity in all. The fol-
lowing diagrams will show
at a glance the methods of
construction and circulation systems, from which will be seen the tend-
ency of the majority of manufacturers to the use of a central air pas-
sages under the ice, and side passage in the casings for the returning air.
AH the Belding refrigerators have the compacted thick charcoal
sheathing packing, combined with the dead-air space, which assures a
perfect insulation, and the circulation is rapid and reaches to all parts
of the food chambers, while the walls are perfectly free from moisture,
thus securing the very best results. All the different styles of refrig-
erators made by this company are built on the same plan, the size and
shape being adapted to the special uses for which the boxes are

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In the above sectional view the arrows show the direction of
the air current.

1376

REPORT OF OOMMITI'EE ON AWARDS.

Sectional view.— A, retail ice chamber; B, wholesale ice chamtx;r; C, retail meat department lor cm
meats, glass doors; D, butter, lard, and egg department; E, wholesale department for carcasBes,
quarters, etc.

Outside view.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1377

designed. Their sideboard refrigerators are very handsome, and are
built on the same plan with the special sideboard feature added. In
the line of grocers' and butchers' refrigerators, where strength and
capacity are required, they exhibited refrigerators possessing all the
excellencies of the household refrigerators, and, like them, worthy of
the highest commendation.

The Belding Comptiny's
Perfection butchers' and
grocers' cooling room is
made in sections, so as to be
readily transported and set
up. It is easily understood
from the illustrations which
follow. These refrigerators
are built of kiln-dried hard
wood, strongl}^ made, and
put together for hard serv-
ice. They all have paneled
ends and fronts, with large
glass doors in the front.
They are thoroughly insu-
lated with compacted char-
coal in thick sheathing, and
have galvanized iron floors.
The ice chambers are large,
and the storage chambers
are so divided as to give two
departments, one for whole-
sale and the other for retail
trade.

Construction showing
walls of Wisconsin Peerless
refrigei*ator and operation
of cleansable flues: At left
and bottom of cut is shown
the manner in which the
walls, doors, floors, etc. , are
made. To preserve the ice,
first, hard-wood case; sec-
ond, prepared building pa-
per; third, mineral wool; fourth, prepared building paper; fifth, air
space; sixth, inside case; seventh, zinc lining.

At left and back of cut the operation of the cleansable flues is shown.
The top flue forms an inner cover or lid to the ice chamber, and assists
to preserve the ice. The side flues are swung by open hinges at front

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Wisconsin Peerless Refrigerator.

1378

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

and back, and can be swung in or entirely removed to be cleansed as
desired; the swinging arrangement is desirable in sizes where the
ice chamber opens in front, as all that is necessary to be done is to
raise the flue and wipe off the surface. The entire flue system of the
Wisconsin Peerless can be cleaned readily of all impurities. The
bevel lip on bottom of side flues prevents any escape of air or drip
of water into the provision chamber. Underrfeath the floor is shown
the new trap. This brings the drip to the front of the refrigerator,
and annoyance from overflowing pans and inconvenience in drawing
them out is avoided.
The arrows in the above cut indicjite the direction of the air cuiTents.

The air in the provision chamber
becoming more or less warmed
by contact with the food or other
articles contained therein, ex-
pands and consequently rises,
taking with it the vapors and
impurities from the provisions.
The only course for this rising
air to take is through the flues,
opening from the top of the pro-
vision chamber on either side.
Ascending these flues, and pass-
ing through cleansable side and
top flues, the air is discharged
upon the ice, passing over and
around the ice, and, becoming
chilled, the air seeks an outlet.
This it finds at the bottom of the
ice chamber, but not until it has
passed under the ice and has de-
posited on the metal ice rack the
vapors and impurities that it
contained. These impurities are
carried off with the water from the melted ice through the drain pipe,
which has a trap underneath the provision chamber. There is no trap
or loose joint within the provision chamber and the drain pipe is
straight, so that it can be easily cleansed.

General construction of the Wisconsin Peerless: The outer case of
all refrigerators is made of ash or oak, dried in hot-air di^ kilns.
The panels are in one piece and grooved into the rails and stiles, which
are mortised together, making a tight cabinet. The joining and
cabinetwork is good. The inner case or body is of kiln-dried, closely
matched, odorless w^ood, lined with zinc, and fastened together with
hard wood cleats which support the outside case, making a refrigerator

Sectional view showing the interior construction
and circulation of the air currents of the Wiscon-
sin Peerless refrigerator.

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WOBLD's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1379

of strength, durability, and beauty. The space between the outer
and inner cases is filled with mineral- wool filling, and this filling is so
put in that it can not settle or shake down. The floors of the provision
chambers are covered with zinc, and are on a level with the bottom of
the doors, making it easy to keep clean should anything be spilled
therein. The ice and provision chambers are lined with zinc of the
best quality, the joints being carefully soldered to prevent anything
from leaking through. Provision chambers are furnished with bright
tin lucks, light, clean, and open, to oflFer no obstruction to the circu-
lation of air. The finishing is done in shellac and the best quality
coach varnish. Locks and hinges are of bronze or finely poJished
brass. The water tank is white-porcelain lined, with bronze faucet,
nickel plated. All refrigerators are mounted on casters, the larger
size being provided with heavy two-wheeled antifriction casters.
The locks on these refrigerators are of the lever-clamp system and
make the closed doors air-tight. They are automatic in their opera-
tion. The sideboard refrigerators exhibited by this company were
constructed on the same general plan s^s the household and grocers'
refrigerators shown in the foregoing diagrams. They were made
with the same packing and flues, but with very handsome trimmings
and sideboard fittings, making them very pleasant to look at as piecas
of furniture, and worthy of high commendation.

The Alaska Refrigerator Company, of Muskegon, Mich., is one of
the largest manufacturers of refrigerators in the world, and disputes
with the Belding Company the honor of being the largest. Ita exhibit
at the Columbian Exposition was very handsome, and reflected great
credit on the company.

General method of construction of the Alaska refrigerators: The
outer cases are made of ash, oak, or soft woods, dried in hot-air dry
kilns. The panels are in one piece, grooved into the rails and stiles,
which being mortised together makes a tight cabinet. All the join-
ing and cabinetwork is good. The inner case or body is of kiln-dried,
closely matched, odorless wood, lined with zinc, and fastened together
with hard-wood debits, which support the outside case, making the
cases all strong and durable. At the base of the refrigerator is a solid
one-piece corner block, thus doing away with the ordinary miter joint.
To form the feet, the front, end, and back stiles are extended, making
the feet strong. The space between the outer and inner cases is filled
with a thick charcoal packing of from li to 3 inches thickness, depend-
ent on the size of the refrigerator. The door stops are thick, with
overlapping joints. The floors of the provision chambers are level
with the bottoms of the doors, making it easy to keep clean should
anything be spilled in the provision chambers. The ice and food
chambers are lined with zinc of the best quality, with well-soldered
joints to prevent leakage. The storage chambers have metal shelves,

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1380

REIX)BT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

which oflfer no obstruction to the circulation of air. The finishing is
done in shellac and fine coach varnish. The locks and hinges are of
bronze, except in the cheaper gi-ades of soft-wood refrigerators. The
casters are heavy and antifriction. The diagrams will show the theory
and method of construction.

The air in the provision chambers, warmed by contact with food,
expands and rises, carrying with it the impurities thrown oflf b\^ the
food. By means of the side ttues the ascending columns of air are
carried to an opening over the center of the ice chamber, whence it
passes over and around the ice, and chilled by its contact with the ice
falls through the opening under the ice to the storage chambers below.

The Alaska theory. The air circulates in the direction repre-
sented by arrows.

The moisture is condensed on the undei'side of the ice rack and on
the walls of the air flues, and the air enters the food chambers dry and
pure, the ice having taken up the impurities carried up from the food
chambers. These impurities are carried off with the melted ice wat«r
by means of the straight drain pipe at the rear, which terminates in a
trap. This trap will be clearly understood by the illustration, and is
one of the very best in use. The trouble with many of the traps is a
tendency to overflow, but in this that trouble seems to be well guarded
against.

The Alaska system is still further illustrated by this diagram, which
shows the case partially cut away to disclose the ice and provision

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1381

chambers of one of the smaller sizes. The insulation is also shown
between the outer and inner cases. The ice rests on a corrugated

-^""y^^^

Showing inner circulation by condensation.

galvanized-iron rack, which is so constructed as to leave an air passage
under the iron.
The illustrations below show the trap. It is placed in the provision

chamber just beneath the ice chamber, where it can be easily reached to
remove when necessary to clean. The waste pipe is made straight,

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1382

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

by using this trap, which makes it easy to clean. By removing the ice
mck a stick can be run through the pipe, which will take off all deposit
that may collect. The dotted lines in cut show the end of the waste
pipe entering the trap. The corrugated center cup keeps the water
away from the outside shell so that no moisture will collect on the
outside of the tmp. The shape of the inner piece is such that the over-
flow will follow to the point and drop through the center of waste pipe.
The (i. M. Shirk Company, of Chicago, 111., with factory at Peru,
Ind., manufactures the North Star refrigerators, which are of similar
construction to the refrigerators just described. They are built of
well-seasoned hard woods, dried in hot-air kilns. The panels are of
one piece, grooved into the i-ails and stiles, which, being mortised

together, makes the cabi-

pet tight. The inner case
is of kiln-dried odorless
wood, closely matched, and
lined with zinc. Hard-
wood cleats support the
outside case, making the
whole box strong and dur-
able. The floors of the zinc-
lined storage chambers are
level with the doors, and
are easily flushed for clean-
ing. The joints of the
zinc lining in all the com-
partments are carefully
soldered. The provision
chaml>ei's are equipped
with movable metal i*acks,
and the interior can be
thoroughl}' drained, the
drain pipe and trap being
well placed and arranged. The locks and hinges are of bronze, and
in those having a water tank the tank is porcelain lined, with bronze
faucet. The finishing is in shellac and varnish. These refrigerators
are mounted on antifriction casters. The locks are of the wedge sys-
tem, and make the doors air-tight. The plan of circulation and con-
struction is shown here.

The ascending column of warm air, forced out of the pi'ovision
chambers by the descending column of chilled air, reaches the ice
chamber at the top of its sides, and passes around and under the ice
to the central opening, under the ice rack, which leads to the food
chambers below. The air is relieved of moisture before its return to
the storage chambers, and these are always in a dry condition. The

IMan of coiiMtruction of the North Star refrigerators.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1383

special form of ti-ap, it will be seen, is a cup with a weighted valve.
The drainpipe discharges the melted ice water into the cup, and when
the weight of water is in excess of the valve weight the valve opens
and the water is discharged, and the valve automatically closes, and
the entrance of outside air is stopped. This trap, like almost all the
others shown at the Exposition, is instantly removable and is very
simple.

The Summit Refrigerator Manufacturing Company, of Michigan
City, Ind., were well represented by excellent samples of their work,
both in household and sideboard refrigerators. One special sideboard
refrigerator was a beautiful example of careful cabinetwork, with
hand-curved panels and fine
workmanship throughout.
The Summit refrigerators are
constructed of kiln-dried oak
or ash outside cases, and
tongued and grooved poplar
inside cases. The panels are
of one piece and grooved into
the i-ails and stiles, which are
mortised together. Hard-
wood cleats hold both cases
together. All the chambers
are lined with zinc, with gal-
vanized-iron shelves and ice
racks. The inner wall of the
outer case is lined with waxed
oderless paper, which, with
the air spa(*e, furnishes the
insulation. The floors of the
food chambers are level with
the door bottoms. The cast-
ers are self -retaining and
antifriction. The trap is a siphon trap attached to the ice chamber.
The circulation system provides for separate flues from each food
chamter to the top and sides of the ice chamber. This system differs
from those heretofore described in this double-flue system for ascending
air from the food rooms and in the use of the siphon trap attached
to the ice chamber, other traps being placed at the outlets of the
refrigerators.

The method of construction and circulation is shown fully in accom-
panying diagram.

The abov^e cut shows the interior construction and double system of
circulation of the air currents in the Summit refrigerator. The
arrows in the cut show the direction of the air. The cold air falling

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from the center opening in the ice chamber displaces the warm,
impure air thrown off by the provisions. This impure air takes the
only course open for it, through the side flues at the ends of ice cham-
ber over the top, and is discharged through side flues in the lid indi-
rectly on to the ice, and through end flues at the bottom of provision
chamber, passing up directly into the ice chamber, where it is purified
by passing over it. By the latter course of circulation a uniform
temperature is had. It then falls into the provision chamber again in
the form of pure, cold, dry air, and circulation is thus maintained.

The Hurd Refrigerator Company, of Duluth, Minn., was repre-
sented by a line of household refrigerators, which were duly entered
for examination, but, in addition, this company had grocers refrig-
erators and sideboard combination refrigerators which were not
entered for examination, having been overlooked by the company
until too late. The household refrigerators are made of kiln-dried

hard woods for the outer cases, and
odorless poplar, tongued and grooved,
for the inner cases, the latter having an
inner lining of zinc. All the panels
are in one piece, and the rails and stiles
are mortised together. The trimmings
are all of bronze, and the lock is a
wedge lock, tightly fastening the door,
and taking up all wear. The trap and
waste pipe are good, and the interior
is readily cleansed. The circulation is
shown by this diagram.

It will be seen that this is almost a
radical departure from the circulation
systems heretofore illustiTited. There
is no central opening from the ice chamber to the storage chambers
below, but instead the cold air passes entirely under the ice to an
opening into a side flue through which it is conducted to the bottom
of the food chambers. The chilled air accumulates in the food cham-
bers and gradually forces out the warmer air through the side flue on
the side opposite to that occupied by the cold-air duct. The warm
air is conducted over the ice chamber through its flue to an opening
at the opposite side, where it is discharged into the ic« chamber to
again be cooled and passed to the provision chambers.
The insulation is provided for by packets of mineral wool.
The Grand Rapids Company make what they call the Leonard
cleanable refrigerators. The outside cases are of kiln-dried oak or
ash, finished in antique, with bronze trimmings. The panels are of
one piece, grooved into the rails and stiles which in turn are mortised
together. Between the inside and outer boxes there is a filling of

The Hurd system of circulation.

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charcoal, and between the inner case and its zinc lining is a paper wall.
Wool felt is made use of also in one line of these ref rigeratoi's to more
perfectly secure insulation. The inner box is made of 1-inoh thick
poplar boards, to which are nailed upright cleats of hard wood, and to
these the outer case is fastened. The flues are made removable, and ,
the arched center false bottom in the ice chamber is of galvanized iron.
The casters are heavy and of lignum-vitse. The trap and drainpipe
are arranged to rapidly carry off all waste water and at the same time
prevent the entrance of warm air from the outside. The lock is
arranged so as to grip the door at top and bottom as well as at the
side, thus securely holding the door in place and preventing warp.
The sideboards shown by this company were of the same general plan
in construction but veiy highly finished with tasteful designs, making
them attractive pieces for the
dining room. In all the racks,
made of corrugated iron, there
is neither solder nor rivets use<l;
the iron is bent over the ends of
the bars and thus fastened.
This diagram shows the method
of circulation.

The inner walls of the wann-
air flues, A A, which are re-
movable, are constructed of
galvanized iron, kept cold by
the ice in the box. ' This offers
a condensing surface to the as-
cending warm air and partially
cools the air. All vapor con-
densed here runs down the iron
and is caught by the bottom of
the ice box, whicH projects be-
yond the iron for this purpose. The air is next passed over the ice,
where it is again condensed and cooled, to openings in the false bottom,
as shown by the arrows; to the center, where it passes to the provision
chamber pure, dry, and cold, falling to the bottom and forcing the
warm air up into the ice box, to be again condensed and purified.

The Northern Refrigerator Company, of Grand Rapids, Mich.,
were represented by their glacier refrigerators and sideboard refrig-
erators. These depend for insulation upon a combination of the dead-
air space and a wool-felt packing. The outer cases are made in either
hard or soft woods, with one-piece panels grooved into i*ails and
stiles, which are in turn mortised together for strength and durability.
The two cases are fastened together with hard-wood cleats, and the
chambers are all lined with zinc, while in the ice chamber is an arched

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Leonard cleanablc refrigerator.

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1386 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

false bottom of galvanized iron, beneath which the cooled air passes
to the opening leading to the food chambers below. The flues are all
hinged for cleansing the refrigemtor easily, and through these the
ascending column of warm air is discharged into the ice chamber at
the ends of that chamber. The lock has a horseshoe handle and a
powerful spring latch. The casters are large. The trap is the same
as is used in the Leonard. The finish is in shellac and oils. As will
be seen by the diagram this is almost a duplicate of the Leonard.

The operation of the refrigerator is illustrated by the sectional view.
Ice being placed on the false bottom in the upper compaitment, the
air under the false bottom becomes very cold and heavy and falls
through the opening into the provision chamber below, forcing the
wannest air up through the flues A A at the ends, where it stnkes the
ice and is condensed and cooled. The sideboard refrigerators were
similar in appearance and construction to those exhibited by the Gi^and
Rapids Company and possessed the same qualities of design and finish.

The Wickes Refrigerator Compan^^ which
has over 8,000 refrigerator cars at work on
the different railway lines of this country,
makes also a specialty of refrigerators and
rooms for hotels and houses, as well as cold-
storage plants. Their tile-lined rooms and
refrigemtors are intended to supply ample
space for the storage of large quantities of
food. The cooling of the air is secured by
ice in an open-work ice crib, with projecting
leaves on its outside. The ice-cold water from
the melted ice is retained in the line traveled

Sectional view of the upright i_ ^i. • i x* • j xi_ x i

refrigerator. ^Y ^"^ circulatmg air, and thus not only con-

tributes to the purification of the air, but also
assists in chilling it. The ice tank is composed of strips of galvanized
iron, interlaced like basket work, to form a strong and durable recep-
tacle, and permits the air to come into direct contact with the ice
through the multitude of interstices. To increase the cooling surface
of the ice tank, extra short strips of metal are passed through every
crossing in the basket work, and the ends of these extra pieces of
galvanized iron are bent outside. In this way the air current, which
passes from the provision chambers through a wire gauze opening on
the top of the tank front to the ice, encounters at once a very large
cooling surface of metal, and being chilled falls rapidl}^ around the ice
to the free opening below, where it reaches the storage rooms. The
ice is supported in the ice chamber or tank upon strong oak bars,
beneath which are many feet of interlaced galv^anized wire, placed
there for the puipose of arresting the ice-cold drip water as it falls
from the ice, so that the air as it passes around the ice to the opening

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WORLD S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

las';

into the food chambers is compelled to pass through this cold water,
and is thus purified. The moisture in the air is taken from it by con-
densation upon the metal surfaces which it strikes before it reaches
the provision chambers, and thus enters these pure and dry. The
novel feature exhibited by this company consisted in the tile lining for
their refrigerators, which enabled them to be kept absolutely sweet
and clean at all times. This company furnished for the Department of
Agriculture at the Paris Exposition of 1889 a cooling room 40 feet in
length, divided into three compartments, and for this refrigerator the

Small refrigerator with four compartments, standard size.

Department received a silver medal. The use of white glazed tiles
in the refrigerator rooms adds a beauty and suggests perfect cleanli-
ness. The methods of construction are shown in the accompanying
two diagrams, one showing a large household refrigerator and the
other a two-compartment cold room.

The Butcher's cooling rooms exhibited by Paul J. Daemicke, and
Wolf, Sayer & Heller, both firms of Chicago, very much resembled
each other, differing in the arrangement of the drip pans and the
method of separating the main storeroom from the compartment

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devoted to retail biusiness. These cooling rooms are usually built in
sections at the factories and are easilj' put together when the\' have
reached their destination. They consist essentially of an upper ice
chamber and two compartments, or more, below and in front devoted
to storage of supplies. As these cooling rooms must contain large
quantities of ice, the ice chambers are made very strong, and the stout
racks and fenders are capable of holding up several tons of ice if nec-
essary. Under the center of the ice chamber and extending its entire
length, runs a watershed from which the waste water of the melted ice
runs into inclined drip pans, which, by a system of levers, may be
raised or lowered as deemed advisable, and by the closing of the spaces
between the drip pans and the edges of the watershed the circulation
is regulated at will. In the Daemicke cooling room these drip pans
are two in number, hinged at the sides nearest the walls, and with pro-
tecting curtains at the other sides, where by a screw and system of
shafts they are raised or lowered to close or open the air passage. In
the Wolf, Sayer & Heller cooling room the drip pans are six or more
in number, which by an arrangement of levers work together and
are opened or closed to regulate the circulation. These drip pans are
hinged and adjustable at their vibrating edges toward and from the
overhanging edges of the watershed, which by its overhang prevents
any drip of water into the storage rooms below. In the Daemicke
rooni the exhibit chamber is separated from the cooling chamber by a
plate which constitutes a support for a meat rack on which the joints
of meat are suspended for exhibition. It is provided with glass win-
dows through which light is admitted into the cooling room. In both
these cooling rooms the supplemental show chamber is a very impor-
tant feature. It is so constructed as to slide the contents forward at
will. The sliding compartment is intended to close the chamber by
means of a hinged panel whenever it becomes necessary to take from
it the supplies to accommodate a customer. As the bottom of the
small compartment is moved forward, the panel, hinged at the top and
front, falls into place*and prevents the entmnce of outside air and thus
maintains the temperature. The woilvmanship of these refrigerators
is excellent, and the finish makes them attractive and well adapted for
the special uses for which they are designed. The air is kept pure and
dr\^, and the walls of the cooling rooms exhibited not the slightest
trace of moisture, nothing showing more completely the perfect circu-
lation. Both of these firms also exhibited in connection with their
cooling rooms a complete line of supplies for butchers.

SODA-WATER APPARATUS.

Ameiica is the home of the soda-water fountain, and the many beau-
tiful designs displayed at the Exposition proved that the business of
dispensing soda water to a thirsty public must be conducted in a man-

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1389

ner to assure the public that the apparatus receives constant inspection
and is kept in a condition of perfect cleanliness. When the business
was first started many ^'^ears ago by John Matthews, the apparatus
used was as plain as it was possible to make it, but the exhibits shown
at the Exposition were all marked by elaborate display of silver-plated
ware, beveled glass, onyx and marble columns, and a general endeavor
to show that it is possible to make even soda-water fountains beautiful.
The dispensing apparatus shown by Matthews, Tufts, Lippencott,
Puflfer, and Zwietusch were all constructed on substantially the same
general plan. The soda water, forced from the iron fountains by a
strong pressure of gas, is passed through piping in the ice chamber,
where it is cooled, and then drawn through the draft tube into the
glass. Through block tin to the water in the pipe, or in a special
form of cooling chamber, there is communicated an intense degree of

Generator and fountain of 1832, invented by Paul C. Lannlng. The first machine for generating gaa
under pressure for charging portable fountains.

cold, but the water is in all cases kept pure until it enters the glass,
where it is flavored with sirup. The sirup cans are constructed either
to serve their contents from a vent in the bottom, or are inclined, or
will tilt. They are always removable for cleaning. With all of these
manufacturers marble and onyx are the usual and favorite material
wherever it can be used, and all their designs were in marble and
onyx. In all the marble is sawed extra thick, carefully cut, and accu-
rately fitted. The cases are joined with silvered bolts and bronze
clamps, to insure stability. The ice box is made of heav}^ copper,
tinned on both sides. The coolers, or cooling pipes, are so placed that
the ice produces its greatest effect. Between the ice box and the outer
wooden case is a dead-air space, and insulation material to prevent
sweating. The draft tubes are elegant in design, simple in construc-
tion, ai^d dui'able. The whole apparatus is simply and yet substan-

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1390 BEPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWABDS.

tially made, and is in marked contrast to the original charging appa-
ratus figured below, which served to introduce the now fashionable spa
to the public.

The dispensing apparatus which accompanied the generator of 1832
was a very plain box of wood with a single draft tube, and was not
very attractive in appearance. Here is a dispensing fountain of 1893
which shows the advancement. It is a double wall apparatus, and has
the front of the bodies of Genoa green marble, with bands of Gryotte,
the lids and base of black, the ends of Tennessee of superior quality,
extra thick, and overlaid with Gryotte. The draft tubes, which are of
a novel pattern, are set on tablets of onyx. Mirrors placed at r^ht
angles to each other connect the bodies; and in the three-cornered
niche thus formed stands an exceedingly pretty tumbler washer, which
the mirrors reflect fourfold. Three French plate-glass mirrors with
beveled edges, engraved borders, and frames of Italian Bardillo mar-
ble, engraved and gilded, constitute the background of the beautiful
upper fabric. Columns with shafts of opalescent Mexican onyx, capi-
tals and bases of black, grand antique, and Gryotte, sustain a canopy
composed of Gryotte, Belgian black, grand antique, Tennessee, and
Italian Bardillo. The cornice is unique in design, exquisitely engraved,
and adorned with jewels and small beveled mirrors. Suspended from
the cornice are lanterns of silver and crystal. Dimensions: Extreme
length, 11 feet 4 inches; width, 2 feet 2 inches; height, 8 feet 6 inches.

The general interior construction of all dispensing apparatus is
similar, and while all have minor variations in draft tubes and cooler, or
fruit-sirup cans, they are built on one general plan which permits these
minor variations. But when the exterior construction is viewed they
differ widely, as each manufacturer follows his own taste. It is for this
reason that while the Low art tile soda fountain has an interior con-
struction substantially like that of all the othei*s, it is yet radically
diflferent so far as the exterior is concerned. All other manufacturers
use marble and onyx for decorative effect, but the Low ait tile fountain
use art tile. While other fountains are trimmed and decorated, each
one of the Low art tile fountains is truly a work of art. While man}'
of the fountains heretofore made have been very ornate and expensive
they have not always possessed true artistic merit. The difficulty has
been that marble is not readily susceptible to the hand of the designer,
and the production of symmetrical f oniis or pleasing ornamentation is
costly. With tile this difficulty is overcome. The clay in the hands
of the potter assumes the shapes his mind desires, and symmetrical lines
and pleasing forms of ornament appear responsive to his touch. The
variety of form which the clay can be made to assume is infinite, and
the truly artistic results which it gives makes the tile a very satisfac-
tory exterior for soda fountains. Not only is artistic form at command
in the tile, but to beauty of form is added beauty of color and finish.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1391

The art tiles of this country are largely due to the skill, energy, and
indomitable perseverance of one man. His experiments continued for
months; his many failures, the long delays before experience taught
better methods, all were to him but as difficulties to overcome before
success could be reached, and so regarding the various hindrances
which beset the early manufacture of art tiles in this country, Mr. Low
pressed forward until his tiles have now taken the highest rank in the
world, and are used in all kinds of work where decorative effect is
desirable. It is especially in what is called relief work that the Low
art tiles are most beautiful and best adapted to the special decoration
of soda fountains. By^ the Low process the color values of the relief
tiles are enhanced; the colors are made to glow and deepen over the
surface until the tile and its color express the design in the most per-
fect way. The glazes used are not the result of chance, but are care-
fully studied out, and are so applied as to modify the design. Melting
in the intense heat of the kiln they flow freely over the surface of the
tile, filling up depressions, and thus forming the deep shadows, and
leaving the high points of the relief design with a thin covering of the
glaze, and so expressing by the depth and intensity of the glaze, as
well as the figures in relief, the beauties of the design. In the tiles
of the fountain exhibited at the Columbian Exposition the most charm-
ing eflfects were produced by these combinations of figures in relief,
colors, and glaze. The sky was as perfect as if laid on by the brush
of the artist, while the figures in the foreground at the spring were
brought out in strong relief, yet with a softness impossible by any
other process. This fountain was made for the Exposition as an
illustration of what could be done with the art tile, and certainly this
fountain was the finest and most artistic fountain displayed. This
special design was, however, not the only one turned out by the Low
Art Tile Company, but from its peculiar beauty of design and per-
fection of finish deserves special mention apart from the other products
of the company. What more appropriate design for a soda-water
fountain than a Grecian spring, to whose health-giving waters are
gathering the birds of the air and the beasts of the field as well as the
children of men? Another design for decoration of a fountain has for
its central panel the figure of a tired and thirsty youth eagerly drink-
ing from a cup, while for another the main arch is a single panel
representing the gathering of the grape by the laughing cupids. But
how shall the life and color of the scene be fitly described or the eflfect-
iveness of the tile as a fountain decoration be shown. Certain it is
that tile is more eflfective than marble or any similar material for a
fountain decoration, and as it is not susceptible to the acids, which eat
away and discolor marble, it ought to be more durable. This is not
the place to enter into a history of the tile as applied to other pur-
poses than soda fountains, but it is enough to say that we are begin-

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1392 REPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

ning to appreciate the usefulness and decorative value of the tile in all
places where tiles can be used, and among the tiles suitable for gen-
eral decoration the very best made in the United States are the Low
art tiles, which are truly works of art.

The Ironclad Manufacturing Company, of New York, and Otto Zwie-
tusch, of Milwaukee, Wis., exhibited steel fountains. The former
were strongly banded, and put together by rivets and the sweating
process. They were lined throughout with solid block tin, and the
bottoms were supported and strengthened by an arched bridge. This
steel fountain claimed to have so strengthened the weakest part of the
fountain that it will be able to stand greater pressure than heretofore.
The Zweitusch steel fountains are constructed of two pieces, and hence
are equally strong at all points. They are lined with solid block tin
throughout, and are ver\' carefully put together. These fountains
are of drawn steel, and the entire fountain, except the bottom, is in
one piece, so doing away with the necessity of bands and rivets. The
bottom is trussed, and the two parts are strongly put together, sweated
and riveted. These steel fountains are made to withstand very high
pressures, and are probably the strongest fountains made.

The Ironclad Company also exhibited a very fine line of all kinds of
enameled ware, milk cans, etc. These all displayed careful construc-
tion.

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SEWING, CROCHETING, KNITTING, AND
EMBROIDERY.

Miss» HELENE E. OORRELL.

COL EXPO— 02 88 1393

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SEWING, CROCHETING, KNITTING, AND EMBROIDERY.

By Mifis Helen E. Corrbll, Juror,

INTEODUOnON.

These classes are so intimately connected in kind that it seems almost
impossible to treat them separately. Both include sewing, crocheting,
knitting, and embroidery. One class may be considered as a treatment
of these handicrafts in their elementary forms, while the other may be
looked at from a more advanced position with reference to their artistic
relations. The line between them, however, is hardly distinguishable
and I choose not to define it in terms, but rather to treat both classes
as a unit, differing only in its stages of development.

HISTORY.

The origin of these industries is so ancient as to be lost in the laby-
rinth of the ages, but it is commonly held that they were born in the
realms of the gods and that swift-winged Minerva taught the nymphs
so deftly and skillfully as to enable them not only to imitate each mystic
stitch, but also to excel her in production. This myth may also be
reason for the fact that this handicraft is a woman's work, it being an
undisputed truth that this art is the only field where a woman's right
to independent act and thought has never been disputed. Leaving the
vague and doubtful realm of myth, let us come within the boundaries
of historic truth and look at the development of these crafts from a
surer, a more authoritative position.

The Chinese, the East Indians, and the Egyptians, in the order
named, were the first to bring these arts within the range of system,
their scope and ornament, however, being limited to rectilinear figures.
Following this rude beginning, the Assyrians introduced an ornamenta-
tion based upon the simpler animal and human forms, yet always with-
out perspective. A naive conception truly!

This, however, was the parentage from which sprang the Greek and,
later, the Roman crafts. These were softer and smoother creations,
it is true, but hardly more realistic than the Assyrian. The Roman
system came in time to be known as the Phrygian work. Ite character-
istic was a great elaborateness of colors, gold and purple predominat-
ing. Its use was limited, however, to the borders of dresses, draperies,
and the like. The Romans went conquering over Europe, Asia, and

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Africa, carrying with them not only their laws and language, but also
their ac4X)n]plishment8, and thus became the schoolmasters of all these
regions. But Rome was interrupted in its effort for universal power
by its own unruliness, extravagance, and Christianity. Yes, Christi-
anity— a slight flame, easily extinguishable as it seemed — gained
strength with every effort to quench it, but at last burst forth in
majestic light, ovei-shadowing and overwhelming with its glare of
truth the outlived faith of the Romans. New ideas of beauty, new
ideas of art were set up and became dominant as the strife for exist-
ence ceased and the creed assumed the broad basis of a state religion.
The secret worshipping places of the followers of Christ, the dark
vaults of the catacombs, and the open air, with the starry sky above
them, were abandoned and replaced by basilicajs and domes, indicating
with their mighty arches both the vaults and lofty heavens so lately
abandoned.

The greatest simplicity was everywhere observed. The times were
still too grim for sweet art to develop. The decorations of the
churches were of the most primitive kind, and the vestments of the
bishops plain, if not poor. Time brought changes, however. The
sunshine of peace and power awakened the love for the really beau-
tiful. Franz von Assisi, St. Franciscus, with his admiration for
nature and its beauty, so impressed himself upon the age as to become
a forerunner of better things — a foreboder of the springtime of art.
The walls of the churches were covered with pictures, the altars with
embroidered cloths, and the vestments of the bishops and priests with
embroidered scenes of the life of Christ and his apostles. In the days
of the minstrelsy, however, a new figure was added, the figure of the
Holy Virgin, which soon became the most important of all.

Art embroidery developed first in England. The attainment of its
highest power was reserved, however, for Burgundy, the Burgundian
robes being in our day the marvel of the beholder. It had been said,
by writers in other lines, that the true type of the beautiful woman
is Burgundian. If this be true, it suggests the question: Is not the
highest form of art embroidery very closely connected with the best
types of female beauty? To say the least, it is a singular coincidence
that the rarest types of this should only be found in the region where
flourished the choicest patterns of that.

In the eleventh century the Moorish literature and art began its
course of power. France, Germany, and Burgundy were soon influ-
> eneed by the double array of the Moorish-Spanish technics and gor-
geous Moorish colors. These were the more readily adopted after the
Crusades brought the knights and clergy of Europe into contact with
the taste and art of the Orient.

The art embroidery had long ceased to be strictly clerical, the skilled
hands of the nuns and their pupils not seldom being employed with

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ornaments for emperors and kings, dukes and knights. The fair
pupils of the nuns, when they returned to their castles and homes,
carried with them the skill, the taste, and love for art they had
embodied during their school time; their hours of leisure at home
were spent in embroidering and reproducing scenes of daily life,
scenes of battles, and the sweet figures of the Holy Virgin.

Life began to center in great cities and great wealth began to be
accumulated; with these came a love for art in house and home, from
which in due time came our splendid art industries, the greatest prod-
uct of the ages. The names of Peter lamnitzer, Peter Vischer, Hans
Holbein soon awakened an echo of enthusiasm at their mention and
aroused a general love for art among the whole people.

The Romanic^ the Byzantian, and Arabian, hence Moorish gave
place in Germany to the Gothic style, and this, not in architecture
only, but also in painting and embroidery. The broad well-set arches
of the Romanic gave place to the loftier and more graceful ogivals;
the stoutly built figures of the saints and angels grew little by little in
length and took more graceful positions. By this time churches and
houses were alike adorned with exquisite embroideries and laces.
Each table was covered with handsomely worked spreads and the walls
draped with costly carpet^ the handiwork of women of artistic tastes
and perfect skill. The vestments of the clergy were costly and alto-
gether products of the highest art, the technics in every way equaling
the harmony of the color and the realistic demands of the times.

There is a summit to everything, however, and that summit was
reached by the art handicraft at the middle of the fifteenth century —
High Gothic marked its decline. The Renaissance began to run its
way, though only for a short triumphant period. The fierce and icy
storm of the Thirty Years' War soon nipped its flowers of beauty, and
strewed them in ruin o'er all the land. The wealth, the art, and the
people of Germany were alike smitten by its destroying hand. From
this blow the country never recovered until this century. In France
the Rococo and the Barok continued to flourish, while in Germany the
struggle was for bread to feed its people. And if some giddy princes
tried to imitate their lucky neighbor, it was accomplished only by
oppressing their subjects, retarding not only the normal development
of art, but the country as well.

Since 1848 there have been better days in Germany. The people
have gained confidence in the fatherland and have set up in their
hearts the old time love for art. A new era began. Louis I, King
of Bavaria, and an artist at heart, did very much to bring art and art
industry to life, and it may be easily proved that Munich was the
starting point to this great resumption. Museums were founded in
which the finest specimens available in wood carving, silver embossing,
laces, and art embroidery were installed. Academies and schools for

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art handicraft were also established and supplied with orders for the
decorations of the royal castles, thus making the prosecution of art
study not only possible for artists, but profitable as well.

The old technics and styles soon received and are now reaching per-
fection in the homes of the people. With, the opening of this century
new conditions of production were established; machinery was per-
fected and introduced. In addition to this, the development of the
science of chemistry enabled art industry to enliven its work with
greater variety of tints and colors.

THE ACrrUAL EXHIBIT OP GERMAN ART INDUSTRY AT THE WORLD'S
COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, CHICAGO.

First of all is the systematic display of the girls' public school at
Breslau. This comprises knitting in its simplest form, crocheting,
plain sewing, piecing, darning, marking, and simple embroidery. The
pupils begin at 7 years of age, and go on with the elementary study of
needlework until they are 14. The exhibit is remarkably accurate,
considering the age of the little workers, and the system of the school
is highly commendable and has gained an award. A further proof of
excellence is furnished in the fact that the system has been adopted in
almost all of the public girls' schools of Germany.

The Lette-Verein, at Berlin, the first industrial school for women in
Germany, has made a large display of needlework, beginning with
plain knitting, crocheting, tatting, and sewing. This includes master-
pieces of art embroidery, drawnwork, lace making, both needle
and bobbin. Special mention should be made of a bed cover in white-
silk embroidery and a handsome tablecloth in needle painting and
raised gold embroidery. This school was founded in 1866, and has
been honored with prizes wherever it has exhibited, and at this the
greatest of all expositions it has earned not less than three awards.

Of younger date, but on the same principles as the latter school, is
the Woman's Educational Association of Breslau. The aim of this
school is to give women a profession in which needlework shall form
the most prominent part. This school sent many different handsome
pieces, among which a Bible with an elaborately embroidered cover
and a scarf in drawn work deserve special notice.

The schools of Reyet and Reutlingen are purely art needle schools,
educating their pupils to become real artists.

Reutlingen has sent many exquisite specimens, exemplifying all the
different technics of art needlework. One may see the cross-stitch,
the haute-lisse, the Arabian, Russian, and old German style and tech-
nic, as well as Venetian lace, the ancient macram^ work, the plain
crochet, the bobbin lace, and the woolen framework. Because of the
most excellent work of this school it is most favorably known over all
Europe, and its pupils are in great demand as teachers of needlework;

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1399

in fact, they hold the leading positions in the schools of the world.
This school also gained an award.

The school of Reyet sent a portifere in modern style, combining gold
and silk embroidery, a table cover in Venetian gold lace, and a pillpw
sham in white embroidery. All these exhibits are artistic and of quite
a superior workmanship.

Besides these school exhibits I have to mention the artistic appliqu6
work and gold embroideries by Mrs. von Wedell, comprising two
cushions, two altar cloths, and a large banner.

Mrs. Ja(;obs, of Inverbrucken, sent different linen embroideries in
the old German style. Mrs. Gerson exhibited smaller articles in
macram^, reticella, Italian cross-stitch, silk embroideries, and the
French ribbon work.

The most striking were the exhibits executed by Miss Barbara
Wolff and Miss YOrres, of Munich. 1 mention also the portifere of
Miss Wolff, on white satin, in Renaissance style. The design is per-
fect, the colors gorgeous, and the execution perfect in every particular. '
A small table cover in appliqu^ is also a masterpiece of taste and skill.

The crown, however, of all the exhibits in the German section of
the woman's building is a wall hanging 7i yards long by 5 yards
wide. The above-named well-known artists, the Misses Wolff and
YOrres, united their efforts upon this herculean task. Miss Wolff
furnishing the design and colors, while Miss YOrres executed the
work. The hanging represents a hunting party received by Louis XI
of France. Horses, hounds, and people crowd in on a meadow spread
with flowers, in the center of which the King has taken his stand,
shaking hands with and bowing graciously to a fair lady who is being
presented to her lord and king. A page holds the bridle of her
ambler in the distance, and the whole picture presents all the beauty
of the art of the Middle Ages. The execution of the work required
several years.

Besides this work Miss Wolff exhibited a large number of colored
designs for vestments, some of which are handsomely executed. The
technic chosen for the vestment is the haute-lisse stitch, in which Miss
YOrres excels. She was the artist who was selected to adorn the
state room of the Castle Herrenchiemsee. The embroidered tabo-
rets and chairs prepared by her are the delight of artists today, as
they were the delight of the then artist king, Louis 11 of Bavaria. Of
the four chairs but one of the originals is here, and of the twenty-
four taborets but two have been lent to this Exposition by the King-
dom of Bavaria.

The haute-lisse pictures, so delicately worked on the chairs and
stools, are surrounded by raised gold embroidery. The figures, nymphs,
and amorets are exquisite in design and color, while the technic vies
with the most perfect French.

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Another important exhibit of art embroidery was sent by the
National Museum of Munich. It consists of wall hangings in gold
relief embroidery on blue velvet. The work was executed by Alkens.
The style of the room is rococo, and the furnishings are of the same
style. Adjoining this room are two apartments furnished, the one in
German, the other in Italian Renaissance. The cushions, wall panels,
coffers, chairs, table covers, and scarfs were all designed and executed
by Mrs. Schiffman, dii-ectressof the School of Decorative Art in Munich.
Her work is altogether different from that of Miss YOrres, yet quite as
artistic and magnificent. Mrs. Schiffman delights in the Renaissance,
of which she is an artist of the first rank. Her exhibits are so perfect
in style and so splendid in technical art as to puzzle shrewd connois-
seurs of the Renaissance period as to their date. The classes of this
lady are well attended by gentlewomen who carry their love of art into
their homes. In addition to this she employs a large body of profes-
sional working women. Mrs. Dernburg, of Berlin, probably the most
talented pupil of Mrs. Schiffman, has also established classes for the
study of decorative art at Berlin, and the splendid ornaments, table
covers, curtains, porti&res, cushions, and scarfs exhibited in the Ger-
man State building are the work of this lady and her pupils. She, too,
has adopted the Renaissance appliqu^ work. Besides this she has fur-
nished a room in the manufactures building.

The early Gothic style is shown to great advantage by the exhibit
of Mrs. Prachtel in two furnished rooms. Cushions, wall hangings,
portiferes, and draperies abound in them, and do honor to her artistic
talent.

Munich and Saxony have a very large industry in linen embroidery,
in which the old German and the rococo predominate. Table linen
is once more covered with figures and patterns in cross-stitch or long
stitcH. Ad. Deisz, Marianne, Rieppels, A. Sutman, Louise Kropf,
Mina Lossow, Crescencia Petry, Olga Putz, all of Munich, are well
known manufacturers of the genre of hand embroideries.

The manufacturers of Saxony excel in embroidered trimmings and
dresses, as well as in curtains. They give employment to thousands
of people, the principal part of which are women.

Miss Ripberger, of Dresden, inclines to the Kensington style, and
produces a line of art needle work that is especially pleasing to Amer-
ican tastes. She displays her art in a most attractive f onii in a series
of portieres.

The Karlsruhe Art Needle School, under the patronage of the Grand
Duchess of Baden, is a center of the highest art. Its pupils have the
oppoiiiunity to study all styles in their purest form. The exhibit of
this school is exhaustive and masterful.

In all times church embroidery has distinguished itself by costliness
of material and artistic workmanship. This industry has become a

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1401

specialty in the great art of embroidery, requiring the highest styles
of design and the best workmen. Everything not in confoimance to
church ti*aditions must be excluded, necessitating, therefore, a knowl-
edge of ecclesiastics, as well as of art, in its preparation. On account
of these conditions, only the very best artists venture upon the peril-
ous undertaking of church embroidery, and the art itself takes a cor-
respondingly very high rank.

Quite a number of church embroideries are presented by Germany,
some of which deserve a special notice. The exhibit of Mr. Kirsch,
of Freiburg, is made up of quite a large number of exquisitely worked
vestments. They do not compare in beauty of design, graceful ideas,
harmony of color, and excellence of workmanship with the church
embroideries sent by the Sisters Orsiander of Ravensburg, Wurttem-
berg.

In stating the superiority of this exhibit, 1 can do no better than to
quote the very language which will appear upon the diploma granted
to this firm, as written by the Judge Josiah H. Shinn: "I report that
this exhibit should have an award for its very great excellence of
design, material, workmanship, and coloring. The hand-made vest-
ments of early Gothic designs are remarkable for harmony and variety
of color, costly, elegant, and fine material, deft workmanship, power,
and beauty. The designs in late Gothic are still more powerful and
beautiful, and warrant in full the departure from the older and more
classic forms. The designs of Professor Spiess are mastei-pieces of
power and elegance, and lend the charm of art to the skilled work-
manship of the manufacturer. The firm deserves the highest recog-
nition from all lovers of ecclesiastical art and the highest testimonial
that can be given by the World's Columbian Exposition. Its exhibit
is peerless."

I close my report with the pleasing reflection that the art of Ger-
many is thriving, a sure sign of the peaceful development of the
'country.

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SEWING MACHINES.

JAMES BOLTON.

1403

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SEWING MACHINES.

By James Boi/ton.

The exhibits of sewing machines displayed in class 659, group 104,
mark an era in the history of sewing machines manufactured for
domestic or family purposes. The advance since the Centenial Expo-
sition of 1876 in Philadelphia, though marked, is not so distinct, rela-
tively, as is shown in machines used in the manufacturing industries.

The history of the sewing machine is a record of rapid advancement
in mechanical movements and combinations of devices, which appar-
ently had never even been thought of until the close of the eighteenth
century. The first glimmer in the direction of practical mechanical
sewing is found in the English patent to Thomas Saint in 1790, but it
was not until 1830 that any hint of the road to practicability was found;
then a Frenchman, named B. Thimonier, secured a patent, and in 1841
was able to make a number of machines of wood. These were improved
upon by his later patent in 1848. Although Thimonier never reached
such practical results as to bring him success, his ambition having been
thwarted by the intervention of the mob, his invention had in it possi-
bilities of which he never dreamed.

Among notable models of sewing machines from the United States
Patent Office, exhibited at the Exposition, are the following:

J. J. Greenough received the first patent for a sewing machine
granted in the United States. It bore date February 21, 1842. His
model bears no resemblance to the machines of the present day. The
needle was pointed at both ends, with the eye in the middle; the thread
used could be no longer than that used in hand sewing, and the needle
was pulled through the fabric, which was held in a clamp by means of
nippers or pincers mechanically operated.

In March, 1843, a patent was issued to Benjamin W. Bean. He used
the common hand needle, and the thread in this machine also had to be
of short lengths, as in hand sewing, so that the stitch could be tightened
after drawing it through the fabric full length. The material to be
sewed was crimped and presented to- the needle point in folds; the
needle was stationary, and the fabric to be sewed was moved by means
of a device of feeding gear wheels.

These early attempts in imitation of hand work were conspicuous
failures, as they were based on mechanical principles which could not

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1406 BEPOBT OP GOMMinEE ON AWABD8.

be developed for sewing purposes. They live in sewing-machifte his-
tory leather as pointers toward what is now a well explored field, than
for any actual service in exploring it.

Elias Howe's patent was issued in September, 1846. The chief fea-
tures of his machine consisted of a needle with its eye at the point to
be operated vertically in combination with a shuttle. Although the
eye-pointed needle was patented by Newton and Archbold in the
United Kingdom in 1841, and was used for glove stitching, making the
chain stitch, Howe's machine was the first to sew with a needle hav-
ing the eye in the point, and which carried a continuous thread and
made a lock stitch. The feed tensions and take-up devices were incor-
porated in his model under his patent, but were in a chrysalis state
and impractical. The general principles involved, however, clearly
indicated the fact that Howe's ideas were in the right direction, as
subsequent history has demonstrated.

It is interesting to note in this connection that Howe undertook to
improve his fortunes by going to England, and while there sold his
invention for that country to William Thomas, a corset manufacturer
located in Cheapside, London. Mr. Thomas secured the English patent
in his own name in the year 1846, and employed Mr. Howe at regular
wages to develop it for him. Although Howe received £250 from
Mr. Thomas for his patent, his career in London was so barren of
financial success as to cause him to pawn his United States patent,
and to return to America, in a practically penniless condition, in the
year 1849.

In September of that year a patent was issued to J. Bachelder, in
which the chain stitch was involved. It also embraced a so-called
" perpetual feed," which moved the fabric in one direction.

Barthelemy Thimonier, of France, whose invention has been here-
tofore referred to, applied for a patent in the United States and
received the same September 30, 1850.

November 12, 1850, a patent was issued to A. B. Wilson, which
included a work-feeding device roughened on the surface, which car-
ried the material forward without penetrating it. This was consid-
ered a distinct gain in the line of practical requirements.

Grover & Baker received a patent February 11, 1851, for a machine
which formed the double-loop stitch. Thread tension devices are
shown in this model, and feed-actuating devices for securing the inter-
mittent movement of the work.

Isaac Merritt Singer received his patent August 12, 1851, for his
original machine. In this model he used a wheel serrulated on the
periphery and operated automatically in one direction for moving the
materia] being sewed. It also contained the yielding presser foot which
completed the triumph over obstacles hitherto in the way of thorough
success.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1407

On June 15, 1852, A. B. Wilson secured a patent on the rotating-
hook principle embodied in the Wheeler & Wilson machine. This
machine also contained the feed-device principle familiar to-day.

W. H. Johnson secured a patent March 7, 1854, for a chain-stitch
machine, which contained the principle first put into practice of feed-
ing the goods by the upward and forward motion of the needle known
as the needle or vertical feed.

The foundation patent of the Wilcox & Gibbs machine was issued
June 2, 1857. That machine was developed to cover the field of chain-
stitch work so fully as to maintain a practical monopoly of that spe-
cial line of business until the expiration of its principal patents.

Thousands of i)atents in minor mechanism involved in the sewing
machine and attachments for the same have been issued, and even now
a week seldom passes by without an issue of a number of patents in
this domain from the United States Patent Office as well as from those,
of foreign countries.

Among foreign inventors the name of Charles F. Weisenthal occurs
in connection with the double-pointed needle with the eye in the cen-
ter, said to have been patented in England in 1755, and the ideas
therein advanced adopted later in the embroidering machines pro-
duced by Heilman.

The machine of Thomas Saint, before referred to, produced in 1790,
was said to be intended principally for leather work. It was fitted
with an awl, which was operated vertically and pierced a hole in the
leather for the thread. The thread was mechanically lain across the
hole, and a forked needle pressed it through. The loop was caught
by a reciprocating hook. His ideas were exactly in line with the
chain-stitch mechanism developed seventy years later, and it is doubt-
less true that he would have forestalled many of the inventors of this
century if the idea of an eye-pointed needle had occurred to him.

The archives of the United States Patent Office disclose the fact that
Walter Hunt, of New York, had invented a machine with a needle
having its eye at the point, and had sold the same to a blacksmith
named Arrowsmith, who had done considerable toward perfecting it.
This was in the years 1832-1834. No patent was applied for, how-
ever, until 1853, when considerable attention had been attracted to the
new industry; but a patent was refused on the ground of abandonment.

After Howe's return from London in financial straits, it was not long
until he discovered an increasing interest in mechanical sewing, and
that his initial efforts in that line had been so far advanced by others
as to attract more than ordinary attention. He also found that the
newcomers in the field were using some of the mechanical principles
covered by his patents. This gave him new energy and new hope, and
it was not long until he devised means to get his pawned patents back
from London.

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1408 REPOET OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

Then the legal cx)nflicts began between the original inventors. Isaac
Merritt Singer is recorded as being "the most prominent of the manu-
facturers if not of inventors, and an energetic pusher of the infant
industry, and he became a very stubborn fighter of Howe's claims."

Howe's great advantage lay in the e3'^e-pointed needle in combina-
tion with the shuttle; but Wheeler & Wilson had the rough-surfaced
feed, Grovcr & Baker had the actuating devices for moving the feed,
and Singer had the yielding presser foot which held the work in place,
and uneven surfaces or seams did not obstruct its free movement.
This group controlled the essential basic principles of the sewing
machine, and these principles are all found in the lock-stitch machines
of the present time.

Elias Howe having the original patent was able to force the others
to pay tribute or royalties to him, but in the contract which bound
them to him ha surrendered his right to manufacture sewing machines,
and thus it came about that the Howe machine, so called, was the
product of A. B. Howe (brother of Elias), and not the production of
the original inventor.

Wheeler & Wilson and Grover & Baker and Singer (who was
accounted a stubborn fighter) were all mixed up in legal conflicts con-
cerning their various patents, and were all, as well as Howe, greatly
harassed by the expensive processes of the courts. Their weak con-
dition financially was a prime factor in inducing them to adopt a course
which proved to be a wise one and inured to the benefit of all: A com-
bination was formed by which each firm manufactured machines inde-
pendently, paying a royalty to Howe, and they in turn levied a royalty
on all newcomers which afterwards entered the field. This coalition
existed between the original manufacturers until the expiration of the
original basic patents.

There has been for many years among inventors and manufacturers
considerable discussion as to whether the best results could be obtained
from the vibratory, rotatory, or oscillating shuttle movement.

Each, in his class, has been stimulated to profound thought on the
subject, no less by his theoretical bias in favor of his particular
methods than by a desire to become preeminent in his profession or
craft. An additional incentive has been the piratical genius (?) both
at home and abroad, whose imitations and copies of good devices have
annoyed legitimate manufacturers to such an extent as to make them
eager to surround themselves with advanced improvements well pro-
tected by patents.

While speed and wear, resisting qualities in sewing machines, are
considered the desidei'ata for the manufacturer whose machines are
run at a high rate of speed by steam power, ease of running and sim-
plicity of construction are demanded in the household, and this latter
fact is largely responsible for the high place which the vibratory

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1409

shuttle machine occupies in the esteem of those users of machines who
do the work of the home, whereas in the factory the contest for pre-
eminence lies between the oscillating shuttle and the rotary shuttle
devices, both of which are susceptible of extraordinary rates of speed.

In the '* family" machine no conspicuous departure from the old
devices has been made beyond perfecting the bearings, improving the
tension and stitch regulator devices, shortening the needle, winding
the bobbin thread, and perfecting and improving the shuttle.

The range of work in the family has not been so broad as to call out
inventive genius in a degree at all comparable to that demanded in the
realm of manufacturing industries, hence the lesser degree of progress;
or perhaps it might be said with a good measure of truth that up to
the time of the Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876 the field had not
been nearly so well covered with sewing machines adapted for manufac-
turing specialties; hence a greater degree of advance was possible
in that direction.

Users of machines in the home, as a rule, adhere pertinaciously to
the simple vibratory shuttle because the world is well educated in the
ase of that device and it requires less skill to acquire a knowledge of
how to operate it.

For domestic work it has been well settled that, first of all, a machine
must be so constructed as to be easily managed, and, secondly, that it
must be so harmoniously adjusted as to oppose the least resistance to
the operator. In both of these points the machines of to-day are so
much in advance of the exhibits of 1876 that one is justified in say-
ing that the Exposition of 1892-93 marks an epoch in the ''family"
machine industry, and that the mechanical achievements in this depart-
ment are nearing the acme of perfection.

It is a noticeable fact that while all sewing machines for family
purposes which make the lock stitch were without a positive take-up in
1876, they all show that improvement now.

The slack thread, which is occasioned by the passage of the shuttle
through the loop, must be taken care of in order to produce an even
and perfect stitch, and the best that had been accomplished up to the
time of the Centennial Exposition was a take-up dependent upon the
working of a spring in conjunction with the movement of the needle
bar. Although this gave reasonable satisfaction at the low rate of
speed obtained by foot power, it had in it elements of uncertainty
which have been entirely removed by the positive take-up, which is as
inerrant in its movements as the needle bar itself.

The needle bar which controls the action of the needle vertically;
the shuttle driver which controls the action of the shuttle horizontally;
the take-up which draws the slack thread at the proper moment and
holds it taut; the feed dog which describes four motions in moving
forward, then down, then backward, and then up, are harnessed
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1410 BEPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWAR0S.

together with mechanism whose particularity is not surpassed by tk
nicety involved in the movements of the finest watch or clock.

There has been no departure in principle in these movements frwa
those exhibited in 1876, but the method of actuation in each case has
been advanced to a plane which secures the absolute certainty of posi-
tive mechanism, and there cam be no failure unless it be in constructioD
or material.

In 1876 the cogwheel was extensively used in vibratory shuttle
machines. Their office was to transmit or communicate motion froni
principal shafts or axles to the subsidiary mechanism which involved
the harmoniouH movements of the needle, the feed, the shuttle, aod
the take-up. Besides being clumsy, noisy, and friction producers, the
essential point of ' timing ^' the machine was more difficult to compa^,
and more liable to torment the operator who was beyond the reach of
the skilled adjuster. In the exhibits of 1893 the cogwheel had almo^
entirely disappeared, having been superseded by the crank motion,
which performs the office of the gears in a noiseless, frictionless, aod
rapid manner with but little resistance to the motive power. The
general introduction of the crank motion has also hastened an improve-
ment in the construction of the overhanging arm which hitherto had
been almost universally cast with an opening in the side, necessitating
a nearly solid arm beyond the space required for the insertion of the
upper shaft. The arm thus made was heavy, unshapely, and, when in
motion, capable of torsion sufficient to deflect the needle from its
course, resulting in the breakage of needles by contact with the needle
plate. The arm as now exhibited is generally a hollow arm of uni-
form thickness throughout — strong, symmetrical, and rigid, a protec-
tion against the escape of oil except to the drip pan, and free from all
tendency to vibration or quivering.

In 1876 there were no exhibits of an oscillating shuttle, but in 1893
a large proportion of the exhibits of the Singer manufacturers con-
tained that device. This shuttle is claimed to be a distinct advance,
as the distance traveled by the shuttle is materially shortened, the
friction diminished, and a shorter needle can be used in conjunction
with it. The beak of the shuttle takes the thread at the highest point,
which being directly under the bedplate of the machine makes it pos-
sible to use the shorter needle, which is a gain in the fact that rigidity
is increased in the needle with diminished length.

It is also claimed that the stitch is made firmer, more even, and the
"lock" is more certainly secured in the center of the fabric sewed.
The reason assigned is that the stitch is drawn tight while both the
upper and lower threads are in a perpendicular position and in juxta-
position, whereas in the vibratory shuttle machine the upper and
lower threads travel in different directions and the lower thread is at
an angle when the stitch is tightened. What is true of the oscillating

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1411

shuttle in this regard is also true of the rotary shuttle, which travels
always in the same dii*ection, while the oscillating shuttle makes a
partial revolution and returns. The long-beak oscillating shuttle also
possesses the advantage of taking down the slack thread necessary to
allow the shuttle to pass through the loop at the time when the needle
eye is out of the goods, and of taking up the same amount of slack
thread when the needle eye is still out of the goods; this prevents the
friction of the needle thread which occurs in drawing the slack thread
when the eye of the needle is in the goods, and also admits the use of
a finer needle to a given size of thread, and makes a firm seam resem-
bling hand sewing.

Among the minor devices which are new since the Exposition of
1876 is the tension releaser, so called. When the end of a seam is
reached it is necessary to pull down the needle thread before cutting it
off preparatory to removing the fabric being sewed, and this was often
attended with the breaking of the thread owing to the grasp of the
tension disks. The tension releaser is a device, worked either auto-
matically or by hand, which temporarily removes the pressure of the
tension disks and enables the operator to draw down the thread with
no more resistance than in drawing it direct from the spool. Thus_is
obviated the rethreading of the needle and putting it again in proper
conjunction with the shuttle thread.

Another minor device is that for winding the thread from the spool
to the bobbin, known as the automatic bobbin winder. This winds the
thread onto the bobbin with the same regularity and precision as is
displayed on the original spool, and is a great factor in obtaining a
faultless tension. This, in connection with the wooden bobbin, which
has also come into use since 1876, has practically solved the question
of a perfect tension. The weight of the metal bobbin hitherto used
interfered with definiteness because the weight of the device added
momentum to its movements, which often produced unevenness in the
appearance of the stitch, while the light weight of the wooden bobbin
reduces the uncertainty in that direction to a minimum.

In 1876 a bobbin was filled by a device connecting it with the balance
wheel of the machine, rendering it necessary to operate the machine
as fully as when using it for sewing. The exhibits of 1893 show the
adoption of a device, which, by the displacement of a pin or kindred
method, the balance wheel is loosened so that it revolves on the shaft
without turning it, and the bobbin is thus filled while the mechanism
of the machine is silent, except the belt wheel and the balance wheel.

There has also been adopted in later years, as exhibited in 1893, a
device for measuring the length of the stitch, which, while differing
but little in the mechanism of the regulator, provides a scale, plainly
marked on the machine at the proper point, b}'' which the length of
the stitch can at once be determined by a movement of the indicator.

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It is also worthy of note that the "head" of the machine in former
years was screwed, or attached, to the supporting table in such a man-
ner as to render it a matter of labor to remove it when necessary for
cleaning or repairs. The exhibits of 1893 show a distinct recognition
of this primitive defect by the adoption of advanced ideas which
enables the ordinary operator to disconnect the machine from the
table without any trouble whatever; the principal of these devices
consists of a hinged pin which is readily inserted in a socket prepared
to receive it in the bed of the machine.

The belt wheel and belt, which ordinarily take the lowest seats in
the home of mechanics on account of their antiquity and familiarity,
also show the advanced thought of the last decade in the fact that the
belt can be automatically thrown oflf or on by the movement of the
driving wheel, and the annoyance of starting the machine in the wrong
direction has been obviated by the introduction of a brake which pre-
vents the driving wheel from moving except in the correct direction.

The driving wheel was long a source of trouble from the fact that
the supporting tables or stands were so made as to enforce the use of
"journals" inserted at the side of the stand and on which the wheel
revolved; this method resulted in " lost motion," from which the
"cone" device was evolved. The exhibits of 1893 show an almost
universal adoption of the old principle of running the axle on centers,
which not only take care of their own wear, but materially reduce the
friction and lighten the operator's labor.

The chief distinctive departure from the old methods for support-
ing the machine '"head" and providing space on which to place the
fabric to be sewed consists of a stand or table containing a mechanical
device which embraces something of the principle of the elevator, and
by which the machine head is raised into position for work or lowered
into position for protection from dust and dirt while idle.

By bringing the table leaf at the left of the operator into position
for use, the head of the machine is moved vertically to its place, and is
made secure and rigid by the operation of a spring so adjusted as to
render it immovable until released by another movement of the table
leaf, whereby it is returned to its position below the surface of the
stand, and the leaf becomes the cover.

A numl)er of exhibits of "drop cabinets" were made by manufac-
turers, and it is claimed that the unwieldy box cover is thus displaced,
and a flat top or surface is given to the stand or table; this renders it
both useful and ornamental, as a stand or table, when not in use for
sewing purposes. The head of the machine is raised and lowered by
means of automatic devices, as described in the stand or table pre-
viously mentioned.

It is also worthy of note that a very distinct advance has been made
in the accessories or attachments for family sewing machines, particu-
larly in hemming, plaiting, and embroidering fabrics, and the like; and

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1418

this field for displays of artistic inventive genius has been well and
creditably occupied.

The exhibits of work done on various machines illustrate more fully
than words can do the oflSce of the sewing machine attachment. The
displays of tucking, hemming, and especially of embroidery, indicate
to what exalted and aesthetic realms the tiny pieces of steel mechanism
can soar when deftly manipulated. Among the artistic displays of
machine work which vie with the best oil paintings in perfection of
execution may be mentioned the following: ''Old Madrid," "An
Ocean Dream," "Knighting of the Earl of Warwick," "Sleeping
Beauty," "Monarch of the Glen," and "The Troubadour."

It is not the province of this paper to discriminate between manu-
facturers of sewing machines, or to undertake to allot to them the sev-
eral degrees of fame to which they are entitled. The public, from
which there is no appeal, usually performs that office, and the verdict
of a generation is usually correct. It is sufficient for this purpose
to say that all the exhibitoi-s at the World's Columbian Exposition in
this department were worthy and deserving of all the honors conferred.

So far as the exhibits of domestic machines and specimens of their
work are concerned, speaking generally of the magnificence of the
display as an exhibition, there seems to be but one opinion among
those who have had an opportunity to draw conclusions from observa-
tion, and that is that the domestic sewing machine feature of the
Columbian Exposition was as far superior in every way to the exhibits
at Paris, Vienna, or the Centennial as the Exposition at Chicago as a
grand whole was superior to any exposition heretofore held within
the memory of man.

While many of the productions in artistic work showed a wide range
of useful and ornamental merit complimentary to the machines and to
the attachments, it must not be forgotten that the skill of the operator
is also entitled to recognition for thebeauty evolved, just as the strains
evoked from the chords of a musical instrument depend largel3'^on the
soulful touch of the natural and trained musician.

In conclusion, it may be noted that of the four original inventors
whose machines were protected by the famous coalition of nearl}'^ half
a century ago, Isaac Merritt Singer was the only one whose name was
commemorated by exhibits at the Exposition.

The following companies, named in the order of their age, were
represented by exhibits of sewing machines for domestic purposes in
the World's Columbian Exposition: The Singer Manufacturing Com-
pany, Domestic Sewing Machine Company, Davis Sewing Machine
Company, New Home Sewing Machine Company, White Sewing
Machine Company, Household Sewing Machine Company, Williams
Manufacturing Company, National Sewing Machine Company, Stand-
ard Sewing Machine Company, Tracy Sewing Machine Company,
Self -Threading Sewing Machine Company. C^ooale

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SILK EXHIBIT OF LYONS, FRANCE.

H. L. OARGAN.

1415

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SILK EXHIBIT OF LYONS, FRANCE.

By H. L. Gaboan.

My inspection of the various silk exhibits offered for examination
having been completed, I went up to visit the French section, where
are exhibited the best products of the silk industry of Lyons.

Involuntarily I compared in my mind the exhibits I had seen and
the exhibits which were surrounding me. I must say that a comparison
was scarcely possible, and I was amazed at the sight of the magnificent
display of gorgeous silks made by the Lyons manufacturers^ and I
regretted that France had withdrawn and that no individual award
could be given to many of those exhibitors who had spent a large
amount of time, of brain work, and also of money to bring over here
and show us the treasures of their manufactures and the skill of their
workingmen.

I will in a few words speak of these exhibits which I closely exam-
ined and which made a very strong impression on me.

H. Gustelle shows us an exhibit of colored velvets combined with
some rich plain silks and armures. The blending of the colors is
very artistic and the whole display very attractive. His neighbor,
Lemaitre & Guigne, presents a great variety of amber velvets and of
velvets in all colors and qualities. The next exhibit makes quite a con-
trast. It is Tresca f reres' show case, where I see their renowned plain
black silks and satins and their handsome brocades in various combi-
nations of colors.

J. B. Martin is the next on the list. He shows us his silk plushes
for hat purposes; also his famous qualities of Persian lamb velvets.
As an addition to his exhibit he has sent samples of the raw material
which he uses in his manufactures.

This rather severe exhibit is followed by the one of Chanent pSre
et fils, which is a real garden if we look at the lovely flowers executed
on taffeta ground or on satin. This exhibit is one of the best.

E. Duchamp, who comes next, is a smaller manufacturer, but his
efforts deserve a great deal of credit. So does the exhibit of Tabard,
Cecillan & Chaput in their display of ribbons.

Arquische, Ravier & Graspillier have some very good brocades, but
their exhibit does not show to advantage.

L. Permezel & Co., who have the next exhibit, demonstrate the

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1418 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

variety of the effects which can be produced in the dyed-in-the-piece
goods. A man must be a connoisseur to appreciate this exhibit, which
is the lea^t attractive of all.

One of the most tasty exhibits is certainly the one of Brunet,
Leconite & Devay. They show their specialty in the printed warps
with velours au sabre effects, produced on satin and also on satin
strips, alternating with gauze bands of fa^onn^.

J. B. Bonnet has some good crepe and gauzes, but the value of this
exhibit disappears before the magnificent display of Panut pSre et fils.
This manufacturer has shown the greatest of taste in the selection of
his articles and of the designs which adorn his goods. He deserves a
special mention, as he prepares and throws himself the raw material
which he employs in his fabrics.

Jarranon & Laval have a large exhibit of their well-known gauzes,
veilings, and other light articles. They show a great variety of fab-
rics, but their display could be arranged to better advantage.

A large black spot comes next. It is the exhibit of the famous
black silks of C. J. Bonnet. The value of these goods is too well known
to insist any more on the great merit of this exhibit.

Chatel & Tassinari have made a grand show of their manufactures
for upholster}' purposes, and they have sent some marvelous speci-
mens of their fabrics. The grandeur of the designs and the beautiful
combinations of the colorings make this exhibit a most admirable one.

Bardan & Rittan have presented to us some very rich plain goods in
satin bengaline and have a woven ocean scene, for which they deserve
a great deal of credit.

A. Rosset's display of veilings, gauzes, grenadine, and crepe is
worthy of a special mention.

Next comes J. Bachelard & Co.'s exhibit. There again we find this
wonderful skill, this marvelous intelligence, displayed in the fabrics
which are shown by the manufacturer. His swallows on satin gi'ound,
his velvet clouds, and his reproduction on silk of the Niagara Falls make
this exhibition certainly run an even race with two of the manufac-
turers already mentioned.

E. Cherillard & Co.'s exhibit of dyed-in-the-piece goods is certainly
very tame compared to the latter.

Gautier, Bellon & Co. made a pretty exhibit of their all-silk velvets,
which are their specialty.

The exhibit of J. A. Henry is a wonderful specimen of the art of
weaving and also of embroidering. His church vestments are magnifi-
cent and the execution most perfect. His prayer book, woven in silk,
is a work of art and deserves a most special mention.

The velvet exhibit of Riboud frferes is good and the colors well
harmonized.

H. Adam & Co. have brought to us their specialty of black damas
and fan<.y gauzes, in which th.y exc-el. o,,,e. .y GoOglc

WOBLD's OOLXTMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1419

Atuyn, Bianchini & Ferier made a good effort to render their
exhibit attractive. They show some peculiar designs, and their com-
binations of brocades with velvets is very artistic.

Giron f rferes have made a large exhibit of velvet and fancy ribbons,
which are their specialty.

J. M. Piotet & Roque show in their display that they have made a
great effort to render their exhibit attractive by the variety of their
articles, their numerous handsome brocades, and their skillfully exe-.
cuted upholstery goods. Their display is very artistic and denotes
great care.

Gindre & Co. have only shown their various qualities of colored
satins, which make quite a contrast with the showy exhibit of Bisk-
est & Besson in their low grades of colored and black velvets.

Bauffier & Bravaz fils are the last exhibitoT*s, and the various crepes,
black and colored, which they show are very tastefully displayed.

This ends the list of the Lyons exhibitors. I have found that in all
cases they have made special effoits to bring to us the best of theii
manufactures, and they deserve great credit for the handsome display
they have succeeded in making in the manufactures building.

France having withdrawn from examination, the Lyons exhibits
are not entitled to any award.

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SUGAR AND OTHER SWEETS.

GhEORGhE C. TAYLOR, LL. D.

1421

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SUGAR AND OTHER SWEETS.

By George C. Taylor, LL. D.

Let US go back ages upon ages in geologic history to the flora from
which our coal fields were fomied, and there we may find the source
from which has evolved during the past decade the sweetest substance
known— saccharin — five hundred times sweeter than the sucrose of
cane sugar. But saccharin is not a true sugar, although running par-
allel therewith in many of its uses; hence we will leave it in the hands
of the man of crucibles, and atoms, and molecules, and chemical s}'^m-
bols, making at one bound a leap from geological to Biblical history.

According to Biblical history, Adam and Eve, 4004 B. C, mised
a little bad Cain, were acquainted with fig leaves, and doubtless
enjoyed the fruit of this plant, for it was pronounced good — good to
eat. The fig, wheti thoroughly ripe and dried, contains 60 per cent
of fruit sugar. Far be it from any feeling of irreverance, yet the
reflection arises that our love of sugar has descended from very
ancient ancestoi-s, even though it may be slightly tainted by that other
fruit Eve gave to Adam.

It is known that nearly four thousand years ago substances con-
taining sucrose were used at feasts as food and as presents. In 1141
B. C. we find Samson eating honey gathered from the carcass of a
lion with as much nonchalence as if it was no new thing with him at
that date. While not admiring the ^tyle of vessel from which he took
that honey, yet we can hardly be surprised, for at the time Samson
was very much in love with another sweet — a woman in Timnath, the
daughter of a Philistine. Do we not see man of A. D. 1894 acting
equall}'^ as strange? Be all this as it may, I feel grateful to Samson
in being the means of giving me the date, 1141 B. C, as one of the
connecting links of time in this, my little sugar history.

Strabo says that sugar was found in the East Indies by Nearchus,
adxniral of Alexander, 326 B. C. Lucan, asserts that an oriental nation,
in alliance with Pompey, used the juice of the cane as a common bever-
age. Pliny said that the best sugar was produced in India. Galen
prescribed sugar as a medicine about A. D. 160. While I am not dis-
posed to deny the claim of the Chinese in being acquainted with the
production of sugar three thousand years ago, I am inclined to think

1423

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1424 KEPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

their sweets at that date was derived, by very primitive methods, from
a variety of gi'ass which has developed into the sorghum of the pres-
ent time. From all data at my command the probability is that the
sugar cane of to-day had its origin in the East Indies. Sugar was
brought into Europe from Asia A. D. 626, and in A. D. 1150 in large
quantities. About 1138 the sugar cane was transported from Tripoli
and Syria to Sicily and thence to Madeira. Its cultivation was
attempted in Italy, but not succeeding, the Portuguese and Spaniards
brought it to America about 1610, and it was in this century that the
refining of sugar was made known in Europe. The first appearance of
sugar in England seems to be 1497. A manuscript letter from Sir
Edward Wotten to Lord Cobham, dated Calais March 6, 1646, advises
him that Sir Edward has taken up for his lordship 26 sugar loaves at
6 shillings a loaf, "whiche is eighte pence a pounde." Refining sugar
in England commenced in 1659. In Dresden as early as 1697.

The cultivation of sugar embodies two separate occupations: First,
the agricultural cultivation of the plant from which the sugar is
obtained; second, the mechanical methods of obtaining the juice from
the plants used, and manufacturing the sugar. The method of extract-
ing the juice is either by the mill process of crushing or that of diflfu-
sion. The mill process extracts from the sugar cane 60 to 80 per cent
of the juices, according to the perfection of the mill work. Diffusion
gives closely to 90 per cent, which is practically all of the juice; the
woody fiber in cane averaging about 10 per cent. Commercially con-
sidered, our most important sugar* plants are the tropical sugar cane
and the sugar beet. The sugar from the sugar cane is the standard
tj^pe of sugars known to chemists by the formula CuH^Oii. There
are other sugars of the formula C.HijO,, or glucoses. Cane or other
sugar represented by the formula CijHjjOn, are so constituted that
one molecule is equivalent to two molecules of the glucoses, minus one
molecule of water; thus, CigHj^On equals (2C,HijOg— OH,). These
will be noticed later, as they figure largely in commerce.

It has been proven that a large portion of the mw sugar of the East
Indies received in British ports as cane sugar was in reality made
from the juice of several palms, especially that of Arenga sdccharifera^
and the wild date, Phcenix sylvestris. The juice is obtained from these
plants by cutting off the male spadix when young, and from the cut
portion there is a continued flow of the juice for four or five months.
The juice is at first clear and is then boiled down to a thick sirup,
which granulates on cooling, and constitutes the coarse brown sugar
called Jaggery. This is extensively used in India. Being more care-
fully prepared, it has been sent to Europe with sugar made on the cane
plantations, and is only distinguished from it by experts. If the juice
of these plants is not boiled it })ecomes turbid, and passing into the
vinous fermentation becomes an intoxicant, a word which ca,lls to mind

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1425

a quatrain from Porson, the ablest Greek scholar England has ever
produced, thus:

I went to Strasburg, where I got drunk
With that most learned Professor Brunck;
I went to Wortz, and got more dninken
With that more learned Professor Ruhnken^

Although there are evidences of its very high antiquity in China and
Ijndia, sugar appears only to have been vaguely known to the Greeks
:and Romans. Theophrastus speaks of "honey in reeds, '^ and Lucan
has 4i)e following line, which indicates a knowledge of its existence^
ft>u^ merely as a curious fact:

Quique bibunt tenera dulces ab arundine succos.

Until 1747, sugar (sucrose saccharose) was supposed to be the product
of the sugar cane only, but in that year a German chemist by the
name of Marggraf demonstrated that it was a natural product of other
plants, and especially of the beet root. In 1799, M. Achard, a Prus-
sian chemist, produced excellent sugar from the beet. In 1800, the
French chemists, at the instance of Bonaparte, largely exti*acted sugar
from the beet. After the fall of Napoleon protective duties kept alive
this industry in France, and when numerous improvements in the cul-
tivation and manufacture of the be^t had raised its percentage of
sucrose, it took a fresh start about 1825 in France and Belgium, was
revived in Germany, and spread even to Russia. The falling oflf of the
^customs duties on the import of colonial sugar checked the industry
for a time, but owing to the protection of Zolverein the trade soon
revived. Fifty years later, 1875, the whole of Europe produced nearly
1,250,000 tons of beet sugar. Now Germany alone has 401 diflfusion
beet factories, her product of sugar in 1893 equaling that of the whole
of Europe in 1875.

The great growth and prosperity of the beet industry in Europe is
largely attributable to the increase of sucrose in the plant, the result of
scientific research by the chemists, aided by national encouragement
and protection.

The first experiments in America with beet sugar was in 1830 by two
Philadelphians, followed in 1838 by Mr. David Lee Child making beet*
«ugar in the Connecticut River Valley at a cost of 11 cents per pound.
The industry in the United States really dates from 1863, by the enter-
prise of the Gennert Brothers at Chatsworth, 111., the result of which
was more educative than profitable. More recently, in California and
some other States of the Union, it is being carried on with encouraging
prospects of success, only needing a little fostering by the Government
to make it the equal, if not the outstripping, rival of the sugar-cane belt
in Texas, Louisiana, and Florida. The extraction of the juice from
beets is accomplished by diflfusion; the general principles of after treat-
ment are somewhat similar to that of sugar cane. At the Exposition,

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1426 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

Nebraska exhibited a very high grade of beet sugar, the color^ crystals,
and flavor being equal to the finest sugar from the sugar cane. The total
production of seven beet-sugar factories of the United States in 1893 was
44,953,024 pounds, exceeding the previous season by 17,869,702 pounds.

In the intensive, scientific, and skillful cultivation of sugar plants,
Europe takes the lead with the beet. Next in oi*der, as to careful and
thorough cultivation, comes the sugar cane in the United States, this
being demanded by its qlimatic environments. Sugar cane in a more
tropical climate demands much less skill in cultivation, thus rendering
it far less expensive, even if the price of labor was on the same basis.
Up to 1800 the sugar industry of the Western Hemisphere was largely
confined lo the West Indies; now it is greatl}'^ expanding through
Central and South America. With a reasonable protection from its
own Government, the United States, in a few yeai's, through its sugar
cane, beets, sorghum, and the maple, would be able to i*aise all the sugar
demanded for home consumption in North America. Upon a basis of
60 pounds per capita, the United States raises only about 10 per cent
of the sugar consumed by its people.

My first ten days at the Fair were spent in making a cursory exam-
ination of exhibits of department A, group 3, all classes of which may
be embodied in the one word. Sugar. The object of this was for formu-
lating the best methods of examination and anal}^sis of samples com-
peting for award. There were all grades, from the highest to the
lowest, and from all quarters of the world. Among the exhibits there
were sugars from the sugar cane, beet, sorghum, maple, palm, corn-
stalk, milk, and grape, with glucose for varied commercial purposes.
Probably the most beautiful refined sugar exhibited was from Italy,
polarizing 99.9; yet this was so closely equaled by samples from
Russia, Bi-azil, Cuba, Trinidad, British Guiana, United States, and
other countries that it seems almost envious to make comparisons.
While there were some very high-grade plantation sugars from the
Tropics, they were equaled by the Louisiana plantations. From
Mexico, Nicaragua, Venezuela, Guatemala, Costa Rica, and Argen-
tina, there were sugars which, from their almost primitive methods
of manufacture, were of very high interest. Most of these were very
dark and in concrete masses, yet they possessed a rich sugar-cane
flavor not found in their higher grades and refined sugar. A flatter-
ing evidence of the rich and pure flavor of these sugars is the fact that
lady visitors at the Exposition often importuned me for my examin-
ing samples to eat as taffy, even in preference to the maple, for which
latter there was suflScient demand to send an impecunious sugar judge
'' by the board." Although the sugar cane and beet are the great
commercial producers of sucrose, ^^et the chemist finds sugar of some
kind in almost every plant, and even flesh. Nearly all sweet-tasted
fruits contain true cane sugar of the formula CijHjjOn together with
invert sugar; while others, as walnuts, hazelnuts, almonds, coffee

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1427

beans, the fruit of Ceratonia sUiqua^ or St. John's bread, contain only
cane sugar. Honey and. the nectars of flowers contain cane sugar,
together with invert sugar. The sugar in the nectary of cactuses is
almost wholly cane sugar, which fact is well known to the natives in
Mexico to an intoxicating extent. The limits of this paper will not
permit further mention of invert sugar other than stating it bears the
same formula as glucose, CeHi,Oj.

The douro, shaloo, sugar grass, Chinese sugar cane, or sorghum
was unknown in America till 1857. Numerous varieties are now in
cultivation. It has been grown from Maine to Louisiana with more
or less profit by the small farmers for sirup and food for stock. An
excellent grade of sirup for table use is easily made from it by simple
methods and inexpensive machinery especially made for that purpose.
Although the plant is rich in sucrose it does not readily give up its
crystallizable sugar. There are many diflSculties to overcome in its
manufacture as sugar in crystals, yet even that is now remunerative in
the large and expensive central factories especially adapted for its
manufacture. Through the selection of seed by Government, State,
and individual experiment stations the plant has been so improved
that its sucrose content often exceeds that of the sugar cane. The
greatest impediment to its proving a- formidable rival in the United
States to sugar cane is the obstinacy with which the plant refifses to
give up its sucrose to crystallization; but the chemists are not idle and
there are still good prospects of our yet seeing sorghum sugar manu-
factures of vast commercial values. The Government experimental
sorghum stations, under the direction of Dr. H. W. Wiley, chemist of
the Agricultural Department, have been worth to the industry ten
times the cost of keeping up such, yet within the past twelve months
they have been stopped.

From 153 analyses of amber and orange sorghum cane, ranging from
September 1 to October 23, 1890, at Attica, Eans., the following show-
ing is made, the samples representing field averages:

Sorghum juice.

Averages.

Sucrose.

Glucose.

Purity.

Means

14.26
17.95
6.85

1.53 71 91

Maxima

3. 43 90. 80

Minima

.55 35.83

i

Summary of 40 strikes of sorghum sugar between September 1 and October 24y 1890.

Minima .
Maxima.
Means . . .

Sirups.

SolWB. cSie. 0^0^; P"'"y-

43.50
57.62
50.67

27.44 6.87
35.55 11.58
31.21 , 8.65

Massecuites.

56.30 87.70
66.40 93
61.59 I 89.69

8u-

50.20
57.80
55

Glu-

12.60
18.84
15.45

Sugars,

su-
crose.

56.60
&I.43
61.20

84.40
97.20
93.50

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1428 REPORT OF COMMITTEF ON AWARDS

These tables are condensed from Experiments with Sorghum in 1890,
b}' H. W. Wiley, chemist of the United States Department of Agri-
culture, Bulletin No. 29, to which the reader is i-eferred for valuable
and extended information upon this subject. Comparing these results
with the early prospects of the beet industry, they certainly present a
very flattering prospect of the future of sorghum in becoming a con-
frere of the sugar carte and beet.

Glucose, dextrose, or grape sugar, C,Hi,0,, is the crystallized sugar
found in honey, raisins, and many other fruits. It is almost always
accompanied by Isevulose, which is far more diflJcult to crystallize and
is isomeric with it. Dextrose is also found in small quantity in sev-
eral animal fluids, and in the liver, and is abundant in urine in cases
of diabetes.

Dextrose may be obtained from honey by mixing it with cold
alcohol to dissolve the laevulose, but it is unnecessary in this paper to
give further detail of its treatment. To obtain dextrose from fruits
they are crushed with water, strained, the liquid boiled to coagulate
albumen, filtered, evaporated to a sirup, and set aside for several
days, when crystals of dextrose are deposited. Fresh fruits contain
chiefly Isevulose, which is sweeter than cane sugar and is gradually
converted into dextrose. Dextrose may be prepared from cane sugar
by acting on it with an alcoholic solution of hydrochloric acid and
draining the solution of la?vulose away from the crystals. The grand
problem in the manufacture of cane sugar is not " how to prepare
dextrose," but how to get rid of it in combination with its fiendish
associates.

Commercial glucose or starch sugar as per the chemical books is
made by treating starch with diluted sulphuric acid, which first con-
verts it into the isomeric dextrin, which combines with the elements
of water to form dextrose, thus:

Starch. Water. Starch sugar.

CjHioOs + H,0 equals CgHiA

Water containing about 1.5 per cent of sulphuric acid is heated to

boiling and a hot mixture of starch and water is allowed to gradually

flow into it. The mixture is boiled for half an hour, neutralized with

chalk, and concentrated by evaporation, when it deposits crystals of

calcium sulphate. The clear sirup is drawn oflf and evaporated in a

vacuum pan till it is strong enough to crystallize, which is accelerated

by adding some glucose from a previous crystallization. The glucose

thus obtained contains maltose, dextrin, and some calcium salts of

organic acids; it may be purified by washing with strong alcohol mixed

with 3 per cent of hydrochloric acid, and afterwards with commercial

absolute alcohol. From an aqueous solution it crystallizes in six-sided

scales; from alcohol in small needles. It is not as sweet as sucrose.

Glucose or starch sugar when refined is not unhealthful, and pure

cane sugar when taken into the stomach is converted into glucose»before

world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1429

being utalized by the human sj^stem. In the earlier days of the his-
toiy of commercial glucose, my sympathies were strongly aroused
in its behalf, for certainly there was a '^ hoot and cry^" raised against
it deserved only by a rabid "yaller dorg;" but it has stood through it
all, and now the industry is one of vast and wide-reaching importance
to various industries, and of enormous commercial value to the world.
At the Exposition there were no more beautiful exhibits from a scien-
tific standpoint than the glucoses exhibited by the Chicago Sugar
Refining Company, and the National Starch Manufacturing Company
of New York. A sample from the latter company so specially attracted
my attention that, finding it proved to be of a refractive index of 1.503,
I made some experimental optical tests, and found that, although very
diflScult to manipulate, it gave very beautiful results as an immersion
fluid in microscopy.

The starch sugar or glucose iitdustry in Germany may be dated as
having its origin in Kirchhoflf's experiments in 1811. After meeting
with many obstacles, its onward progress was such that we find it of
commercial importance as early as 1830. The production of starch
sugar of various grades from 35 factories in the German Customs
Union in 1881-82 was 38,877 tons, thfe selling price being an average
of$68.39per ton.

According to the census of 1880 there were in the United States 7
glucose establishments having a capital of $2,255,000, employing 1,192
hands, paying JP605,802 in wages annually, consuming of materials
$3,044,450, and producing $4,551,212 in finished goods. After 1880
there was a sudden and great increase in the number and capacity of
glucose factories, so that in 1883-84 the National Academy of Sciences,
as stated in their report, found 29 factories. At that time the number,
including most of the smaller ones, for various causes, whether owing
to imperfect process and machinery or inability to compete with the
larger works, went out of business. The census of 1890, owing to
the failure of many glucose factories to report, is incomplete and com-
paratively worthless for purposes of accuracy. The following figures
regarding the industry in the United States, although partially esti-
mated, may be taken as approximately correct:

Number of glucose factories 11

Capital invested $11,000,000

Daily capacity, bushels of com 61, 000

Annual capacity, bushels of com 19, 032, 000

Acres of land required to raise com, at 26 bushels to the acre 732, 000

Fanners required to raise com, three men per 100 acres 21, 960

Annual capacity, pounds of glucose •'^^O, 960, 000

Value of glucose per annum $14, 274, 000

Laborers employed in factories 4, 575

Wages paid annually ^2> ^8» 570

Average daily rate of wages $1. 50

Exporte<l in 1 885 tons . . 91 2

Exporte<l in 1893 *^"b 'GoO'^^* ^^^

1430 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

There are a great many other by-products of the glucase factory of
great commercial interest and value, among which are gluten, gluten
meal, and other stock food, all of which take a very prominent posi-
tion commercially. Many of these fell under the individual examina-
tion of the writer during the Exposition, finding them of great purity
chemically and true to the scientific formulae upon which they were
claimed to be based. The stock food he has seen practically in use on
sugar plantations, giving good results as a diet for working mules and
at the same time economic, a fact strongly appealing to the planter's
pocket. As a fair general type of a plantation sugar house in Lou-
isiana and the Tropics at the present date, I give a somewhat detailed
description of on^ at Poydi*as, La. The capacity of this house is equal
to the manufacture of from 2,000,000 to 3,000,000 pounds of sugar.
The building is a slated roof brick structure in the form of a T. The
main body is 150 by 50 feet and two stories high, surmounted by a
cupola 12 feet square and 10 feet high. The two wings forming the
top of the T are each 80 by 30 feet and only one story, one being a
hot room and the other for weighing, storage, etc. Attached to the
main body of the building is an open slate-covered cane shed 100 by 60
feet. Between the cane shed and one of the wings there is a two-story
structure, 36 by 24 feet, connecting with the main body of the house,
and contains the triple effect, sirup tanks, vacuum, and other pumps.
On the opposite side of the main body are two buildings, one contain-
ing a battery of 4 four-flue steam boilers, 36 inches in diameter and
30 feet long; the other contains 3 two-flue boilers, 34 inches in diam-
ter and 32 feet in length. Between these two boiler houses, attached
to the main house, is a bagasse furnace, in which there are 8 cylinder
steam boilers respectively 28 and 32 inches in diameter by 50 and 42
feet in length. In proximity to these is an 85-foot brick smokestack,
also a large iron water tank elevated 50 feet. In the roof of the cane
shed are three large filter presses, one German and the other American
make, through which all skimmings, sediment, and washings from
sirup and other tanks pass. Nothing is wasted, even the solid mud
cake from the filter presses being returned to the fields.

The canes from the field being brought to the cane shed are placed
upon an endless caiTier, 5 feet wide, which after traveling onward
and upward about 125 feet fall into a three-roller mill, each roller
being 28 inches in diameter by 6 feet in length. From this mill the
crushed cane falls upon another carrier and is sprayed with water at
a temperature of about 140^ F. during its passage to a two-roller
mill, the rollers of which are 40 inches in diameter and 6i feet long.
This mill is supplied with a hydraulic regulator giving a pressure so
great that when making an extraction of 80 per cent the crushed cane,
now called bagasse, is almost dry as it falls upon a third carrier
taking it to an automatic feeder which supplies it to the bagasse fur-

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 4893. 1431

nace previously referred to. In some of the sugar houses of this
class a crushing or shredding machine is affixed above and in advance
of the first mill. In larger houses it is not unusual to see the first
mill supplemented with two or three mills, and in exceptional cases
may be found a double system of mills and carriers, thus preventing a
stoppage in case of a breaking of one of these iron monsters, which
occasionally happens, wrenching oflf a 13-inch wrought-iron shaft as
if it were a mere plaything.

The juice from the mills passes through a stT*aining trough to a tank
below, from which it is pumped to a machine in the roof, where it is
impregnated with sulphurous-acid gas, SOg, which bleaches and also
tends to coagulate impurities. From this machine it passes to an iron
tank, supplying it to eight clarifiers. These clarifiers, placed upon a
gallery midway between the second floor and roof, are iron tanks hold-
ing 760 gallons each and are fitted with steam pipes in the bottom.
After the juice is run into the clarifier, it is treated with milk of lime
to neutrality and heated to about 200^ F. for a few moments, when a
thick muddy scum arises. This, in sugar-house technics, is termed a
blanket, and with a little coaxing by sweeping it with a long flat pad-
dle it runs over one side of the clarifier especially constructed there-
for into a trough, taking it to a skim tank on the first floor. The heat
is now lowered and the clarifier left to further settling, when it is
drawn off to one of two evaporators, when, in houses not having a
multiple effect, it is boiled down to a sirup of a consistency suitable
for the vacuum pan, say, about 25° Baum^, which is equal to about
45 per cent of sugar. These evaporators are situated below the level
of the clarifiers and are large copper kettles with steam coils in the
bottom. In this house they are used only as adjunct or supplementary
clarifiers. The clarified juice is now taken to a large tank below to
be supplied to the multiple, in this case a triple, effect for evapomtion
into sirup. Just here 1 must digress a little.

A high temperature tends to destroy the sucrose in cane juice. In
an open pan at sea level water boils at 212° F. Weak cane juice
begins to boil a little above this, and demands an increased tempem-
turein proportion to its concentration. In a pan where the barometer
registers a vacuum of 30 inches, weak cane juice will boil«at a little
above 100° F., temperature increasing with density. Utilizing these
facte, the multiple effect is a mechanical invention by which the heat
of the vapor arising from the juice boiling in pan No. 1 can be used
in pan No. 2, and so on, up to a third, fourth, or fifth pan, depending
practically upon the increased vacuum of each successive pan. The
triple effect in this, however, consists of three cylindrical iron pans
with hemispherical top and bottom, 12 feet high and, respectively, 8,
8i, and 9 feet in diameter. Within each pan is a system of steam or
vapor tubes for heating. The three pans are appropriate!}^ connected

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1432 REPOltT O* COMlttTTEE ON AWAEDS.

by devices by which vapor, juice, and vacuum can be Taxied in each
pan. The practical opei'ation is briefly this: The clarified juice is run
into pan No. 1, under a vacuum of about 14 inches. The exhaust
steam from the engine and other sources of the sugar house is turned
into the steam tubes of this pan, and the juice boils at 180^ F. Into
pan No. 2 the partially concentrated juice from No. 1 is boiled to a
semiHinip by the vapor from No. 1 at a temperature of about 162^ F.,
vacuum of 19 to 20 inches, and so on into No. 3, in which it is boiled
to about 50 per cent sirup by a temperature of 140*^ F., under vacuum
of 25 to 27 inches as registered b}' the vacuum gauges. In connection
with the triple eflfect there are large vacuum and sweet water pum})s
and condensers. The value of such a multiple eflfect is about $20,000,
yet it is the greatest money saver among the comparativel}^ modern
improvements of the sugar house, in contradistinction to the primi-
tive open-kettle methods. Aside from all chemical advantages of the
multiple eflfect, it pays for itself in the saving of fuel.

The sirup.from No. 3 of the triple eflfect is run into a large iron
tank, where it awaits the demands of the vacuum pan, in which it is
boiled down to about 75 per cent sugar by 140^ heat and under 28 to
29 inches vacuum gauge. The sugar is discharged from the vacuum
pan into a large mixer, which delivers it to three centrifugal machines
that throw out the molasses into a suitable receptacle, from which it
flows to the molasses tank, leaving in the centrifugal a ''firsts" or
white sugar, which is automatically taken to the cooling room for
packing in barrels. The sugars of this class are called "firsts," in
contradistinction to sugars made from molasses instead of sirup,
called seconds, thirds, etc. The molasses from the thirds is boiled
to a given density and run into portable tanks called sugar wagons,
and left for several months in the hot room, when a small-grained and
dark sugar is obtained. The molasses drained from this is almost
worthless, yet it will be referred to elsewhere.

Drainage and fertilization are important factors in the cultivation
of cane, but I leave these for the individual specialists.

I shall spare the reader the infliction of pages of statistics, merely
stating that the few I may give are derived and condensed from a vast
number of consular reports and sugar exhibitors from all nations at
the World's Columbian Exposition. The beet-sugar crop of the world
for the year 1880-81 was 1,774,545 tons; the cane-sugar crop for the
same date, 1,979,900 tons; other true sugars, maple and sorghum,
about 25,000 tons, giving a total of 3,779,445 tons as the world's out-
put of sugar for 1880-81. At the close of the great Exposition in 1893,
1 make the world's output of beet, cane, maple, and sorghum sugar for
1892-93 as 6,330,000 tons, being an increase in twelve years of over
67 per cent. At the low valuation of 3i cents per pound, the world's
sugar crop for the year 1892-93 represents a value of over $400,000,000,

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'^ world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSlttON, 1893. 1433

In connection ^vith these statistics, I abridge from the Extra Census
Bulletin of the Department of the Interior, Washington, D. C, Febru-
ary 20, 1894, as follows: '^Manufactures, sugar and molasses, refining,
value of products, $123,118,259."

This census bulletin is of very great interest and should be in the
hands of everv manufacturer in the United States, and given very
careful thought and earnest study in detail. The island of Trinidad,
with an area of 1,754 square miles, exported, during the ten years pre-
ceding 1893, 810,941,174 pounds of sugar, valued at 122,521,900. The
progress of sugar-cane cultivation in New South Wale« is from 4,002
acres in 1870 to 22,262 acres in 1891. In 1873-74 Germany had 337 fac-
tories, of which 80 were diffusion, 214 pressing, and. 43 other methods,
turning out 291,041 tons of raw beet sugar. In 1892-93 there were
401 factories, all diffusion, which turned out 1,175,137 tons of sugar.
Brazil in 1892-93 made 1,768,474 sacks of cane sugar of about 75 kilo-
grams, or 165 pounds, each. The industry here dates back to 1532.
In the Consular Reports, United States, volume 43, may be found an
intere/iting history of the Russian beet-sugar industry, with valuable
statistics, by J. VV. Crawford, consul-general, from which I merely
extract as follows:

The first factory in 1802. The number of acres in cultivation in 1890-91 was 712,591 ;
number of factories, 223; sugar produced, 9,112,137 hundredweight, being a percentage
of 9.73 of the beets used.

It is difficult to get late statistics of sugar in Mexico. In 1889 the
value of refined and raw sugar, including brandy made from the
molasses, is stated at $14,731,865. The area of land in Hawaii under
cane cultivation in 1891 is estimated at 67,849 acres, from which the
exported sugar reached 292,083,500 pounds.

Technically, in the cane-sugar manufacture sirup is simply the cane
juice boiled down to the consistency of a sirup, while molasses is
drainage from masse-cuite, concrete or raw sugar. When the molasses
is separated from the sugar by the use of centrifugal machines it is
called centrifugal molasses. The molasses dripping from the hogs-
head of the primitive open-kettle process is rich in sucrose and may
be safely used as a table molasses, but is rarely to be found at the
family grocery. Molasses, after being worked over and over b}'^
reboiling and recentrifugaling, is very low in sucrose, and simply
abominable for any domestic use except to be placed among the pur-
gative drugs of the ''plantation mule doctor." Does the confiding
housewife ever suspect that her beautiful sirup or molasses from the
'' corner grocery " may not pnu'tically be far different from the follow-
ing not altogether imaginative formula, thus: One-fourth barrel poor
cane molasses, to flavor; three-fourths barrel fair glucose, to give l)ody ;
saccharine, sufficient quantity to sweeten; zinc or other poisonous
compound, quantum sufficit ad libitum, to bleach. Shake the barrel

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1434 BEPOKT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

and you have a sirup far more injurious to the nervous system than
the rum and brandy made from molasses in the sugarhouses of the
Tropics. This leads me to "distillation."

The lower grades of molasses are very largely utilized for distilla-
tion in the West Indies, Central and South America. It was at the
Guatemala exhibit, I think, that I saw — yes, tasted, and in fact drank —
a sample of the Central American sugarhouse product, finding it
superior to some of our Kentucky bourbon and the so-called French
brandy grown and manufactured in the United States.

The cultivation of maple sugar has been carried on in England and
Europe, but not equaling that of the northern portion of the United
States and Canada. The recent bounty of the United States Govern-
ment gave a great impulse to the industry. There are very few com-
plete official statistics, yet from information gained at the Exposition
and other sources, it is within the limits of approximate accuracy to
say that the annual value of the maple crop has increased during the
thi-ee years previous to the Exposition from $5,000,000 to 110,000,000.
We have no date anterior to 1752 as the origin of the industry. I
hardly think the North American Indians knew anything about it,
from the fact that they were ignorant of the fashion of '' not going home
till morning" from the effects of fermentation, until taught by our
forefathers, pix)ving themselves apt pupils, taking the fire water with
a relish not surpassed by the good old days of "apple-jack" in my
native land of steady habits — New England.

Rock maple is considered the best sugar variety, the sap yielding
about 3 per cent of pure sucrose, sometimes running as high as 10 per
cent, at which times the quantity of sap is less. To obtain the sap the
tree is tapped early in the spring, before the winter frost has passed,
to a depth of three-fourths of an inch, and af terwai'ds to about 2 inches.
Four gallons of sap yield about 1 pound of sugar; a single tree from
2 to 5 pounds. The best maple sugar at the Exposition was not the
whitest. After an examination of over 1,000 samples the fact was
revealed that all bleaching of maple sugar beyond a light brownish
yellow color was a sacrifice of its pure, rich flavor, its greatest dis-
tinguishing point of merit. A very marked progress is being made
in improved machinerj'^ and methods of manufacturing the sap into
sugar.

I have in my mind a sample polarizing 85°, which, taking every
point of excellence into consideration, was the best at the Fair. It was
made by a plain old farmer, who never dreamed of an award. Of
course he, among others, received an award, but not as the best of all,
for the standard of award in this group was "excellence showing
progress," and was conscientiously adhered to, irrespective of the
individual opinion of the exhibitor.

The addreas of Miss Katharine L. Minor, of Louisiana, before the

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1803. 1435

Agricultural Congress in Chicago, October 9, 1893, so ably pictures
sugar cultivation that I requested permission to copy it in full, as it
originally appeared in the New Orleans Picayune. Miss Minor was
one of the lady commissioners of the World's Fair, and is well known
as one of the ablest sugar cultivators in the United States.
Miss Minor's address reads as follows:

Mr. Prefiident, ladies, and gentlemen: A distinguished honor has been conferred
upon me to prepare for your edification a paper upon the economical production of
sugar in the State of Louisiana.

May I first say to you that my claim upon your attention to-day is based upon the
fact that I have lived all my life on a sugar plantation, and for a number of years
have been an active partner with my brother in the absolute cultivation of sugar.
The property upon which we live is an inheritance, and was developed by my father,
who entered it in 1828, and so with the information I have gained traditionally,
and that which I have acquired practically, causes me to present to you a history of
the growth of sugar in the State, covering a period of a number of years.

I shall not weary you by telling you much of its past history. The industry has had
its vicissitudes, its ups and downs, lik^ every other industry, the details of which
would be interesting, no doubt, to those actively employed in its development, but
tiresome, perhaps, to those who are only incidentally connected with it.

Sugar cane is un exotic brought from the West India Islands. It is of the genus
grass, and is produced not by formation of seed, but by planting the original
stalk, which has to be renewed every third year, while in the islands, under more
favorable climatic influences, this renewal does not take place oftener than once in
twelve or fifteen years. It was introduced into Louisiana a little over a century ago,
and is grown exclusively in the lower section of the State. It is a hardy plant,
enduring great extremes of moisture and drought, but is very sensitive to cold, and
is killed at 32*> F.

It was found that cotton did not produce satisfactory results in this section. The
Strength of the soil and the dampness of the climate caused it to produce very large
plants, but little or no fruit, and so very early in the century sugar became the staple
product. Under slavery the vast sugar estates were developed very rapidly and
grew in importance to a remarkable degree. The lands were new and the soil won-
derfully fertile. The great advantages they possessed became attractive to men from
France, Spain, and from the older States of the Union, and the district soon became
peopled with a very intelligent class. Wealth was easily acquired. These estates
were most remunerative. The rapid acquisition of wealth enabled the planters to
enjoy a great many advantages, such as travel and surrounding themselves in their
homes with many luxuries. Upon the walls of their residences were hung rare and
beautiful works of art from European cities, while the furnishings of their houses
came from France and England.

To be a successful planter, one has to possess a great fund of information. He has
to be possessed of some chemical knowledge; he has to be a good machinist; he must
have some knowledge of medicine, as a physician lives many miles away, and he is
often called upon to perform surgical operations in the absence of a more skillful
hand. He must be possessed of a good deal of legal information, as he often occupies
the position of both judge and lawyer, and preeminently he has to be an agricul-
turist. The standard is also very high for his social attainments, and in every home
is to be found a well-selected library.

The plantation was managed by an agent, who in antebellum days was called an
overseer. He, however, was simply an executive officer, for it was the planter him-
self who gave the most minute attention to detail, and upon his ability, of course.

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1436 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

rested the succese of his undertaking. The plantation seldom contained less than 500
acres of land, and sometimes exceeded 10,000 acres, and with the absolute care of
the slaves one can easily imagine the position was not a sinecure.

But there came a sudden, and, I may say, an untimely end to all this. The war,
which devastated the South, was especially felt by this class of its dtiaens, and when
the great strife was over (a struggle which will go down to generations showing that
the North had met a worthy foe, but theodds were against the Sou^. Perhapea divine
intervention intended that defeat should follow the Southern army, for we all must
admit that slavery exerted a very potent influence in causing the great rebellion).
But we will not discuss this mighty question; it has been settled for all time to come.
Although the generation who owned these estates were in no way responsible for its
establishment and felt the most solemn responsibility in dealing with it; still, when
the slaves were freed and peace was declared, the owners of the property returned
hpme from the Southern army, oppressed and heartsick over their defeat, to find their
homes and property destroyed by the necessary devastation of war; slaves and
provender all gone, with no money, I can assure you stout hearts quailed at the
prpspect which surrounded them 'before banning anew.

Nothing was left for them to do but to take hold and begin life over. Then came
th^ trials of a new regime. The older men seemed entirely unable to cope with the
changed conditions. Slave labor was to be replaced with the free; a new system
must be inaugurated; their plantations rebuilt. However, sugar commanded a good
price, from 12 to 13 cents a pound, and with a protective tariff for revenue, a war
debt to be paid, the planter went to work in earnest and with a hope of rebuilding
his lost fortunes.

Therefore, we may say that in 1865 was the beginning of the new era of sugar
making in the United States. Since that time a great change has taken place. It
was soon discovered that the old process of making sugar in large caldrons or kettles
must be abandoned. It required from 4} to 5 cords of wood to make 12,000
pounds of sugar by this process. The old method must be done away with and a
more economical process must be resorted to. The planters formed an association;
an experimental station was created; authorized agents were sent to Germany, a coun-
try which has spent many thousands of dollars to develop the beet-root sugar indus-
try, and froth these painstaking people much valuable information has been acquired.
For, after the saccharine has been extracted from the beet, we find the same princi-
ples involved as in the treatment of the saccharine extracted from the sugar cane,
which enabled us to apply to our own use a great deal of the information which we
had borrowed from these more favored investigators.

The drainage of our land was made a study. A better system, employing the use
of til^s, is becoming quite general, and, though still very costly, is found most desir-
able.

There arose a great demand for improved farm implements, which was met by the
invention of a number of labor-saving tools especially suited to our use. These
found ready purchasers in the planters.

The subject of fertilization has also been most closely investigated. Cotton-seed
meal, the refuse from the large pork-packing establishments of the West, tankage from
lai^ cities, chemical fertilizers made after formulie especially suited for our soil
were introduced, and now almost every planter uses from 400 to 600 pounds of fer- .
tilizers to every acre of cane.

Next to be considered was the sugar house. The old machinery must go; the new
must take its place. The diffusion process must be tried ; the bagasse burners must be
able to convert the refuse from the cane into fuel; steam must be used over and over
again, and the great central factory must take the place of the small sugar houses,
with their horse mills and small rollers. With a defective extraction in the old days,
00 per cent of sugar was extracted; in the new, 90 is obtained. The sugar house or

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 18»3. 1437

refinery must be run under the surveillance of a first-class chemist, with his labora-
tory and polariscope, and he decides what cut of cane must be ground first, so that
the portion that was not entirely ripe can be left to enjoy a lengthened season and
improve- its condition, in this way alone often saving to the planter a great many
pounds of sugar to the acre. The chemist also has worked wonders in the purifica-
tion and treatment of the juice after it has been extracted from the sugar cane.

Dtirii]^ this progress in the development of the industry, sugar was growing
cheaplii^'ftll the time. The islands of the Pacific and Atlantic oceans were being
developed and the sugar from Hawaii was sent into the ports of the far West free of
duty. A long peace in Europe enables France, Germany, Belgium, Austria, and
Russia to increase their protection of sugar to a phenomenal degree; and so it has
been most difficult for the industry in Louisiana to keep pace with all these. But
we should not yield. We must advance. We must meet the requirements. Labor
became somewhat disturbed, strikes took place, and all these annoyances, but obsta-
cles were surmounted. Onward, not backward, was the watchword of the planter.
Congress did not always legislate favorably to our interests. The constant agitation
of the tariff was most depressing, and caused capital to withdraw from this section.
This only made the planter learn to get on with less money. He must produce more
com and hay for his stock and become self-sustaining in every way. Stimulated by
these experiments, he has met the demands with the following results:

One man can produce, with improved farm implements, 10 per cent more cane in
1892 than he did in 1860. In 1860 the average per acre of sugar produced was 1,500
pounds. In 1892 very nearly 3,000 pounds was the average; and let me here state
that the most favorable circumstances produced 7,000 pounds, showing that in the
very near future the average will still be increased. Six thousand pounds per acre
was not an uncommon result for plant cane in 1892. I give this as my pergonal
experience, that several hundred acres on our Southdown plantation yielded an
average of 5,000 pounds to the acre.

In 1860 an acre of land yielded from 10 to 15 tons; now it often reaches 40 to
50 tons. In the same ratio the extraction of sugar per ton is increased. In 1860
eighty to one hundred pounds per ton was considered good results; in 1892 it reached
as high as 200 pounds to the ton. All this increase is the result of new methods and
most careful study and experiments, which have cost the planter many thousands of
dollars. The old process required the canes to be pressed between 3 large rollers^
now 8, 10, and 12 large rollers are employed where diffusion is not used. The burning
of bagasse and using the same as fuel lessens greatly the expense of the plantation.
On a place yielding from three to five million pounds of sugar, the conversion of this
refuse into fuel saves from- $5,000 to $8,000 per year. One hundred millions of dollars
is invested in sugar machinery in Louisiana. The bounty has stimulated the expend-
iture of money in this direction.

In no part of the United States is cultivation more absolutely perfect than on a
sugar plantation. The plantations are worked with a degree of neatness that would
suggest the kitchen garden. The land is plowed and prepared in the fall of the
year— broken up very deeply with a four-mule plow. It is then laid d6wn in rows,
6 feet apart, the bed being carefully arranged for the reception of the stalk of cane,
which is laid down in this way: Two stalks and a lap being allowed as the proper
quantity of sugar cane to be used as seed. It must be remembered that this seed is
exceedingly expensive, as 1 acre of cane, under the most favorable circumstances,
will only plant from 5 to 6 acres. Therefore much of the crop must be saved for the
seed of the ensuing year. The cane is covered with about 4 inches of dirt, which is
a sufficient quantity to prevent the frost from descending into the ground. The cane
can be planted from October any time during the winter months until the middle of
March, when the dirt is carefully removed by degrees and the cultivation for the
ensuing year begins.

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1438 REPORT OF OOMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

Mules are entirely employed on the plantations, and give the most satisfactory
results, having great powers of endurance and standing the Southern climate much
better than horses, so that the plowing and work on the plantation is done with
them. They are especially suited to the negroes — ^they seem to have a mutual under-
standing. The mule is an intelligent animiU, and, while he is nothing like as fast as
a horse, he will not submit to having himself overworked. He grows stubborn when
he thinks he has performed a sufficient amount of labor, and no amount of uiging
seems to make the slightest impression upon him. He is exceedingly docile, with
the exception of sometimes being a little careless with his hind feet.

The cultivation continues until July, when the crop is said to be laid by. The
middle furrows are plowed very deep, and a good ridge is left to the cane to nourish
it during the rest of the growing season. These deep furrows between the rows help
to keep it well drained and convey the water to the cross furrows, which take it
to the half-acre ditches, these ditches conveying it to the laige canals on the lowest
parts of the plantation, where it runs into bayous, swamps, etc.

Sugar cane looks very much like com in the banning. For a long time but one
little stalk appears, and at each joint grows a little yellow, and during the month of
May does not seem to grow at all. This is known as the suckering period, and the
original stalk will often have around it ten or twelve suckers. But all these suckers in
a short time catch up with the original stalk, and when the harvest season arrives
there is no difference in the size of them.

The stubble cane is treated slightly differently from the plant cane. It has now
been found that by shaving off the old stalks early in April, and then digging out the
stubble by machinery, very much better results are obtained than with the old mod^
of cultivation. This is done to expose the eyes to the sun, which causes them to
germinate more rapidly. From July to the Ist of September a rainy season sets in,
from which the sugar cane seems to draw Its sap. Then comes a dry September,
which the planter is enabled to employ in harvesting com and pea vines. One-fourth
of the plantation is planted in com and cowpeas. The latter are used to renew the
soil, just as buckwheat is employed in many of the Northern States; but by having
the pea vine raked and preserved as hay one of the finest materials of provender known
is thus produced. And not only does the pea vine supply all the hay of the plantation,
but it perfcrrms the double service of improving the condition of the ground. In
many instances the pea vines in August are plowed under. This, of course, is more
desirable; but even without this great good has been rendered the ground simply by
the pea vine shading it, and the roots, which run down very deeply, bringing up to
the top the nourishing qualities of the soil especially suited to the wants of the crop
of cane in the year following.

The harvesting season begins on the 1st of October and continues until the middle
of January. The cane is cut and hauled in large, four-mule wagons and three-mule
carts.. But this system is also becoming a thing of the past, and portable railways
are being employed to great advantage, which will make the harvesting season very
much easier, as the alluvial soil of Louisiana soon cuts and the roads become impass-
able under ^e influence of a rainy fall.

From the middle of November the planter is liable to freezing weather, which of
course has a very disastrous effect upon the standing cane. He then windrows his
crop, which is done by cutting the lower end of the cane and allowing the whole
stalk with its luxuriant supply of leaves to cover the bottom, making it quite imper-
vious to the cold. This adds a small proportion to the expense, but that is overcome
by the great advantage obtained in preserving the cane free from the effects of the
cold. Cane laid down in windrows will produce sugar for two months after it is cut,
with desirable results. If the weather should continue extremely dry, occasionally
it deteriorates, but even this detrioration would not be equal to the loss to the
planter if the crop had been subjected to the effects of freezing cold weather. Under

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the old system, cane would not make sugar more than a week after it had been sub-
jected to 30 degrees, but under the new process our season is lengthened fully two
weeks, which is a great gain to the planter.

The seed cane is preserved by cutting down and laying in furrows and being cov-
ered by about 4 inches of earth. As soon as the harvesting season is over, they
open these furrows and remove the cane and plant it immediately. Many of the
planters pursue the plan of planting a portion of the crop in the early days of Octo-
ber. Some good results have been obtained from this method, but it is not yet posi-
tively decided whether the fall planting gives as good results as the canes planted in
January and February.

When the refinery is ready to begin its work large numbers of hands have to be
employed, for it takes a great addition to the plantation force to harvest ite crop.
This gives employment to a great many white men who come down from the West
after the harvesting season is over there; also to numbers of Italians who find it
remunerative to come all the way from Italy to spend four months in I»uisiana and
return to their homes. The wages vary in the different departments in which men
and women are employed. Skilled labor receives the same remuneration in Lou-
isiana as it does in other States. For instance, head engineers are paid in proportion
to what engineers in any other factory would receive. The ordinary laborer receives
from 75 cents to $1 a day, while the women receive 60 cents, and children from 30 to
40 cents. This is for the cultivating seajBon. During the harvesting times men receive
11.25 a day, and 75 cents for half a night. This would seem, at first glance, to be
less than the laborer performing the same amount of services in the North w^ould
exact for his time. But when it is taken into account that the planter provides an
excellent house, a garden spot, a yard, the privilege of the keeping of a horse, cow,
and pig on the pastures of the plantation, and also providing the laborer with fuel,
and giving him many other privileges, it will soon be understood that the laborer
has only a portion of his food and clothes to buy. And so we feel that he is a peas-
ant who should regard himself under the most favorable circumstances.

1 should Hke to state that if the lands suitable to the growth of sugar in Louisiana
were all developed, Louisiana would be able to produce very nearly the amount of
sugar consumed in the United States, which is 60 pounds per capita. It^has also been
demonstrated that there are admirable lands in Texas and in Florida which might
be made available for the production of sugar, and it has been stated to me by per-
sons who have made close investigations that there is more land in the United
States suitable to the growth of beet sugar than in any country in Europe. To this
fact I should like tp call the attention of the Western farmer. In Nebraska, in Cali-
fornia, in the State of Washington, and in many other States in the West the lands
are found suitable for the production of sugar beets. This would give employment
to thousands of people, and would be of great help to the country in retaining the
gold, which is now sent out in millions to foreign countries to pay for the sugar
which is used to-day. All of this could be kept in the United States if these matters
were given careful attention and the development of sugar was to be more thor-
oughly undertaken. It is well known that in no country are there beet farms; but
the farmer simply plants a certain portion of his land in beets every year. The
central factories spring up all over these localities, and the farmer finds ready pur-
chasers in them. In this way he is enabled to obtain ready money for the use of
his family at that season of the year when he has to sacrifice his ceccals at very low
prices.

The preparation of the land for beets has to be so carefully done that the crops
which follow the l)eets are greatly improved by the same. I was in hopes of having
this subject ably presented to you by Mr. Oxnard, who is the owner of three of the
largest beet- root factories in the United States, and it is a great regret to me that he
is not here to talk on this important question for the consideration of the farmers

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who are present with ue to-day. But I trust at their leisure they will give this mat-
ter some consideration, and I urge upon them to do so, feeling sure that they will
find the most admirable results in introducing the growth of beets upon their west-
em farms.

In conclusion, I would like to say that the sugar planter is not only an agricultar-
ist, but he must also give attention to all other industries which are eesential to the
success of his plantation. Many of the lai^ge estates saw and dress all the lumber
that is used for building purposes, and so laiige carpenter shops, filled with admirable
mechanics, are kept occupied the whole time, while the packages in which the sugar
and molasses are packed are made in the cooper shops. For the barrels in which
the sugar is shipped the dressed hoops and staves are sent down from the West, but
the molasses barrel is made from the cypress which is grown in his own swamps.
And when it is considered the many thousands of these packages which are used in
a year, it will be understood that many men are employed in these different depart-
ments. The blacksmith shop is also well equipped. Every appliance for pipe fitting
and mending the quantities of machinery employed in the factories must also be at
hand.

We depend upon the Great West for our breadstuffs, on the East for our shoes
and wearing apparel, and on the East and West for our machinery and farm utensils.
And so it would seem to me a just dispensation of Providence that while the other
States yield to us our requirements in these directions, it is left to Louisiana the
privilege in return of sweetening the United States.

Having furnished the reader with a pleasant time in reading the
foregoing very interesting address, 1 will now describe some micro-
scopic investigations of sugar.

Whether it be true or not that the microscope is a " hobby-horse, '"*
the reader will please paidon my mounting thereon for a few minutes
in the interest of the sugar industry. There has been known for
twelve or fifteen years a formidable enemy in the beet-sugar houses —
a bacterium, bearing the name of Leuconmtoe meaenteroidea — and such
a rapid worker that 49 hectoliters (about 1,290 gallons) of molasses,
containing 10 per cent of sugar, have been converted within twelve
hours into a gelatinous mass. It had been supposed that the cane-
sugar industry was exempt from such an enemy until 1892, when,
after six years of patient research under the microscope in this direc-
tion, the writer was rewarded by discovering, isolating, and proving
by artificial cultivations the existence of a somewhat similar bac-
terium injurious to the cane-sugar industry, giving it the name of
Bacterium sacclmrL A full report of this was made to Prof. W. C.
Stubbs, Ph. D., director of the Audubon Park Sugar Experiment
Station, Now Orleans. (Vide the Louisiana Sugar Planter and Manu-
facturer, Vol. IX, No. 13, September 24, 1892.) I quote, for the pro-
fessional expert, one of many conclusive tests, as follows:

To a 10 per cent sterilized gelatin solution I added 10 per cent c. p. cane sugar,
and, after inoculating the solution with a pure second generation of Bac, 8acch,y the
test tuhes were plugged with cotton, placed in a sterilizer, and subjected to a tem-
perature from 214° to 220° F. for an hour. After alx)ut two weeks I found enough of
the bacteria to inoculate a whole Louisiana sugar house; also a gummy mass, micro-
scopically identical with that from which I first obtained my first pure generation of

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1441

Bac. sacch. Careful chemical analysis by Prof. J. T. Crawley, of this (Aii(lulx>n
Park) experiment sugar station, showed 50 per cent of the c. p. sugar lost. A sample
from the same source two weeks later by chemical analysis gave no trace of sucrose,
no appreciable indication of ferment, but a mass of gum and B<u\ sacch, in dormant
state, as if half starved from lack of suitable pabulum.

The best preventive of the ravages of these bacteria in the cane-
sugar house is absolute cleanliness and a rapid manufacture of the cane
juice into sugar crystals. Notwithstanding these bacterial fiends of
the sugar industry, there are other bacteria that are rapid and faithful
workers in behalf of the sugar planter. On the roots of pea vines,
clover, and other leguminous plants there may be seen, without the
aid of a microscope, small, white nodules. Now, by the use of the
microscx)pe these little nodules are shown to be factories within which
are millions of bacteria — good, progressive ones, deserving of award —
busily at work. Just here comes in the aid of the chemist, who proves
that these millions of bacteria are manufacturing a fertilizer of very
great value in the cultivation of sugar cane.

The diffusion battery has entirely superseded the mill and other
methods of extraction in the beet-sugar factories, and is being grad-
ually adopted in the cane-sugar house. 1 shall limit myself to a very
simple, homely description of this process, especially intended for
those who know nothing of a diffusion battery. Take twelve tin cups
and place them in a circle, numbering from No. 1 to No. 12. This
we will call the battery and each cup a diffusion cell. Shave up some
sugar cane into thin chips and fill the cells with the same. Pour hot
water into cell No. 1, and after soaking a while pass the liquid contents
to No. 2, etc., up to No. 12. As fast as the liquid contents of No. 1
are passed onward, refill cell No. 1 with hot water until the entire cir-
cuit has been made, when an analysis of the liquid contents of each cell
shows a percentage of less than 1 per cent of sugar in No. 1, gradually
increasing up to about 10 per cent in cell No. 12. This embodies the
principles of extraction by diffusion. In pmctical work the diffusion
battery is so constructed that this routine of diffusion is continuously
earned on; but to give a detailed description of its construction and use
would require the writing of a volume.

Most of the larger sugar factories are under chemical control for
the purpose of preventing loss; not for compounding sirups and
molasses of doubtful character, which is a separate business carried on
by "mixers." The skillful, careful jchemist can use poisonous ingre-
dients in making a harmless sirup; but all molasses is not bleached
under such conditions. I have previously given a hint upon this sub-
ject, and would like to have along talk about table sirup, but condense
my views by simply saying that a pure refined white cane sugar dis-
solved in boiling water to saturation is the best table sirup known.

The Ottoman Empire, Japan, China, Netherlands, Belgium, Java,
COL EXPO — 02 91

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Mexico, Sweden, and other foreign countries at the Exposition
exhibited eon feet ions, cakes, and other sweets of great exc<>llence and
high commercial purity, although, in some very few cases, perhaps
the American gustatory nerves would recjuire to he educated a little
to fully appreciate their merits. At least, such was the experience of
the writer.

While avoiding partyism, there are some facets of i)olitical economy
in connection with the sugar industry' of Louisiana which do not seem
to he understood except by those who have been 'Ssqueezed throug-h
the mill;" hence I make a few statements, at least indirectly, bearing
thereon. Sugar planter is not synonymous with wealthy lord or
pompous nabob. Anterior to the little unpleasantness between the
North and South, thirty years ago, the profits of sugar planta-
tions of Louisiana were largely due to the increase of slaves. If it
pleases the reader to call these plantations "human stock yards" let
him })ear in mind that, with comparatively few exceptions, never was
stock so well cared for, whether the motive was humanitv or dollars
and cents. After the war frecjuent political agitations kept the sugar
industry in an unsettled state till the bounty of three years ago gav^e
the industry' a more rational impulse in Imilding it up by improved
machinery for manufacture and better methods of cultivation, by the
aid of greater chemic^al skill, and scientific progress especially adapted
to the locality. When it once takes root on this basis, the sugar of
the United States can compete w^ith foreign sugars, tariff or no tariff,
bounty or no bounty, but not now, while the industry may be said to
be in a new birth, hanging to life only by a hair of uncertaint}'
through the c;haotic wranglings of politicians. Can sugar be made at
3 cents per pound in Louisiana^ w^as asked of 15 sugar planters, 13
of whom replied no, but for the past three years, with sugar alx)ut 3
cents. If to 2 cents })ounty, they had made, })v careful management
and close economy, a fair profit, all of which was spent in improve-
ments in hopes thereby to be enabled to lessen the cost of production.
The remaining two planters answered yes, but neglected to stjite that
they had made no improvements, and, although realizing 5 cents per
pound for sugar, had annually, for the past three years, given Shy-
lock an increased vendor's lien to stave oft* a little longer *' gone by
the board.'' This little incident speaks for itself more forcibly than
any (comment I could make. The cultivation of sugar demands a
heavy outlay of aish and close attention to the business. The sugar
planter is a laborer worthy of his hire, yet is often, proportionately,
the poorest paid of anyone on the plantation. The industry in
Louisiana is the living of about 500,1)00 people and adds millions of
dollars to the wealtli of the United States.

A few days ago I was shown a ground i)lan and side elevation of a
sugar factory intended for Louisiana, of the capacity to work up 1,500

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tons of sugar cane daily. The order for it is now pigeonholed await-
ing the actions of Congress — that is, will it or will it not destroy the
industry in the United States? The cost of such a sugarhoiise fully
equipped with modern improvements would be about one-half of a
million dollars. Let us figure a little. Now, 1,500 tons ot cane at 180
pounds of sugar to the ton equals a daily output of 270,000 pounds of
sugar, or 16,200,000 pounds for a manufacturing season of sixty days,
which at 4 cents per pound gives us $648,000 as the crop for the year,
its cultivation and manufacture requiring twelve months. Putting the
cost of cultivation and manufacture (not saying anything about land
and mules at the present) at 3i cents per pound, which is less than the
average in Louisiana the past season, we find the expenses run up to
$567,000. Interest at 5 per cent on $500,000, the cost of factory and
machinery, is $25,000. As the $567,000 expenses are paid at intervals,
say semimonthly, during the year, I calculate the interest thereon for
only six months, making, at 5 per cent, $14,175. Add $567,000 plus
$25,000 plus $14,175 and we have $606,175 expenses, which subtracted
from $648,000, income of the crop, leaves us $41,825, or 8.365 per cent
of the cost of the factory. But even this is not all profit, so let us
divide 16,200,000 pounds of sugar by 3,000 and it gives us 5,400, which
closely approximates the number of acres in cultivation, which at $6
per acre for rent of land equals $32,400. Good sugar mules cost $200
per head. Eight mules are needed to cultivate 100 acres in sugar cane,
hence 432 needed in this case, which multiplied by $200 equals $86,400.
Ten per cent on this, and it will not equal the loss by death and wear
and tear, is $8,600, to which add $32,400 land rents, and it gives an
additional expense of $41,825, leaving a final balance of only $825.
There are man}'^ little "Shy locks" and ''sugar suckers" continually
gnawing at the planter's pocket, of which I have made no mention.

The planter can eke out an existence for a few years at 4 cents per
pound for his sugar, but it would only be at the expense of his sugar-
house, leading to his individual bankruptcy and the destruction of the
industry in the United States. During three years of the United States
bounty, the industry has progressed near 75 per cent. Let the planter
realize 5 cents per pound for sugar for five years, untrammeled by Con-
gressional agitations, then the industry would have progressed by
improved methods to such an extent that 4 cents would not only give
the planter a fair living, but insure still greater progress at less price
and in greater quantity, making all the sugar needed for consumption
by the United States. Would it not add wealth to the United States
to have such factories as I have spoken of spring up? Not only in
Louisiana, but each State where sugar cane, beet, sorghum, or maple
can be raised — and I may add cornstalks, for beautiful sugar can and
has been made therefrom. 1 clamor for sugar in the United States
that production may equal consumption. Let foreign nations teach

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their people to eat as much sugar per capita as we do in the United
States and thus help us, while helping themselves — the most rational
course to keep the market up to a living standard.

The Rillieux train was first erected on Myrtlegrove plantation,
Louisiana, in 1844. In this invention Mr. Rillieux is justly entitled to
be called the father of the multiple effect of 1894. The claim to the
introduction of the first vacuum pan in the State rests between Val-
cour Aim^ and Morgan, of Orange Grove, lower coast.

Mr. John Dymond, of Belair plantation, weighed his cane in 1872
as it was brought to the cane shed. In 1873 he bought the cane on
the Fanny plantation by the ton from the Citizens' Bank of New
Orleans. In this weighing of cane Mr. Dymond laid the cornerstone
for chemical research and control in the sugarhouse of Louisiana,
weight being the foundation of chemical science. This was soon fol-
lowed by the use of the polariscope, then glucose determinations, and
now, in 1894, no first-class sugarhouse is considered complete without
itii chemist.

The charter of the Louisiana Sugar Exchange, of New Orleans,
dates March 6, 1883. The inaugural ceremonies occurred Tuesday,
June 3, 1884, the oflScers being Hon. Edward J. Gay, president;
John Dymond, esq., vice-president; D. D. Colcock, esq., secretary.

Merely as a curious item, mention is made that in March, 1894, Col-
lector Carter deposited to the credit of the United States Treasurer
$925, being the proceeds of 34,000 pounds of sugar collected in
1-pound samples at the custom-house by the bounty bureau from the
crops of 1893-94.

The Louisiana sugar experiment station, Audubon Park, New
Orleans, was inaugurated by the sugar planters in 1885. Prof.
William C. Stubbs, Ph. D., was elected director, which position he
still holds (1894). Through his energy there is now connected with
the station a thorough school of agricultural, mechanical, and chemical
sugar work, both theoretical and practical. It is doing a good work
for the economic production of sugar in all countries.

In 1751 the Jesuits of Hispaniola sent sugar cane, with negroes for
its cultivation, to the Jesuits of New Orleans, but the experiment
proved unsucx^essful. In 1778 families from the Canary Islands settled
in the Terrc aux Boeufs district, now known as St. Bernard Parish,
La. About this time appeared Julien Poydi-as, whose name is handed
down to the present not only because of his connection with sugar,
but by reason of acts of great benevolence.

Etienne de Bor6 was born in the Illinois district of Louisiana in
1740. In 1794 he bought a quantity of sugar cane from Mendez &
Solis, and in 1795 made a crop of sugar, 6 miles above New Orleans,
which sold for $12,000. To him is unquestionably due the credit of
being the first in Louisiana to commercially granulate the cane sirup

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1445

into sugar crystals, thus practically establishing the sugar industry in
the United States, although for some years previous Mendez & Solis
had successfully cultivated the sugarcane, yet succeeded only in making
sirup and poor rum therefrom. Ti'adition and other evidence assert
that within 5 miles of Poydras's plantation, Louisiana, cane was success-
fully raised and made into good sirup as early as 1779, the locality then
being known as Terre aux Boeufs. Strong evidence indicates this as
the locality of Mendez & Solis, the latter being on record as a settler
here anterior to 1779.

The mere writing of this paper is the work of but a few hours, yet
weeks have been devoted to it that it might contain reliable facts, sta-
tistics, and illustrations of a character to show the vastness and com-
mercial importance of the sugar industry; also to show the progress
from its early days up to the date of the World's Columbian Exposi-
tion— an exposition which may aptly be called the world's university
of all nations, whose educational and progressive influences will stamp
themselves upon future genei*ations in the evolution of the human race
to a still higher standard of excellence which is now screened only by
the mantle of the future.

I copy from the Youth's Companion an excellent article, compiled
from the United States Census bulletin for 1890, showing the progress
and wealth of the United State? of America from 1880 to 1890:

THB NATIONAL WEALTH.

The steady progress of our country and our people in wealth, notwithstanding
periods of comparative depression and of general discontent, is brought out clearly
in a series of reports derived from the researches of the Eleventh Census, lately
published by the Government.

One report presents the true value of all real and personal property in the United
States, exclusive of Alaska. From this it appears that th^ total value in 1890 was
165,000,000,000 against $43,000,000,000 in 1880, an increase of nearly one-half in ten
years.

Were all the property evenly divided among all the people, there would have
been $1,039 worth for each one in 1890, against $870 worth in 1880. This is an
increase of a little less than one-fifth.

Put in another form, the average addition to the value of each person's property
in ten years was $169, or nearly $17 a year. Of course we all understand that the
property of the country is not distributed evenly, nor have all the people made an
increase of wealth during the period of ten years. The census takes note only of
aggregate and averages.

We must remember this again when we come to examine the figures which show
the average and total wealth of each geographiciil division of the country. The
census can tell us how much all the property in Michigan is worth; but it can not
tell what part of its copper mines are owned in New England, or how much of its
railroad property is owned in New York.

The geographical division which possesses the greatest body of wealth, real and
personal, is that oflB daily called the North Central, which begins with Ohio and
extends westward to the foot of the Rocky Mountains. This section possesses more
than $25,000,000,000 of total wealth, against $21,000,000,000 for the North Atlantic
division, usually called 'Hhe East.'*

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1446 REPORT OF OOMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

In wealth per capita these two geographical divisionfl are nearly equal. The
average in 1890 was for ea(;h not far from $1,200.

But the rit'heet section — Hup(K)6ing all the property to he owned hy the people
residing within it — is the western division, stretching from Wyoming to the Pacific
0(van. It ]>osHe6ses an average wealth of more than $2,000 to each person. The
wealth of Nevada equally divided among all it** people, would give them about
$4,000 each.

On the other hand, the two southern divisions are the poorest of all, having prop-
erty to the value of less than $600 to a person; and a division of all the property of
South Carolina among its people would not yield $350 to each.

This represents a great change since 1860, when the Southern States average<l
greater wealth per capita than those' of the North and West. Then the Western
State?, too, average<l poorer than the East, whereas now the reverse is the case.

Another tt*ndency with regard to property is shown in the statistics of the leading
manufat^turing industries just made public. As a rule, the industries show a great
advance in capital employed, wages paid and value of product from 1880 to 1890; a
smaller proportion of increase in the number of employees, and in a great many vssgb
a marked decline in the number of establishments engaged.

This seems to show that, while the industries have been growing greater and richer,
they have been concentrating in fewer hands.

Hy far the greatest item in our national wealth is still, as it has always been, real
estate- land and the improvements upon it. This item comprises nearly two-thirds
of the whole. Of the real estate valuation, just about one-third was for fann lands,
including fences and buildings, but not including live stock, farm implements, and
machinery.

All these items showed an increase of from one-fifth to nearly one-half in ten
years; though in that time the value of fann products increased but little more than
one- tenth. The fanning business has expanded in a much larger measure than its
profits have increase<l.

In ending this "Talk about Sugar," permit me to state that I have
conscientiously endeavored to be accurate in facts and statistics. If
the reader has been interested and culled some information about sugar
therefrom, I shall be made glad; if not, 1 fear I shall be tempted to
console myself for "love's labor lost" by quoting " Ne Jupiter quidem
omnibus placet," which, in plain English 1 render, Not even Jupiter
pleases everyone.

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TAPESTRY.

Mrs. IIKNRV ST< )C1KHRI DCfK.

M-:v

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TAPESTRY.

By Mrs. Henry Stock bridge.

The term "tapestry" has come to us involved and complicated with
a list of industrial imitative arts, which threaten to overthrow its
primal signification. For clearness, it is desirable to state that the
textile named " tapestry " in this report is distinguished b)^ the
method of weaving. It ma}^ be composed of threads of wool, linen,
cotton, or silk, but tapestry is always a material adorned with figures,
which are an integral part of its structure; these figures are artistic
and formed by handwork. It is credited with being the earliest of
arts, but in ancient times was so joined to embroidery that some con-
fusion has ensued. Embroidery presupposes a foundation on which
ornament is applied, tapestry finds its ornamentation in its foundation
itself.

Modern explorations in Etruscan pottery show Penelope seated upon
her upright loom, with the border of tapestry partly completed. The
vase bearing this design was found at Chuisi in 1871, and is reckoned
by archaeologists to have been made 400 years before our era — a}x)ut
800 yeai-s after the time she is believed to have lived. This would
place tapestry among the practiced arts 1200 years before Christ.
Penelope said to her lovers then, '' Wait till I have woven a pallium
for my missing lord which shall picture his great, brave deeds" — for
tapestry was not only regal, but historical and biographical in ancient
times. Not only his woven name and portrait should be wrapped
about his body, but the events in which he shared should serve to
ennoble his ashes.

Nations like ours have had no eras told in tapestries, and may under-
value its importance in the past, ignore the ido^vs and despise the con
quests it effected, the changes it wrought in life itself. Its importance
in the society of its day demands some notice.

In various lands, among wandeinng peoples, it formed the ornamen
tation of tents; among settled nations it seiTed to deck the temples,
to brighten festivals, to give the luxury of privacy to houses which
boasted no interior divisions save hangings for many ages.

Semper, the German archaeologist, says: " Draperies gave the first
stimulus to building." Old mosaics show tapestries across the fronts
of royal palaces in place of doors.

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1450 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

Lessing ))elioved certain bas-reliefs of Nineveh to have represented
tapestries. He})rews, Assyrians, Chinese, and Persians all cultivated
the art. The tabernacle was decorated with it. The "veil" of
hyacinth and purple and scarlet linen upon which was represented the
mj^stic chei-ubini, which Solomon gave to the Temple of Jerusalem,
was tiipostry. Different colors of the foundation establish it.

After the Jewish captivity, at the entrance of the rebuilt temple, a
new "veir' wiis hung, of "fine linen and scarlet," red tapestry on
white ground. This was carried off by Antiochus and given to the
temple of Jupiter Olympus. At last a third hanging or "veil" was
given by Herod the Great to the Temple, once more rebuilt. This
was a marvel of textile art, a great tapestry of Babjdon, and in the
elaborate designs were arranged symbolic colors. Blue represented
air; scarlet, the fire; purple, the sea, and the linen stuff, the earth.
This was the veil which was "rent m twain from top to bottom" at
the hour marked forever as separating the ancient moml world from
the new. It is said to have been of such solidity that two horses
could not burst the threads apart.

The ancient looms in which tapestry was wrought differed little
from the upright ones used to-da}^ in Asia, where costly rn^ and
casljmere shawls are woven with inimitable skill. There have been
two fonns — the upright loom on which the warp is rolled at the top,
and the horizontal loom, where it is rolled on a beam level with the
end at which the worker begins. In the upright or "haute-lisse"
form, the worker's e\'e is his measure, and his design is often small.
In the horizontal or " basse-lisse " loom the design must be the exact size
of the completed textile, and it is fastened to the underside of the warp.
The weaving in this last loom is "wrong side up," and with a hand
mirror the progress is inspected, while the design Ls pressed close to
the wai^), for measurement and comparison of shades, very frequently.

There are many mo<.lern adjustments in these simply contrived
looms, but in this Exposition the display of the working model loom
from Japan and the "basse-lisse" from Aubusson have shown agree-
ment in essential points. •

Penelope wove, and other queens and princesses have followed her
example. When nations became civilized, every woman was a prin-
cess in her own home, and the arts of spinning and weaving appertain
to her realm. The moment that taste and luxuiy were diffused,
assem})lies took place; best garments were "en regie," and the pres-
ence of women became a part of these assemblies. This was the first
step toward woman's advancement in society. Previous to this her's
had been the servile lot — always the inheritance of the feeblest. She
freed herself by the invention of arts to which her nature was suited,
and the earliest of these arts was tapestry. Her development goes on
to-day. The Zufiis have already rais(»d themselves above their tribal
friends by their artistic tiipestry weavings.

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The robes of Chilkat Indians, made from the loose, coarse wool of
the Rocky Mountain goat, show considerable talent. Their totem
designs, if we were able to read their signification, would add to their
dignity. The scheme of color is artistic, but it maj^ be the result of
limited knowledge pf vegetable dyes rather than choice. The Zufii
Indians have long since taken advantage of commercial opportunities
to obtain wools already dyed, even raveling out American flannels for
the threads to reweave them in their own work.

The excellent specimens from Alaska shown in this Exposition have
been loaned by Mr. Ayers, of Chicago. From Mexico there are
instances of aboriginal tapestry work, mostly in borders used to adorn
their simple weavings. There is little tapestry of value in the exhibits
from Persia, and but one instance from Siam. Bulgaria has excellent
examples of commercial interest. In that country the same method of
weaving has been practiced with large threads of wool, and rugs are
constructed upon immense upright looms at which fifteen or twenty
women can work at the same time. Their hangings are Saracenic in
design and color. All their work is characteristic — oriental and sin-
cere. It has the form but not the artistic taste which gives rank to
tapestries.

According to Pliny, the use of the gold thread in tapestry is accred-
ited to one of the kings of Pergamos who lived eleven centuries before
Christ.

Allusions to tapestry abound in the Greek classics. Agamemnon
complimented his lovely prisoner slave in exalted terms for her work,
" fearing the gods would envy him." Calypso sung while playing the
shuttle. The immense stores of tapestry gathered by Alexander the
Great would have drained all Greece, and must have been confiscated
from Darius. The Parthenon was hung, without and within, with
marvels of artistic draperies.

Tapestry came early to Rome; was spread, mainly, by the fostering
protection of Christianity. Every great Basilica had gifts of impor-
tance, and from its treasury gave orders for great processional pieces
and for hangings. The gifts included not only designs from religious
events, but any costly work obtainable from the far Orient. GriflSns
and dragons were hung indiscriminately with Biblical stories. But
when officials gave an oi-der the work was limited to the history of the
church. It was Constantine, and later on Crusaders, who assisted in
introducing the oriental style. The monasteries were schools where
tapestr}^ weaving improved, and women were notably the pupils.
Undoubtedly Queen Matilda, the wife of William the Conqueror, had
assisted in many a pious tapestry before planning the historical
embroidery which has kept her memory green. True, the work of
hers, we know, is only embroidery, but so important has been the
information gained from it of the dress, manners, dates, and actual

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life of the eleventh century, the world unanimously ranked it among
^ape.stries to do it honor.

It has been a matter of congratulation that this Exposition should
have been able to display so worthy a copy of her famous work — the
Bayeux tapestry. It has hung upon the galler}^ wall of the woman's
building, 76 yards in length and one-half yard in height, and is the
exac*t size, color, and stitchery of the original. Thanks are due the
French commissioner, through whose kindly influence the loan was
eflfected. Thousands of visitors have studied it with scholarly interest.

A rage for tapestries of enormous size followed early after the art
became popular. A part of one prodigious work is still extant. It
bears the name of the Apocalypse of Angers; was begun in 1376
and progressed in the family of Louis of Anjou till 1417. King Ken^
took it up in 1431 and maintained till 1453. The last piece of it was
completed in 1490 by a daughter of Louis XI. This immense work
was woven of colored wools on white wool warp. It was divided into
seven parts, eac^h 24 yards long and 5 yards high. The artist's name
was Hennequin or Jean de Bruges, painter to Charles V. He drew
his themes from miniatures in the illuminated missals of the Emperor's
library. Full description of its designs will be found in the article
of Mon. A. de Verdilhac, Suisse Revue.

In the East were accumulations of immense hangings, which seem
incredible. Ro3-alty had its hoards and its artists for designing any
great event which might glorif}*^ the monarch. Looms and designs
were part of royal furnishings, and no artist disdained to )ye employed
in such work.

Re nan has said: "Royalty does not suffice to uphold a great move-
ment of spontaneous art. Municipal republics are needed for this."
Tapestry might well be quoted in illustration of that opinion.

The commercial air of Flanders proved most favorable to progress
in tapestry. Discoveries made in perspective hitherto wanting,
enabled the designs to show a depth which they had lacked. The
Flemish weavers called for "clearness of grouping, grandeur of
drawing, and dramatic feeling." Quality of threads improved, silk
and gold were more lavishly used, dyers invented numberless tints,
and, finalW, the weavers learned to blend their colors with dexterity
unknown before. But though the Flemish school showed charming
simplicity and truthfulness in delineating nature, they never acquired
any renown in historical composition. Often the wives were more
skillful, and maintained the fame of their husband's ateliers. The
designs, or cartoons, made for the Flemish weavers, remained their
property, and they were free to copy them as often as they chose. A
well-preserved specimen of Flemish tapestry, woven perhaps near 1575,
is found in the German exhibit brought here from Munich. It has
been repaired with creditable skill, retaining marks which show that

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it was woven in Brussels. The title is '^The Philosopher and his
boys." The colors are excellently preserved and the grouping of the
three persons unrestrained.

Another large and important tapestry, probably from the royal fac-
tory at Madrid, is of earlier date. It is stretched across the Moorish
pillars of the Spanish exhibit — a lonely relic. Columbus did not gaze
upon it in the Convent of La Rabida, for everything in its design and
execution betokens its lordly belongings. The border of fruits and
leaves is superbly wrought. Wherever it has been repaired, it is the
silk, not the wool, which lost strength. Its great merit lies in design
and excellent balance of color.

FRENCH TAPESTRY.

France has made the name of Gobelin familiar in every land. With
generous hand, since 1662, when the place was bought by Colbert for
the Crown, study and artistic genius have there wrought hand in hand
with industry. The Gobelins have seldom been appreciated in other
countries. Their designs have been criticised and colors have been
studied, which have laid broad foundations in all the departments of
textiles. The skill required for the dying of tapestry threads has
spread into departments of printing in cottons and linens and silks
throughout France.

If the antiquarians have wished to limit the work of the Gobelin
and Beauvais establishments to lines as narrow as the old Flemish
tapestries they adore, and to dictate a standard of excellence which
was most admirable in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, France
has been fortunate, indeed, to have evaded such influences and to have
had a supervision and control which has regarded the work of these
institutions, not as specimens for millionaire collectors but as themes
of study and experiment for her actual working classes. The Gobelins
are maintained for the French people. It should be as it is — her glory
to be nothing but her own national art, making progress and change
as the artist and manufactures of the country progress.
- In the work of the Gobelin looms merino wool is used exclusively.
By singeing the threads the surface becomes like velvet, the quality
of the wool produces a purity of tone, a depth and tenderness richer
than painting and more durable than any other form of decoration in
colors.

Four magnificent panels of Gobelin tapestry were sent over by the
French Government to adorn our Fair, all of recent production. One
of the two largest bore the attractive title La Filleule des Fees,
after the design of M. MazeroUe. The size of this tapestry is 13i
feet in height by 24i feet in length. It was commenced March 10,
1879, and finished February 3, 1888. The number of artists in tapestry
engaged upon this piece, whose names are given in the catalogue of

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the French (xovernment, are six. This does not include names of those
whose apprenticeship in the school has been of sufficient duration to
entitle them to the privilege of assisting in the less complicated parts,
nor those who have been skillful enough to have assisted in dying the
colors required ; these are all master artists and teachers. The composi-
tion of the scene is what its title indicates, a charming baby or "god-
child," which the fairies, having adopted, are protecting from harm.
The naughty witch in the foreground, who is being driven into her
shell parachute; her steed, a wise old owl, wings widespread for flight,
is one of the best and most picturesque of the many figures in the
conlposition.

The panel corresponding in size with the first-named, and which is
entitled, *' Arts, Science, and Letters in Antiquity," was designed by
M. Ehrman. Commenced November 21, 1880, finished February 15,
1S88. It bears the names of five masters or professors of the art of
tapestry. Its central figure, blind, poorly clad, harp in hand, does not
seem to receive any attention from his better-dressed companions, who
perhaps think Fame flying in the air is coming to do them honor
instead of grand old Homer; but the spectator makes no such mistake,
and gives entire sympathy to the lowly, unconscious poet. The
dignity and repose of this design is admirable, as well as the color.

Some idea of the patience and skill required may be formed from
the fact that a skillful workman has accomplished a full days' work
when he has completed 1 square inch of this tapestry, while the
slighest mistake in color or adjustment of threads often wastes months
of labor.

We have not undertaken to supply any techniciil explanation of the
modern system of uniting the texture where change of color takes
place, because illustration conveys more than words in such matters.

There has never been so superb a pallette of colors as that maintained
by the Gobelins. They claim to discriminate about 14,000 shades.
Their modern finish of the wool employed in these panels owes its per-
fect smoothness to careful singeing of the thread.

The other two examples of Gobelin work, entitled ^'Manuscript"
and ''Printing," are upright panels, each portraying a life-sized
standing figure. Both panels and their borders were designed by
M. Ehmmn.

"Manuscript," a woman clad in yellow drapery, is singularly fortu-
nate in color and in grace; while ''Printing," being a man, weai*s an air
of strength and conscious pride in that strength. Together, the differ-
ence is conspicuous, notwithstanding the uncertain character of their
draperies. One turns from one to the other, puzzled to discover the
changes wrought without lines or shadows.

Beauvais tapestry is constructed mainly of silk at the present time.
Formerly it was of wool, with great attenuation of threads. Desjigns

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for it arc of a diflferent order, smaller in size, and held in lines of
purely decorative thought.

Eight panels, of which those by Gaudefroy are most interesting, arc
mingled with the displa}' of Gobelins. The subjects of Gaudefroy's
panels are " Birds of the Aviary" and '"Aquatic Birds/'

Two sets of fui-niture in the same department are covered with
Beauvais silk tapestry of exquisite taste and refinement. The designs
are garlands of flowers, one on a foundation of pink with white in the
central space of the garlands; the second, a tender lovely green. The
constant acclamatory admiration bestowed upon these exhibits con-
strain us to confess our poor sentences can not even enumerate the
words of unanimous approval from every class of visitors. M. Cha})al
was the designer of both sets of floral covers.

The Aubusson tapestries are exhibited by ten private firms, and
some of their pieces come almost to the point of rivaling the Gobelin
and Beauvais tapestries.

The firm of Braquenie & Co., of Paris, among many others, exhibits
a panel of great merit, depicting the "Stairway of the Paris Grand
Opera House." Another of their tapestries in which the accord of
mellow colors is unusuall}' successful is "Europa and the Bull."

G. R. Hamot, of Paris and Aubusson, exhibits a fine tapestry enti-
tled ''Blind Man's Buff." It is a garden scene with pleasing groups
of children and adults, full of life, and of excellent color. A collec-
tive exhibit of real tapestries embrace these two names in addition to
others, whose work is of average merit.

JAPANESE TAPESTRY.

Old examples of Japanese tapestry have, like the Chinese weavings,
both waip and weft of silk. The difference of warp (silk being much
finer than wool) necessitates more threads to the square inch. In
really fine instances the increase of threads in the warj) will be oft<^n
three times that required when wool is used. In work of the present
day cotton warps are frequently found, but not in valuable examples.
There is a large wall hanging, by Sozayemon Nishimura, in the Man-
ufactures building, which exhibits more clearly in design than any
other the distinct national character of Japanese tapestry. The
gnarled tree trunks and mossy stones are there in gravest somber
tones, dear to the Japanese heart, and also a majestic waterfall. The
true poetic expression of former days is there. It is a tapestry of
sentiment. No one can judge it fairly who only values color, or
harmony, or decoration. But this is old Japan.

Another fine hanging by Sasaki, of Kyoto, in complete con travst with
the first, may be appropriately called "Matsuri, b}'^ the Inland Sea."
It is a rare new Japan, revealing itself without a trace of foreign
influence. The ground of gold and silk, the color of the metal, is

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enlivened by clouds extending far away among the many shadowy
islands, dark in conti*ast with this sunset glow. In the foreground ai*e
wagons decked for the festival (matsuri) , with gay ly painted processional
groups of figures, each wagon bearing aloft in the center a high bam-
boo pole or young growing tree. The design, though simple, is superb,
and the treatment artistic in the highest degree. Few such pieces are
in the whole world.

The same might be said of the great tapestry of J. Kawashima, of
Kyoto, which bears the title ''Procession at the Nikko Temple." Its
size is 22 feet by 13 feet. Besides the grand gate of the Yomei Mon,
and the trunks of the enormous Oryptemeria trees which fonn the
distance, are the library and other buildings of the famous Quadrangle.
From the gateway surges the crowd of pilgrims, soldiers, citizens, and
dignitaries — 586 figures of men in all the variety of costume which
enriches the festivals of the Tokugawas. It has been wrought with
immense attention to every detail. The faces all differ in expression.
Some of the figures are barefooted and others with costly sandals.
Their garments are literal copies of real clothes. It is said a single
face is the result of from three to ten days' labor, and the workmen,
who numbered several hundred, were occupied four years in making
this remarkable hanging. This tapestry is wrought in threads of gold
and silver, as well as silk. In Europe the use of metallic threads has
been objected to mainly from the ungainly stiffness which was appar-
ent as it depended from the rod. But the art of Japan has discov-
ered a more flexible metallic thread, or the attenuation of their gold
to match the fineness of the silk has led to more successful results.

Another superiority is shown in quality of metal. The alloys of gold
in other countries soon tarnish and become an imperfection which can
not be removed. That is not true of Japanese alloys, as I can testify
from experience. Even the alloys of silver do not tarnish from the gas
fumes as readily as our own manufactures in the pure metal.

It would be a proud trophy for Japan to secure this record of her
hero's era to hang in one of the lyeyasu temples, still thronged by loj^al
crowds.

The list of Japanese triumphs in tapestry would not be complete
without recording the signal merit of a libmry hanging or curtain by
Jida Shiahichi. I shall name it '' My Ife^sket of Flowers." It is a piece
peculiarly suited in form, design, and color for adoption in an American
residence. There is a freedom in the plan of it, and a lucky accident
of color which obtains for it a first choice from evervlx)dy . The large
veined lotos leaves tumble down between the pink lotos flowers and
chrysanthemums, till one almost expects them to rest on the white
jonquils below. One long crooked wisteria stem with scant pale bloom
reaches over the upper line of the curtain, like the black sheep of the
family, which will show its nose at the banquet. Below the ecru satin

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ground is a border of brown, sewn with butterflies and fishes in ffold.
There are many hangings of great merit among the Japanese tapes-
tries which we have not mentioned. This must be accepted as noting
the lines or divisions of the numerous artistic efforts indigenous in that
oriental land. They have been quick to discern the merits, and to avail
themselves of improvements in the technique of tapestry, and it is safe
to predict for them a series of victories in all lands in this art industry.

TAPESTRY OF GREAT BRITAIN.

The English nation is represented in tapestry at our Exposition by
the work of only one establishment — The Royal Windsor Tapestries.

It is a matter of regret that the mother of so marty sturdy peoples
should permit her early accomplishments to decline in this era of
bright promise for art and industry.

Once upon a time, tapestry ateliers were widely scattered thi:ough
England, and examples of P]nglish work are yet found in her colonies
as well as in her halls and museums. Believing in the greater merit of
French and Flemish work, they imported their tapestries so liberally
as to utterly destroy their own national establishments. It is recorded
that one ship, in the days of Henry VIII, carried 4,000 tapestries to
England.

After the French and German war, in 1871, many idle tapestry
workers sought employment on the hospitable JJnglish shore. From
this gathering of skilled artisans came the organization of the Royal
Windsor tapestry establishment. The family of Queen Victoria
exerted their influence to make it popular and useful, but the limited
demand for such costly work and the absence of any subsidy for part
of its annual expenses finally required its discontinuance. The aim
of the management was to combine the broad effects of arras, or old
Flemish work, with the detail and elaboration of Gobelin. In this it
has met with changing success.

One hundred and fourteen examples were brought here, but there
was not space for them all to be displayed. Those which were hung
had space on the walls of the sculpture courts of Great Britain in the
fine arts building. The single figures of historic character were of
great merit. "Richard Cceur de Leon" and "Savonarola," by H.
Bone, were especially noticeable for weaving effects rarely seen in
such sized panels.

The three panels mounted in a screen, 'Mean d'Arc," Cimabue, and
Vittoria Colonna were admirable in spite of their heavy modern mount-
ing. Also by H. Bone.

The landscape hangings, representing a stag hunt and a boar hunt,
each 9 by 11 feet, designed by E. M. Ward, were vigorous in expres-
sion and splendid pieces of tapestry. All of the landscape series are
thoroughly English in conception and execution; quiet and even som-

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ber in color, and in marked contnist to the work which the French
refugees must have pi*acticed when in their ateliers at home.

It is a matter for rej^ret that there could not have l)een a tapestry
hall whole these works would have l)een better viewed a id more gen-
erally understood.

NORWAY TAPESTRY.

I wish it were in my power to comnuinicate to the rest of the world
the surprise and delight of finding that there was a philanthropic society
in Christiana, and that it had a soul of its own — or else Mrs. Freda
Hansen has one for it, which amounts to the same thing. Under her
insi)iration, perhaps, it has accomplished some astonishing tapestr}'.
It has comedown with reindeers and pine cones, and dancing ])luebells,
which last turn out to be little Norse flower fairies, holding hands to
sing songs of Odin to the 'prentice boys. And like everything else in
this building, it has no wrong side.

There is an Egyptian e[)ic poem, called a piece of tapestr}', told in
the Norse dialect, with Tanhauser swans sailing over silver waters,
where the rough waves are all kept underneath the surface of things,
and a border of mummies holds the lotos plants in order. I wish they
had brought a hundred such gems and sold them as quick as they have
the,se unique exhibits of characteristic original Norwegian art. We
who have bought them should })e the happier for it.

ANTIQUE TAPESTRY.

EXniBTT OF SYPIIER A (X)., OF NEW YORK.

From a collection of antique tapestries shown by Mr. Sypher, which
contains specimens of great value, the foHowing titles are given; not
because of the great names of their designers, nor l)ecause kings and
cardinals have interested themselves in their manufacture and owner-
ship, but from their dignity, character, and perfect preservation. To
the student, desirous of marking the change and progress in Gobelin
work, this has been a fortunate season. Those who have boasted the
superiority of Flemish designs and colors have here the satisfaction of
seeing them ranged side by side.

1. Naval battle between Constjintine and Lucinius. Designed by a
pupil of (juilio Romano, and woven by Jacques de la Riviere (of wide
renown) in the Barberini palace about the middle of the seventeenth
century.

2. Queen Artemisia, attending the practice in horsemanship of her
young son. Designed by Lerambert, and woven for Marie de Medici
in the Gobelin ateliers in the early part of the seventeenth century,
and presented to Cardinal Barberini })y Louis XIII.

3. Diana. Painted by Breuil, woven by Antoine Goubcl, of Brussels,

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in the seventeenth century, for Cardinal Barberini, one of a series of
seven illustrating the life of Diana of Poitiers. The Flemish taste is
here shown in its best coloring. The soft, delicate green of the leaves,
and the background of architectural gardening are in splendid
preservation.

4. Constantine superintending the construction of Constantinople.
Cartoon painted by Rubens; tapestry woven in the Gobelins. Pre-
sented to Cardinal Barberini by Louis XIII.

5. Judith and Holof ernes. Woven in Brussels in the seventeenth
century for Cardinal Barberini, by H. Rydams. The border of this
piece, more elaborate than the others, shows a panel over the great
central group containing this inscription: " Holof ernum Astote et
speciosam victoriam promittit." It is given here simply as an instance
of one of the many ways devised to distinguish original work from
copies even at that early day. These hangings were inventoried by
Cardinal Barberini in 1695. They are each about 24 feet in length and
from 13 to 18 in height. Their perfect condition is testimony to the
great durability and unchangeableness of tapestry, and their noble
lines of color make deep impression on students in decorative art.
Their titles and artists have been specially mentioned as testimony of
their presence in this Exposition. By such mention in catalogues
the history of many valuable pieces has been perfected.

IMITATION TAPESTRY.

The origin of this recent fancy, which has almost threatened us
with a revival of mediaeval deigns and colors, is very curious. Many
valuable pieces of antique tapestry de<iayed in spots too large to
attempt remounting and re weaving them. An ingenious Frenchman
gave inspiration to the manufacture of corded or striated linen corre-
sponding to the coarseness of the indentations in the real tapestry.
This linen was subjected to some bleaching or chemical treatment
which prepared it to absorb water readily like half-worn linen. It
was then stretched over a frame, the broken tapestry securely fastened
to it, and the missing parts were drawn in corresponding design and
brushed with weak liquid dyes to stain the linen without obscuring its
surface. It was necessary to let it dry before adding a second coat,
but it soon became an easy matter to match the faded tints so perfectly
the patch was scarcely seen.

The next step was to make an entire copy from fragments too poor
for any patching, and the new art work was installed. It has a field
of usefulness to which it should be confined. How much it has con-
tributed to the decoration of this Exposition in covering the interior
walls with copies of well-known artistic work, both of famous tapes-
tries and paintings, every attentive visitor already knows. The ceiling

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work of artistic furnishings, the side panels of tapestried apartments,
and a dozen other uses where it served every purpose that the original
could have done, prove it an economical substitute for places where
decoration is imperative but of transient necessity.

In France the copies made with care have great intrinsic merit.
"After the Gobelin" — well, it is some distance after; but on another
accurate copy when we read, '* First medal in Paris Exposition of '89,"
we begin to draw the line.

The copies of the great Barberini tapestries from Italy, which grace
the sculpture halls in the Fine Arts Building, are worthy because they
are authentic substitutes. It is probable that more and more govern-
ments will send substitutes to foreign lands to represent historical,
and, of course, priceless work. But do not let this decorative linen
be daubed with thin oil paint, which stiffens where it should he pliable,
and which fills the crenulated linen, hiding its structural meaning, and
obscures the blunders of an ignorant first treatment with liquid dyes.
The linen is not in sympathy with picture painting. A knowledge of
the consequences of applying one dye upon another can more easily
be learned in a dye shop, and more cheaply, too, than on a tapestry-
linen design.

In Germany there is excellent imitative work, judging from the
serviceable panels of her important booths.

In Denmark is one so carefully done as almost to deceive the eye^,
the irregular "points" or hatchings being dragged into prominence
after the coloring was completed. Much of this work done in the
United States is unworthy, through ignorance of its sincere aim. The
State fairs need it; the various associations would adopt it if limited
to supply hangings capable of being rolled and carried without harm.

It might in time be a valuable aid to a general knowledge of tapes-
try and its interesting history and gain a permanent footing among
modern industrial arts.

A few scattered instances of tapestry may be found in the Eiastem
exhibits.

A silk tapestry in Turkey of unsurpassed quality, but of questiona-
ble merit in design, even allowing for conflicting influences, must be
mentioned. This is neither Saracenic nor even Turkish, but shows a
possible future for something greater than either.

The exhibit of Bulgaria, although mainly in rugs of tapestry weav-
ing, rather than hangings, shows indication of taste, which if fostered
may be most serviceable to its people. Their natural aptitude for
loom work, their picturesque choice of costumes and colors, form
favorable surroundings, needs only some such fostering care as has
already been started by the Norwegian Government.

In the East Indies and Ceylon are instances of small tapestry work,
but mostly overlaid with some hand stitchery, which has deteriorated

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1461

its value. In all the eastern lands there is little or no discrimination
between the individual work of the shuttle and the needle. Whenever
the result of the first has been incomplete its deficiencies have been
covered with the last. Like the early European work, the joining of
colors has been mostly by needle stitches.

It is marvelous that where the perfections of the great camel's-hair
shawl productions are and have been the wonder and pride of a
continent it should not have made more impress in kindred lines of
work.

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TAXIDERMY.

Di-. li. W. SHUFKLDT.

1463

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TAXIDERMY.

By Dr. R. W. Shitfeldt.

There were two very distinct classes of exhibits submitted to me for
adjudication. One class was a miscellaneous collection of objects from
Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, and were on exhibit in the
Woman's Building; the other class consisted, in the main, of mounted
collections of animals from Brazil, New York, Pennsylvania, and
other States and Territories. The last were all to be found on
exhibition in the Anthropological Building.

The part of the New South Wales collection examined by me was
chiefly made up of certain objects placed on exhibition by private
residents of the city of Sydney. It consisted principally of some
drawings by school children, paintings on opal and on glass; a case of
mounted mammals and birds from that part of Australia; a small,
though beautiful, collection of cattle represented in miniature models
in wax, with the hair on; feather work and embroider}', and a number
of similar objects. For the majority of these I recommended that an
award should be given, and as those that received such distinction
will no doubt appear in detail in their proper place in the published
history of the Exposition, I omit that part of the record here. It
will be as well for me to state, however, that there were frequently
various circumstances that influenced me in deciding in the matter of
an award in many of these cases, and 1 am quite sure other judges
often found themselves in similar predicaments. Sometimes the
object exhibited was but slightly above the average in point of merit
for its kind, while it possessed the advantage of being quite unique.
Take for example the eight or ten models of cows in wax which were
f avoidably adjudicated by me. They were but a few inches in height,
but were modeled with great fidelity to nature, and the natural hair
that covered them had been dexterously applied, so as to give one the
impression of its being a genuine growth. Here was a unique collec-
tion that received an award; but the case might have been othei'wise
had there been on exhibition a large collection of animals prepared in a
similar manner and of varying merit and presented by various exhib-
itors. Take again, as another example, the large pencil drawings
placed upon exhibition by the school children. Judging them purely
upon their merits they received awards. Not only were these unique

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1466 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

in their place, but they were also remarkable pieces of work when we
come to consider that the}' were done by children. From this stand-
point they were judged, and much in the same way as though they had
been submitted to an examiner at a competitive school examination
where such pieces of work were presented, rather than by placing
them in comparison with all the other pencil di-awings that were upon
exhibition at the Exposition. Had the latter test been applied, they
would in all probability have been passed by almost unnoticed. Cir-
cumstances under which any particular exhibit was produced or man-
ufactured constituted often another series of factors that a judge was
in duty bound to take into consideration; sex was another, and I'ace
still another; and there are many more, which it will not be my pur-
pose to touch upon here.

Passing to the taxidermical exhibits of mammals and birds, and other
vertebrata examined by me in the anthropological building, we at once
enter upon an important field that requires some considerable notice.
Of recent years taxidermy has played a very essential part in piuctical
science, and it is improving in that particular ever}" 3'ear as biologists
and public instructors connected with scientific institutions of learning
of all grades come to recognize more and more its value. In many
quarters it has made remarkable progress, producing work of veiy
superior merit from whatever point of view we may judge it.

It no longer, as it formerly did, suffices the purpose, even in the
best museums, to have the mounted specimens of mammals, birds, and
other animals simply '' stuffed " and in all sorts of grotesque and unnat-
ural attitudes, set up in badly lighted cases, upon all kinds of unsuit-
able stands. Where scientific taxidermy has made its best advances
the days for work of that kind have gone by. A scientific taxidermist
of the present time borrows from many of the sister arts and sciences
what he needs to crown his own endeavors with the most perfect suc-
cess. In nature he closely studies the habits, the attitudes, the pecul-
iarities of ever}' living form, as he does everything that makes up
their natural surroundings, as the associations of various plant growths;
the nature of the ground, as well as the varied forms assumed by
water, as snow and ice; pond effects; rills and waterfalls, and the rest
All this, and much more, he must reproduce in the cases in the museum,
and that with a fidelity to nature quite outside the pale of criticism.
The scientific taxidermist also borrows the science of the chemist, the
art of the colorist, the accomplishments of the photographer, for
photographs of living animals and their natural haunts stand among
his best and most relia})le models. To a great extent, too, he must be
a good general biologist, and a close student of all that has been written
in that science which in an}^ way may prove of service to him in his
work. The chemist teaches him how to use certain prepaiutions that
will preserve his specimens so as to have them best withstand the

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1467

ravages of time and the insidious attacks of hosts of many kinds of
insect museum pests. The artist teaches him to select those colors
which best reproduce nature's own tints, and which will best withstand
the action of light for great lengths of time without impairment or
fading. And in addition to all this, the scientific taxidermist should be
possessed of an innate culture and refinement of his own, which admits
of a constant improvement through the education that nature brings
to every student so organized who applies himself with all due earnest-
ness to the study of her works.

For nearly twenty years past, at different times, the writer has
observed with great satisfaction the growth of the taxidermic art in
no less a celebrated in :;titution than the United States National Museum.
There it has passed through every phase of its modern growth, from the
lowest stages of prudeness to the higher planes of perfection, so far as
the latter has been carried. It has been my fortune to have seen some
of the best pieces of some of the most talented taxidermic artists in
this country, and they have been closely studied. Doubt no longer
exists in the premises. We know what taxidermy has accomplished
in recent years, and the standard she will attain to before many more
have gone by. As 1 have said in another connection, the time is now
at hand when our best equipped public museums should seriously apply
themselves to the task of placing on exhibition, in appropriate cases,
entire sections of country with every topographical detail reproduced
with the strictest fidelity to nature. Such reproductions should not
only show the variations of different geographical areas in our own
country, but the varioiLS faunae and florae they support. In large
museums such exhibits can be so arranged as to gradually merge into
each other, and the student may be enabled to pass from lifelike and
graphic representations of one part of the country to various othei's
in natural series. They should show the animals of all classes inhabit-
ing them and their habits, the botanical characteristics, the various
races of men and their principal employments, the geological structure
and many other features. Such exhibitions would very soon act as a
powerful stimulant to education in those directions, and by combining
much that is now divided up into a number of departments, would in
the end more economically fulfill one of the chief functions of any
museum — i. e., imTease its usefulness as an institution of public
education.

In the various collections in the Government building at the Colum-
bian Exposition, there was much exhibited that showed the general ten-
dency in this direction. It was seen in some of the superb specimens
of taxidermy sent on by the Smithsonian Institution and the United
States National Museum, as well as their magnificent models of exam-
ples of the various races of men, and similar subjects. Some of the
scenic effects in the "General Greely group," showed pretty well what

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1468 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

we may hope for in the future in the way of exhibiting, arctic and
other scenes. Combine some of the work to which I have just made
reference, and the ideas I have advanced above would very soon
commence to take on a proper shape.

In the taxidermical exhibits submitted to me for examination there
was scarcely a hint of the great progress made in modern taxidermy.
The collection sent on by the Empire of Brazil presented not a single
feature to recommend it, while to point out its objectionable ones
would take more time and space here than can in any way be afforded,
as absolutely nothing would be gained in the performance of such a
thankless task. The State of Pennsylvania had sent on a great spec-
tacular affair, representing the side of a mountain, with trees and
shrubbery and a stream of running water (real) coursing its way
through a valle}' at its foot. Distributed over the sides of this moun-
tain, on the trees and plants, and in many other places, were 279
mounted specimens of birds, 32 mammals, a few reptiles, etc., while
around the rail that inclosed it was a cotton-filled box-like receptacle,
in which was displayed a collection of some 127 eggs of the more com-
mon species of birds of the State. The idea which this great set piece
embodied is, to some extent, the correct one. It was an attempt to
exhibit in their natuml haunts the animals of a certain political divi-
sion of a country, or a State's zoology; but such educational value as
it possessed, or even scientific interest, was entirely lost in the manner
of its execution, for the taxidermical part of the work was about as
bad as bad could be.

Something of a similar nature, and on nearly as large a scale, had
been attempted b}'^ the State of Maine. In this instance it was com-
posed almost entirely of mammals, while the taxidermy and accessories
were both quite as indifferent as were those features of the Pennsyl-
vania exhibit. It was clearly out of the question to recommend an
award for a piece of work so far behind what is now considered stand-
ard by the modern experts of that science. After my decision in this
case had been received 1 was honored with a communication from
Secretary Horatio N. Rast, in which I was asked to reconsider my
judgment, inasmuch as ''it seemed proper, since the State furnished
good material, but was unfortunate in being unable here (Chicago) to
secure a good taxidennist." From this point of view, but still very
much against my bettei judgment, I recommended an award on the
ground of the State having succeeded in placing on exhibition such a
large number of animals representing her mammalian fauna. Prac-
tically such an award was worthless, as I intended it should be, in the
CA' ent of the collection ever being broken up into parts, and the single
pieces ever being judged, perhaps by experts, upon taxidermical
grounds.

A private collection from Colorado, which also fell to my lot, requires

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1469

no formal notice here, beyond what I have already written upon my
examination card.

One of the best exhibits of this kind, I believe, that 1 examined was
one from New York. It was recommended an award. It not only
represented many of the existing mammals of the State, but a number
of those now extinct there. Some few of the mounted pieces were
very good as examples of taxidermical work, and there were other
evidences of the collection having been carefully prepared and placed
on exhibition. One of its interesting features was a fine mounted
skeleton of a mastodon (Mastodon giganteus)^ presented by Alfred
Wild, esq., for the Harmony Mills Company, of New York. This
exhibit completed my labors.

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TOBACCO.

BY

JOSEPH B. MOOS.

1-^71

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TOBACCO.

By Joseph B. Moos.

The great tobacco industry, which now yields to our Government
an annual income of $32,000,000, had special cause to contribute its
choicest products to add to the general splendor of the commemoration
of the four hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America by
Columbus.

The introduction of tobacco into civilization can be traced to the
discovery of America, and it can, therefore, truthfully be asserted
that the World's Fair of 1893 commemorated, in a measure, the birth
of tobacco.

Tobacco now constitutes one of the world's greatest sources of
wealth. Before the blue smoke arising from its combustion issues
from between the lips of the smoker, its cultivation, manufacture, and
distribution have furnished a subsistence to millions of men in every
country on the globe. Those who delight in making such calculations
inform us that there are 800,000,000 human beings who sweeten life's
journey by indulgence in the habit of smoking tobacco. Then, again,
these statisticians tell us that the human race consumes annually
2,000,000 tons of tobacco, being about 70 ounces per capita.

Consumption of tobacco in all its forms by the people of the United
States, taking as a basis the data collected by the Internal-Revenue
Department, is about 4 pounds per capita. From other sources we
find that in the United Kingdom it is 1^% pounds; in France, 1|
pounds; Geraiany and Holland, 3i pounds. The consumption of
tobacco in the United States is, therefore, greater per capita than in
nearly all other countries, with the exception of Germany. In this
country, therefore, especially, the cultivation and manufacture of
tobacco has become such a leading source of wealth, the Government
having derived an income in the last thirty years of $908,266,457 in
internal-revenue taxes from this source, that it is not inappropriate,
in reporting on the condition of the manufactured-tobacco interests as
shown at the Exposition to devote a little space to tracing the details
of the history of this article of commerce.

After a careful examination of the existing literature on the -subject
the unbiased investigator must arrive at the conclusion that the true
history of tobacco dates back to the dim and unknown traditions of
the early American races.

COL EXPO— 02 93 ^473 ,

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1474 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

Among the remains of the former habitations of the Mound Build-
ers, which are so plentifully scattered through the Mississippi Valley,
numerous pipes have been found. A paper issued by the Smithsonian
Institution, entitled "Ancient monuments of the Mississippi Valley,"
contains the following passage:

Mound builders were inveterate smokers, if the great nomber of pipes discovered
in the mounds be admitted as evidence of the fact.

Whether or not the material smoked in these pipes was tobacco has
not been positively established. In support of the theory of its
having been a species of tobacco, the claim is put forward that when
America was discovered its inhabitants were smoking tobacco, and
also the absence of evidence that any other article was ever put to a
similar use by the aborigines of this continent.

Whatever conclusion we may arrive at as to the time when the first
inhabitants of this continent discovered the use of tobacco, we can
hardly find a vestige of actual proof that anything closely resembling
tobacco was used by the peoples of the other parts of the globe before
its introduction into Europe by the Spanish and English mariners.

It is unquestionably true that there has been much circumstantial
evidence collected by men anxious to show that the uses of tobacco
and its cultivation were known to the Orientals before the discovery
of America, and that before the discovery of the New World it was
found in the Ardennes.

Me3^en informs us that the consumption of tobacco in China is
enormous and the custom of great antiquity. On very old sculptures
he has observed tobacco pipes of the form still in use in Persia.
Legend is quoted to the effect that Shirez tobacco was given by a holy
man to a virtuous youth, disconsolate at the loss of a loving wife.
" Go to thy wife's tomb," said the anchorite, "and there thou wilt find
a weed. Pluck it, place it in a reed, and inhale the smoke as you put
fire on it. This will be to you wife and mother, father and brother,^'
continued the holy man in Homeric strain, "and above all, will be a
wise counsellor, and shall be to thy soul wisdom, and thy spirit joy."

The Mohammedan legend on the subject is too long for repetition
under its eastern garl); suffice it that a viper was restored to health by
the warmth of the prophet's body. Immediately upon convalescence
the ungrateful reptile announced the intention of biting his preserver,
and the prophet exj)ostu]ated. An argument ensued which ended in
the viper carrying out his original intention. The prophet drew the
venom from his wounded wrist and spat it forth. From these drops
sprang that wondrous weed, which has the bitterness of the serpent's
tooth conquered by the sweet saliva of the prophet.

In reply to the tissertions of Meyen, as well as his quotations from
folklore, and the mass of assertions made by Savary, Ulloa, and others,
in their attempt to prove tobacco as unknown to the ancients, it can

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WOELD's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1475

truly be said that had the use of tobacco possessed the high antiquity in
these Asiatic countries which it had in America, the record of ancient
travelers would give us some clew to its existence. The habit of
smoking could certainly not have escaped their notice.

The use of tobacco has never been introduced without rapidly
spreading, and the habit can scarcely be acquired without being con-
tinued. These travelers, although they speak of betel chewing, palm
wine, arak, sago, etc., never even hint at the existence of tobacco; and
it is natural to assume that they did not describe tobacco simply
because there was none to describe. It is, of course, in evidence iiiat
some of the earliest nations were fond of intoxicating fumes; that it
was conmion to indulge in whiffs of narcotics. These facts are made
known to us by Herodotus, Pomponius, Plutarch, and others in their
accounts of the Babylonians, Thracians, and MassagetsBS. From the
descriptions given of the plants which, when smoldering, gave forth
the intoxicating fumes which so pleased the peoples of these nations,
it can be asserted that they could not possibly be tobacco. The
descendants of these races in Persia, Syria, Egypt, India, and Arabia
at present smoke hemp, and it is possible that the substance which
their ancestors threw upon the burning coals was hemp or a similar
product.

Hippocrates recommends the smoke of burning herbs as a medicinal
prescription. Pliny speaks of its inhalation through a reed, but
nowhere do we find in any of these writings indications of any knowl-
edge of tobacco. We will, therefore, dismiss all these vague surmises
and proceed on the hypothesis that tobacco is a native of America so
far as actual history shows.

Two sailors who were sent out by Columbus to explore Cuba, in the
latter part of the year 1492, were probably the first Europeans who
ever saw a tobacco leaf. In reporting their adventures to their chief they
stated that they had met savages who carried with them lighted fire brands
and puffed smoke from their mouths and noses. Upon investigation
Columbus found that these savages were smoking dried leaves from a
plant which grew on the island, and which they rolled up in the tender
shucks of the Indian corn. Fra Romano Pane, who accompanied
Columbus on his second voyage in 1494, and who remained in charge
of Haiti, wrote Peter Martyr that the natives ground the leaves of
this tobacco plant into a powder, which they breathed into their noses
through a reed or cane.

In 1526, Hernandes de Oveido, then viceroy of San Domingo, wrote
an intelligent description of the plant, which he had brought with him
and was cultivating as an ornamental plant in Spain. A few years
later Francesco Hernandes, a Spanish physician who had been com-
missioned by Phillip II to visit Mexico, brought .with him upon his
return a number of the plants, which he presented to his King, and

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1476 BEPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWABD8.

about the same time missionaries returninf^ from the southern portion
of North America and the West Indies brought with them tobacco
plants and seeds.

For many years after the Spaniards had gained a foothold in
America they looked upon the use of tobacco among the Indians with
abhorrence. In an old history written by Francis Lopez de Gomara,
it is stated that this abhorrence continued until it transpired that a
Spaniard, accompanied by an Indian, went on a long journey, and
almost staiTed owing to the scarcity of food. The Indian finally
persuaded him to smoke tobacco, which formed a taste which others of
the soldiers and sailora soon cultivated.

In 1659, Jean Nicot, a member of the French court, returning from
Portugal, where he had filled the post of ambassador, presented his
queen with some tabacxx) plants which he had purchased in Lisbon.
In compliment to the queen the courtiers called the plant Herbe
Medicee.

There are a few authorities who contest Nicot's claim of having
introduced tobacco into France in behalf of Thevet.

Innumerable attempts were made in those days to saddle some new
name upon the plant, especially the names of those who helped to
introduce it. They have all remained, however, in the dust of old
books, leaving the original appellation, given it by Hernandez, who
had heard the term used by the Indians. Some claim that the name is
derived from the island of Tobago, one of the West Indies, but
it is doubtful whether the island received its name from the fact that
the leaf was found growing there, or whether the leaf received its
name from having been found growing on the island. The scientists
during the seventeenth and early part of the eighteenth centuries,
called the plant Nicotiana, in honor of Nicot. This name has come
down to us merely as a term for its essential oil, nicotine.

A fact which seems to have been overlooked by many is that the
seeds which were purchased in Lisbon by Jean Nicot, who was then
the French ambassador there, had just been brought over frOm Flor-
ida, and not from the West Indies. And here it will not be amiss to
state that as early as 1573, according to old Spanish records, there
were numerous extensive fields of tobacco in the country north ot the
inland sea, called by the Indians Okeechobee, in that section of Flor-
ida known as Cacena, and one hundred years later tobacco was one of
the Staple crops of the Kissimee Valley in Florida.

From this time forward, the medical qualities of the plant caused
its introduction all over Europe. The Spanish doctor and botanist,
Nicholas Menardes, published a book in 1571 at Seville, descriptive
of the West Indies, in which he describes tobacco as a medical plant.

There is evidence that tobacco was brought into Italy almost simul-
taneously by Bishop Nicholas Tornabone from France and the Cardi-

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WOBLd's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1477

nal Santa Croce from Lisbon, where he had been Papal Nuncio at the
Spanish coui*t.

The Englishmen were probably the first Europeans who learned to
use tobacco for smoking purposes; that is, in a pipe, as it was several
centuricvs before cigars were used. Sir John Hawkins was the first
to bring tobacco to the notice of Englishmen in 1565. Shortly there-
after Sir Francis Drake brought samples of the plant into England.

We read in LobePs Stirpium Adversaries Nova that tobacco was
successfully cultivated in England and Scotland in the year of its
publication, viz, 1571. In 1586, Ralph Lane, who had been sent out
by Sir Walter Raleigh as governor of Virginia, returned to England
and brought with him some tobacco plants and several Indians, who
illustrated their method of using the plant. This fact was afterward
attested to by King James. In this way Sir Walter Raleigh and
Ralph Lane were probably the first Europeans of influence and high
standing in the community to set the example of smoking tobaooo.

It has been stated by some that Sir Walter Raleigh, after having
learned the fashion of smoking, was especially anxious to diffuse the
custom as a means of introducing a profitable article of merchandise
from his new American speculations. If this was his intention, be was
eminently successful.

Mr. Bancroft informs us that in 1615 the fields, the garde.as, the
public square, and even the streets of Jamestown were planted with
tobacco, and it became not only a staple but the currency of Virginia.
From this time forward there can be no doubt that the English took
the lead in adopting the use of tobacco for smoking. Those writers
who claim that smoking was introduced into France and Spain twenty-
six years previous evidently confound the introduction of the plant
into France for medicinal purposes with the practice of smoking in
England.

A Frenchman, Charles Estienne, probably deserves the distinction
of having been the first to give an account of the tobacco plant in 1564.
His short and inaccurate description was amplified and corrected by
John Liebault in the following year. In France it is certain that
tobacco as a luxury was first and for a long time used in the shape of
snuff alone, and even thas it did not become in vogue before the reign
of Louis XIV. It was scarcely before the great Revolution that the
French became general smokers, although they had been all along
inveterate snuff takers.

It is, however, evident from the works on tobacco written in the
latter part of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries that the first use
of tobacco when it was introduced into Europe, as above described,
was exclusively for medicinal purposes. Jean Nicot sent it to Queen
Catharine de Medici simply as a remedy for toothache, and church and
state countenanced its introduction for its supposed sanitary virtues,

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1478 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARIM3.

while physicians seem to have looked upon the plant as a divine remedy
for disease.

In fact, tobacco crept into Europe under false colors. There were
water infusions of it for draughts, oils of tobacco for imbrocations,
and sirups of tobacco. Applied hot to the body, the leaves were an
infallible remedy for paralysis, rheumatism, and the bites of serpents
and insects. Incorporated with grease and ointments, it was a sure
cure for all skin diseases.

From this excessive praise it was but natural that the reactioD
should follow. The first book against its use appeared in 1002, enti-
tled " Work for Chimney Sweepers." In 1004 came the famous
" Counterblaste to Tobacco" written by King James I., in which the
monarch expressed a disapproval of smoking in such strong terms:
'^ A custom loathsome to the eye, hateful to the nose, harmful to the
brain, and in the black stinking fume thereof nearest resembling the
horrid stygian smoke of the pit that is bottomless." In 1014 Star
Chamber imposed a tax on tobacco.

All this proved of no avail. While the wise men were either prais-
ing it on account of its supposed medicinal qualities or condemning it
as a work of His Satanic Majesty, its use was quickly filtering down-
ward to the great masses of the common people. In England it was
called "drinking tobacco."

We read that in 1014 there were upward of 7,000 tobacco shops in
London, and they were set up in almost every lane and corner. In
fact, thirty years after its introduction into England smoking was
more general than even at the present day.

The first tobacco plant was brought into Germany out of France by
Adolph Occo, the city physician of Augsburg, in the early part of the
seventeenth century. In 1022 the English and Dutch troops camping
on the banks of the Rhine brought the smoking habit with them, and
the Thirty years' war spread it throughout the balance of Germany.
In 1030 Spanish priests introduced snufGng into Rome. In 1050
tobacco smoking was commenced in Sweden, Russia, and Turkey.
Asiatic people were completely conquered by the weed. Everj^ man,
woman, and child took to smoking.

All this astonishing growth and use of tobacco took place in the face
of the fiercest opposition by those in authority. Church and State com-
bined to persecute the smokers. They were delivered over to scourgers,
knives, gibbets, and death in all the countries of Europe. In Russia
the noses of smokers were cut oflf. In Turkey the offenders were pun-
ished by having their pipes thrust through their noses. Pope Urban
VUI thundered excommunication upon all souls who took the accursed
thing in any shape into a church. In 1053 the council of the Canton
of Appenzel, in Switzerland, sununoned smokers before them for pun-
ishment, and ordered all innkeepers to inform against those who were

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1479

found smoking in their houses. In the police regulations of Beme, in
1661, the prohibition against smoking stood with the commandment
against adultery. It is a fact that up to 1848 smoking was forbidden
on the streets in many of the countries of Europe.

MANUFACJTUBE.

The first form of manufactured tobacco in all these countries was
simply the drying and rubbing of leaves, to be placed in the bowl of a
pipe. We also learn from the earliest records of the use of powdered
tobacco for snuff taking. In the record of the House of Lords we
find a petition, dated 1641, by a merchant of London, who claims
redress because three years previously he had shipped a cargo of
*' sneezing tobacco" to Dublin in the Thomas and George^ the vessel
whose master was forbidden to land by the authorities of that city, on
the ground that certain individuals there had a patent of the sole sale of
tobacco.

The idea of cigars, which was first suggested by the Indians' crude
method of wrapping the leaves in dry shucks, did not seem to meet
with much approval on the part of the Europeans for many years after
the use of tobacco became common. Although tobacco must have
been freely smoked in Spain from the beginning of the sixteenth cen-
tury, there is no evidence of the use of cigars among the Spanards of
that time. In the multidinous works of the great Spanish artist Goya,
of that date, there are none of his characters depicted as smoking
cigars. In Zedler's Universal Lexicon, published in Germany in 1740,
there are a number of pages devoted to '' nicotiana," but not a word
spoken of anything akin to our cigar. There is a paragraph stat-
ing that it is reported that some of the inhabitants of the West
Indies take the leaves of tobacco and twist them into a shape resem-
bling a cornucopia, so that they are open at one end and tight at
the other. They light the open end and pull the smoke toward them
as long as the leaves glow and they can keep them in their mouths.
In this way, the writer says, they spare the use of a pipe. The first
cigars made by the Spaniards were of tobacco loosely rolled and held
together by a silky lining of corn husk, with a straw running through
the center, to be withdrawn before smoking, to insure a good draft.

The word " cigar" seems to have originated from the fact that when
the Spaniards first used them they were smoked in the orchid, called
in their tongue " cigarrals," owing to its being the abiding place of
those sleep-producing insects, the balm crickets; hence we have
"cigarro," a cigar; "cigarron,"'a large cigar; and, finally, the
English " cigar." Actual cigar smoking was introduced into London
by a young Spanish grjindee in the year 1787.

In 1792 a cigar-manufacturing plant was established in Cuba by the
firm of Cabanas & Carvajal. The product of this factory was shipped

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1480 EEPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWABD8.

to various countries of America and Europe, and the factory is still in
existence, and conducted at present by L. Carvajal & Co.

There is no authentic record of the introduction of cigars into the
United States. "Segars"were classified in the second act of Con-
gress. In 1790 they were admitted free of duty, and continued free
until the act of March, 1804, when they ^ ere taxed $2 per thousand.
It is claimed that Herr Schlottman introduced cigars in Hamburg,
Germany, in 1788, after serving in Spain. The first actual record of
cigar manufacture in this country dates to 1819, to a Mr. Gibson, who
manufactui-ed them in Maysville, Ky. Another early manufacturer
was F. Bodman, in Cincinnati, in 1827.

From this time', then, dates the commencement of the cigar-making
industry in this country. There seems to have been very little prog-
ress at first. Imported cigars could be brought into the country so
cheap that there was no incentive to establish manufactories here.
There was no great change in the crude and simple state of the trade
up to the time of the breaking out of the war. The use of tobacco by
the soldiers of the war, on both sides, gave an immense impetus to
the trade, and instant improvement in its manufacture took place.

One of the first important changes in the art of cigar manufactur-
ing was the introduction of the cigar molds. These originated in
Germany, and were first imported into this country in the year 1869,
although they did not come into use until some time in the following
year. As near as can be ascertained, these first molds were used by
Jacoby & Co. and Kerbes & Speiss. Shortly thereafter N. H. Borg-
feldt, recognizing what an important factor molds would prove in the
cigar-making business, began making what are termed single molds,
namely, one mold in a block. Immediately a great demand arose for
these molds, and he was always pressed for orders. Manufacturers
brought him cash and vied with each other in inducing him to sell
them these crude molds, for which they paid 91 a piece. The intro-
duction of these molds to a great extent revolutionized the business,
as it enabled manufacturers to turn out a cheap cigar which had all
the appearance of the higher-priced article made by hand. The sys-
tem of making cigars by mold has been, of course, vastly improved
upon since its inception in the manner described. The theory remains
tlie same, viz, the making of the interior filling, or bunch, of a cigar
by laying the filler tobacco together in a heavy leaf, or binder, and
pressing it in a wooden mold to give it shape, which could not
otherwise be done but by the deft fingers of an expert cigar maker.
The smoking qualities of a cigar thus made are naturally inferior to
one strictly made by hand, but its general appeamnce is such that
only those trained in the business are likely to ^detect it.

The introduction of machinery into the manufacture of cigars in this
country can be ti-aced to the efforts of one man.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1481

John R. Williams was born in New York City February 13, 1841.
At the age of 15 he commenced work at a shoemaker's bench. During
the war he served in the ranks, and after its close in the revenue serv-
ice. He finally started a cigar factory in Newark, N. J. After
becoming acquainted with the business he early recogiiized the possi-
bilities of introducing machinery into this field. He also maintained
that the twisting and rolling of tobacco into cigars was work more
adapted for women than men, but had considerable difficulty in teach-
ing women to prepare the bunches for the molds. He began experi-
ments with the idea of producing a machine by which these bunches
could be made by the most unskilled operators. On February 1, 1875,
he completed his first real cigar-bunch making machine. It was found
to work fairly well, and after extensive improvements and altera-
tions were made the perfected machine was set up in the factory at
Newark and the cigar-manufacturing trade invited to examine it. As
is usually the case when radical innovations are suggested, it took con-
siderable time for the trade to fully realize the advantages of the
machine. Williams, having been successful with the bunch-making
machine, turned his attention to solving the problem of wrapping
machines, and evolved the well-known automatic rolling table and
wrapper cutter. Then came his long-filler device. In all twenty-
three patents have been granted to Williams for devices for bunch
making, wrapper cutting, and rolling. There have, of course, been
many other machines invented and placed on the market, but we have
spoken of those manufactured by Williams because he was the acknowl-
edged originator of the idea.

Another noteworthy innovation in cigar manufacture was the intro-
duction of Suniatra tobacco, which first came into general use in this
country in 1881. Its rich, glossy leaf pleased the fancy of the con-
sumer, and therefore the retailer, while its thinness and great number
of leaves to the pound, combined with its then reasonable price, made
it popular with the manufacturers. As a result, in a veiy short time
nearly all domestic cigara costing over |20 a thousand were covered
with the Sumatra leaf. This acted detrimentally on the sale of Amer-
ican grown wrapper tobacco, and the efforts of the American growers
have therefore been directed toward inducing the Government to so
heavily tax this tobacco that it should be driven out of the market.
In this they have been but partially successful, for although the duty
has been placed at a higher figure than its original cost, yet this for-
eign leaf has become so popular with American smokers that they pre-
fer an inferior cigar covered with this leaf to one of a better grade
with an American wrapper.

The great and rapid increase of cigar manufacture in this country
since the year 1860 caused a corresponding growth in the production
of cigar boxes. The internal-revenue laws prescribe that all cigars

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1482 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

must be packed in boxes of designated capacity. Before the act of
1862 many of the cheap cigars made in Connecticut and other parts of
the country were handled in bulk and not packed in boxes, and where
boxes were used they were refilled many times. Immediately after
the passage of that act it became a penal offense to sell cigars which
had not been properly packed in boxes, and the use of the box was
forbidden after its original contents had been disposed of.

These regulations, which have been in force ever since 1862, have
resulted in the cigar-box industry becoming a biisiness of important
dimensions. About 65 per cent of all cigars manufactured to-day are
packed in boxes containing 50 cigars, the balance in boxes containing
100 or 225, and a few containing 250. It takes between 60,000,000 and
70,000,000 boxes annually to pack the cigar production of the United
States. A great majority of these boxes are made of white wood
veneered or otherwise manipulated to imitate cedar boxes. The better
class of cigars, however, are packed in boxes made of Spanish cedar,
which is imported in logs from Cuba, Mexico, and other parts of Cen-
tral America. The average cost of the cedar box, including labels and
other trimmings, is about 9 or 10 cents; if made of white wood, about
7 cents. The lumber is transformed into boxes almost entirely by
machinery. One factory, located in New York City, which is the
largest of its kind in the world, produces annually nearly 6,000,000
boxes.

The labeling of cigar boxes assumes many elaborate styles. The finest
and most expensive productions of the lithographic art are at present
demanded for this purpose. Another important adjunct to the mod-
em cigar package is the ribbon, which encircles the goods packed in
bundles. Until 1872 every ribbon used on cigars in this country was
imported. Then the rapidly increasing demand encouraged experi-
ments to produce them in the United States. These attempts proved
successful, and now the large cigar manufacturing plant of the Wil-
liam Wicke Company, in New York City, weaves every day 200,000
yards of these ribbons.

The first attempt at cigarette manufacturing in this country was
made in New York in 1867 in a very small way by the Bedrossian
Brothers. The cigarette business did not attract much attention in the
trade and its development was very slow until about 1880. The estab-
lished tobacco manufacturers took up the business as a sort of side
issue. After that time the use of machinery and keen competition
resulted in giving a great impetus to the business, the bulk of which
was thrown into the hands of a few large houses, who have ever since
practically enjoyed a monopoly. The struggle of these leading houses
for supremacy became very fierce, enormous advertising through the
public resulting in an ever-increasing production of cigarettes, and
their consumption increased enormously from year to year. When,

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1488

however, the expense in forcing the sales had passed legitimate bounds,
the leading houses came together and formed the great combination
which now practically controls the business. The present production
of cigarettes annually in the United States is a little over 3,000,000,000.

Although a leading tobacco manufacturing firm of the present time
was established as early as 1760, these first attempts at manufacturing
tobacco were confined largely to snuff making. European methods
were copied and a creditable article produced. The preparation of
smoking and chewing tobacco was then very simple. The leaf was
used almost in its natural state, following closely the methods in use
by farmers and planters in preparing the leaf for home consumption.

The first tobacco manufactured for chewing purposes in this coun-
try was made in twist shape. After that followed the plug tobacco,
and finally, during the present century, fine-cut chewing tobacco came
into vogue.

About 1824 a manufacturer by the name of Patterson turned out
the first sweetened plug from his factory at Baltimore. For a num-
ber of years he kept his methods secret and did a prosperous business.
One day, however, a sailor in cutting off a piece from a plug detected
a lump of licorice, and from that day forward the method of sweeten-
ing plug tobacco became generally known, and in fact was demanded
by the public taste.

About 1830 appeared the first fine-cut chewing tobacco. It was an
unsweetened chew, made of Virginia tobacco. It came rapidly into pop-
ular favor, especially in the I^t, where it could be procured fresh from
the factories. The principal diflSculty was that after it became dry
its taste became acrid and disagreeable. To remedy this, sweetening
and flavoring substances were added. Within the last thirty years the
sales of fine cut have steadily decreased, until now they are but about
one-quarter of the amount that they were immediately after its
introduction.

The drop in the sales of fine cut was caused, to a great extent, by
the increase in the popularity of plug tobacco. This was most espe-
cially the case after the grade of tobacco known as White Burley
became generally employed in the manufacture of plug tobacco.
There are two claimants to the honor of discovering this grade of
tobacco. One is Mr. Joseph Foos, of Brown County, Ohio, who noticed
some plants come up almost milky white on a farm near Higginsport.
He first thought they were damaged, but after noticing how vigor-
ously they grew he changed his opinion. After they were cured a
fine bright texture caused him to save the seed. The other claimant
was named Webb, who. in 1864, procured some Little Burley seed
at Louisville, Ky., and as the plants grew he noticed some white ones.
He separated and watched them, and finally decided, after several
years' experiments, that they were a distinct tjlass and of a very meri-

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1484 KEPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWABD9.

toriouH nature. About the year 1870 this White Burley tobacco
became generally known to the plantei*8 of Ohio and Kentucky, and
shortly thereafter entirely superseded Virginia in the manufacture of
plug tobacco.

In early days tobacco manufacturing was simply a trade. Now
science and modern invention have raised it to a high rank. Orig-
inally a tobacco factory resembled a barn. The equipment was crude,
manual labor was utilized in almost every detail, the surroundings
and arrangements being slovenly and uninviting. The action of
nature was depended on entirely to bring the leaf into condition.
The manufacturing season did not begin until midsummer, because
then the tobacco drank in the humidity and became soft and pliable.
A machine resembling a printer's proof press was used for pressing
and molding tobacco into blocks. As soon as the frost came the
manufacturing season closed.

In a modern equipped factory, and there are but few others — for ii
is a fact that there are no small plug manufactories, for everything
must be done on a colossal scale — the machinery is expensive, and with-
out steam power, heatmg and sweatmg appai*atus, air ducts and fans
for the regulation of atmospheric conditions, it is at present impossi-
ble to manufacture plug tobacco. The tobacco arrives at the factory
in large hogsheads or barrels. It is tied up in bundles called "hands."
It is in a very dry or brittle condition and must be moistened by being
exposed to steam, after which it becomes soft and can be handled
without breaking into small pieces. The stems are then removed in
the stripping room, and from there it is conveyed to dip tubs, where
it is submerged in a solution of licorice and other flavoring materials.
When thoroughly saturated, the leaves are spread upon a rack and
these are taken to the drying room. It is then again softened and
conveyed to machines and pressed into lumps. These lumps are then
covered by operatives with pieces of selected leaf. It is then again
placed in presses to be pressed and finished. After this the lumps are
artificially dried by steam, placed in steel molds, and subjected to a
pressure of 275 tons. After leaving thcvSe machines it is packed into
the wooden boxes. Government sttimp affixed, and is then ready for
the market.

For the year ending December 31, 1892, there were manufactured in
the United States, according to internal-revenue returns, 171,081,675
pounds of plug tobacco and 16,222,689 pounds of fine-cut chewing
tobacco. Of this amount, about 102,347,302 pounds were leaf tobacco.
The balance, about 40,000,000 pounds, was other materials, showing
distinctly to what extent flavoring and sweetening is at present
demanded by the public.

As a consequence of the civil war in the United States, the internal-
revenue taxes on cigars, with the complicated regulations appertaining
thereto, were first imposed. In order to i*aise money to>carrv f>n the

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1485

war, all prominent tax-producing methods of other countries were
copied after. The manufacture of tobacco is one of the first industries
in all countries to be subjected to taxation, and, as a consequence, the
the act of July 1, 1862, was passed. It imposed a tax of $1.50 per
thousand on cigars valued at not over $5 per thousand; $2 per thou-
sand on cigars valued between $5 and |10 per thousand; $2.50 per
thousand on cigars valued between $10 and $20 per thousand; $3.50
per thousand on cigars valued at or over $20 per thousand. Follow-
ing that came the acts of June 30, 1864, March 3, 1865, July 13, 1866,
March 2, 1867, July 20, 1868, March 3, 1875, and March 3, 1883, which
last is still in force.

In addition to these acts, which appertain both to cigars, cigarettes,
and tobacco, there were passed four other acts which affected only
snaoking and chewing tobaccos — those of March 3, 1863, June 6, 1872,
March 1, 1879, and October 1, 1890. Despite this, the internal-revenue
taxes on tobacco in the United States are smaller than those imposed
by any other country which seeks to make this commodity a, leading
source of revenue. In the year 1892 these taxes amounted, per capita,
as follows: United States, $0.49; United Kingdom, $1.30; France,
$1.71; Austria, $1.31; Germany, $1.30; Italy, $0.94; Hungaiy, $0.79.

The phenomenal growth of the cigar and tobacco manufacturing
industry in the United States can in nowise be more forcibly demon-
strated than by the accompanying table, compiled from the internal-
revenue statistics, which show a fact not recorded in the appended
table, that the number of manufacturers of cigars in the United States
was 21,337; manufacturers of tobacco, 1,021.

Flfloal year ending June 30—

Cigare.

Cigarettes.

Tobaecn and
Hnuflf.

1863.

Number.

199,288,284

492.780,700

693,230,989

347,443,894

483,806,456

590,335,052

991,535,934

1,139,470,774

1,813,913,604

1,507,014,922

1,779,946,596

1,857,979,298

1,926,661,780

1,828,807,396

1,800,009,256

1,905,063,743

2,019,246,764

2,367,803,JM8

2,682,620,797

3,040,975,895

8,227,888,992

8,455,619.017

3,858,972,633

3,510,898,488

3,788,805,448

8.844,726,660

3,867,385,&40

4,087,889,983

4,474,892,767

4,648,799,417

Number.

Pounds.
23,852,387

1864

64,577,097

1865

19,770.110
230,365

87,641,822

1866

37,493,785

1867

47,631,494

1868

46, 764, 150

1869

1,751,495

13,881,4lV

18,980,753

20,691,050

27,088,050

28,718,200

41.297,883

77,420,586

149,069,257

165,189,594

288,276,817

408.708,366

567,895,983

554,544,186

640,021,653

908,090,723

1,058,749,238

1,810,961,360

1,684,506,200

1,862,726,100

2,151,515,360

2,283,254,680

2,684.538,760

2,892,982,840

64,305,026

1870

90,288,062

1871

95,135,504

1872

95,209,319

1873

114,789,208

1874

107,747,691

1875

119,436,874

1876

110,380,602

1877

116,146,103

1878

108, 824, 848

1879

120,398.458

1880

136,275,884

1881

147,018,405

1882

161,824,601

1883

170,861.558

1884

174,196,064

1886

180,777,418

1886

191,592,240

1887

206.499.521

1888

209,362.602

1889

221,524,869

1890

238,290,158

1891

253,896,042

1892

265,126.372

Total

67,183,818,912

19,660,810,016

3,956,862,124

O^'

1486 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARD8.

According to a Census bulletin issued by Carroll D. Wright, Com-
missioner of Labor, under date of April 6, 1894, it appears that the
number of manufacturers of cigars and cigarettes reporting were 10,956;
that they represented a total capital of $59,517,827; that they employed
98,156 operatives, to whom was paid a total wage of $44,767,989; that
the value of their combined product was $129,693,275. Three hundred
and ninety-five manufacturers of chewing, smoking, and snuff tobaccos
reported a capital of $30,841,316, 31,267 operatives, with a total wage
of $8,568,071, value of total product being $65,843,587.

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TRANSPORTATION.

1487

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VESSELS, BOATS, MARINE, LAKE, AND RIVER TRANSPORTATION,
NAVAL WARFARE, ETC.

By Capt. V. M. Concas.

Scarcely anythinff of superior class or conspicuous importance can
be found in the exhibits shown. This is due, perhaps, to the great
difficulty and expense of the transportation by sea or land of the very
bulky and heavy objects which constitute those exhibits, the high
tariffs, and the necessity of carrying back all the exhibits at the same
expense. Very few of them are proper to be sold, and these are lim-
ited to the most prominent exhibits and can be disposed of only to
those directly interested in the traffic of the country, as, for instance,
the navigation company, which are all represented in the Fair. Among
the shipbuilding trades we miss many of the important firms of the
world. No exhibits have come from the important shipbuilding firms
of France, whose designs are very popular among the officers of the
line of the American Navy; only one from Italy; none from the new
shipbuilding yards of private firms of Spain, and very few from other
nations; but what can scarcely be understood is how the most impor-
tant private yard of the United States, the Cramps, of Philadelphia,
with enormous contracts with the Federal Government, are not repre-
sented, when a display at the Exposition has been very justly consid-
ered a patriotic engagement of every American citizen. The ocean
navigation companies, under the patronage offered them by the grow-
ing prosperit}^ of the United States and Canada, have come with a
model of their steamers. One of them, the International Navigation
Company, has a reproduction in full size of the half section of one of
their steamers, from the water line to the hurricane deck. The great-
est number of ships' models belong to the navigation companies, who
exhibit them as owners of proper instruments to fulfill their engage-
ments toward the public. Under such circumstances, the models have
been considered from two different standpoints. If exhibited by the
builders they have been considered as products of their industry in all
their details; if exhibited by the owners, they have been judged
according to their ability to fulfill the condition of speed, comfort, and
safety that the company offers the public.
Though the exhibits of the shipbuilders are less important in the
COL EXPO— 02 94 ^ 1489 ,

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1490 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

World's Fair than those of the navigation companies, I shall begin by
the former, because nothing is so important as the ship itself in the
final point of all naval industries, and the beginning of any maritime
trade.

It is without question that England bears the lead in shipbuilding
industries, and that the good workmanship, price, and seagoing con-
dition of the ships produced by her yards can not be better. Impor-
tant exhibits are offered by the shipbuilding firms of Donny & Bros.,
Fairfield, Hawthorn, Laird Bros., the Thames Iron Works, J. & G.
Thompson, and Yarrow. Among the men-of-war models* with the
exception of the RamlUes and the Opal^ all the ships have been
already at sea for some yeara and are very well-known t3'pes. The
most of them have been a success when new, and they have not been
superseded by new types in the wild race that naval architects have
imposed upon themselves until perhaps a great disaster tells them
they have gone too far, and tells also to the officers of the line that
they have conceded too much. And the reminder of a great disaster
is present, because the best of all models in large size is that of the
battle ship Vfctaria^ built by Armstrong, Mitchell & Co., of New
Castle, upon which hangs the broad black crape of mourning, in sor-
rowful memory of the sad accident in which were lost the great ship
and so many human lives. The public pass through with marked
respect, impressed by the consideration of the untold sufferings of
those who perished by the most horrible death that can be imagined;
but for the seaman and the statesman that mourning goes so far as to
be one of the most important events for some countries. The battle
ship Victoria has been lost on account of a natural accident, as a col-
lision is always very possible in maneuver, and very probable in naval
warfare. There should be no blame for their commander; no blame for
the gallant admiral who lost his life. An error may be a misfortune,
but never is a dishonor. The collision was a natural accident, as was
that between the German ships Konig WUhdni and GroHner KnrfurHt^
in which one of them was lost; but the wreck was quite different, as the
German ironclad was sunk in her upright position, and the Victaria
capsized. The Victoria turned her bottom up, her screws racing
furiously in the air; and such circumstance was foretold many vears
ago by the eminent naval architect, M. Reco, for all the ships of that
class. The same man who foretold the tremendous disaster of the
Captain^ of Cobs, has foretold how this ship would be lost in case of
collision, and yet to-day that class of ships constitute the ner\''e of
many navies, who have invested in them so many millions as to equal
the fortune of one generation.

To be sure, a report will be given the proper authority, placing the
fault upon some forgotten provision, to restore confidence in similar
ships; but the reason they may give nobody will believe, and time will

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893, 1491

determine how far will go, at sea and in all the navy departments of
the world, the deep mourning we see to-day on the model of the
Victoria.

I have had the misfortune to be judge for the said vessel; but as the
designs were of the English admiralty, and the exhibitors were the
builders, I had only to judge of workmanship, which was certainly
very good, aa I have seen myself on board the same ship.

The merchant shipbuilding furnished something new in the exhibits
of the Fairfield and Thompson companies. The former, although vol-
untarily withdrawn from competition, her director. Professor Elgar,
being a member of the jury, exhibits the model of the great steamers
Campania and Lvx^ania^ which is also exhibited by the Cunard Line
as owners of both ships. The Campania is the successor to the Great
Eastern^ with the difference that the latter was produced when the traffic
and the passenger necessities were not prepared for her; and the Cam-
pania and her sister Lxvcam^ia are come to do their servic 3 when enor-
mous size, tremendous speed, great spaces for engines, boilers, coal,
cargo, and passengers are a necessity of the increasing trade, being
to-day the success among the greyhounds of the North Atlantic.

The Thomson's Company, of Glasgow, builders of the City of Paris
and City of NefW York^ exhibit a new model of a steamship that they
will name America, and claim will make 30 miles an hour. She
appears to be of great dimensions, but could not be judged for want
of information. The draft of water appears to be very great, but
the necessity of limiting that dimension, oil account of the dry docks
and harbor capabilities, is the great obstacle to increasing the actual
speed.

Let us now consider the exhibition made by the shipbuiding yards
of the United States, showing a decided movement, as if they wished
that the American mercantile marine should conquer again the high
position it had thirty years ago. But though the industrial development
is very remarkable, the very low freights on one side and the high
wages that the American sailors must be paid on the other makes the
success very doubtful . These ci rcumstances are very well characterized
in the exhibition, where the yards show that they have many orders
from the Government or from the International Company, which is
very near thes ame; but the display of the mercantile marine does not
show the same proportion.

We have said that the Cramps, of Philadelphia, have neglected what
seemed to be a place of honor for any American, while the Union Iron
Works, of San Francisco, have exhibitexi a magnificent model of their
works, with the model of the United States men-of-war Monterey^
San Francisco^ and Charleston. The Newport News Shipbuilding
Company, the Chicago Shipbuilding Company, and some others have
also made very important exhibits, showing that modern naval con-

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1492 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

struction of every description is under great development and progress
in the United States.

Witiiout entering into certain considerations, perhaps more proper
to a technical study, I must i*emark that the modern construction of
war ships in the United States retains the high pee board, continuing
the famous American constructions of former dates. Their cruisers are
diflferent from those of other nations; many of them have a full sailing
gear; they have large spaces where living is made a great deal more
comfortable than in the European cruisers of the same displacement;
and though other qualities are not so conspicuous, it is difficult to
ascertain which is perfectly right.

In addition to the construction of great seagoing ships, the United
States and Canada have a very large and important display by builders
of coasters, tugs, cutters, l)oats, and yachts of every possible description,
and good workmanship, and very reasonable prices as a natural conse-
quence of the competition.

The great number of the craft exhibited and the wonderful variety
of design for inland waters as well as for the blue sea prove that
there is a great taste and disposition for sea in all the American
people. Fishing is more popular than hunting is in any other nation,
and the pleasure boats and yachts exhibited by the United States con-
structors are no doubt the foremost of all.

The gasoline launches are one of the features of the Exhibition,
though they have not had the development that was expected when
they were produced. But the more special features of the Exhibition
are the electric launches, 50 in number, that swarm in the lagoons.
The hulks of these electric launches have been made by Thomas Kane
& Co. and the Detroit Boat Works, the designs and all the electric
gear being supplied by the Electric Launch and Navigation Company,
of New York. These launches work with accumulators on ebonite
made in Ijoftdon by the Electric and Storage Power Company, the
motor and usual dynamo and the propeller having only two blades,
and though working on very well-known principles the start made by
the company is very important and will bring electric launches to a
practical use when the defects that always appear in what is new are
corrected. An impoiiant lot of those launches have been sold to be
used at Venice, and most probably will be used everywhere where
stoppage may not involve serious risk and when the passenger may
pay for that comfort. A general use makes necessary a large charging
station, where will be found economy compared with the wages of
engineers and firemen to be paid on the usual steam launches.

Very important are also the exhibits of Orlando & Brothers, of
Leghorn, Italy; Bloss & Voss, the Germania Schiff and Maschinenbau,
the Settiner Maschinenbau (Germany), the Rio de Janeiro Navy- Yard,
the St. Petersburg Iron Works, the Japanese Navy-Yard of Yokosuka;

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1493

and though these are only a part of the navy-3'ards of the world, they
show the great development of naval construction in every nation.
The models exhibited are all of very superioi workmanship and very
similar in design, with great analogy to the original designs of the
French naval architects. The Italian ships are excepted, whose
designs, more like the English, are well known in the maritime world.
The products of these navy-yards are excellent, and except in price are
not excelled by others in good qualities and good workmanship of
their vessels.

We shall finish the report upon the private and Government nav}^-
yards with the observation that we only make reference to those pres-
ent in the Exhibition, and not to all that exist in the world, as this
report is limited simply to that which is exhibited at the World's Fair.

If the ship- building exhibits are important by the great industry
they represent, the exhibition of the owners of ships are not less
important because of the great capital employed, the great enteiprise
shown, and the struggle for superiority in each special feature of the
greatest competition that ever existed.

As the most important of the ships built in private yards I must
begin with the United States Government. It exhibits the most mag-
nificent and original model that has ever been made of a large modern
ship; that is, the model of the battle ship Illinois^ made on a brick
foundation in a foot of water in the exact dimensions of the same ship
taken from the water line up, which idea has been done only once
before in the last naval exhibition of London with the copy of the his-
toric line of battle ship Victory, The model of the lllirum gives a
very exact idea of what that ironclad is, and besides it affords an
opportunity for those not familiar with ships to judge by comparison
the actual dimensions of any ships the model of which may be on exhi-
bition. Only one fault can be found in the reproduction of the Illinois^
and it is that while modern ships are overcharged and overcrowded
with everything, the Illinois appears so free and so spacious that it
has room enough to be a small palace of exhibition, of which circum-
stance the public is not aware, and may believe that the life of the
seamen on board is a great deal move comfortable than it is in reality.
The most important of all the exhibitions on board the IllinoiH is the
very good collection of models of all the new ships of the modern
American Navy, whose rapid and important development can be seen
in that very nice display. Then follows the exhibition of the Naval
School of Annapolis that produces such a distinguished body of learned
officers. There is also the very good exhibition of the Hydrographic
Department, in which are very conspicuous the pilot charts of the
North Atlantic, original and scientific publications sent by that office
throughout the world, and with the greatest dispatch, to the United
States consuls, to be given free to all navigators. That important

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1494 REPORT OF OOMMITTICE ON AWARDS,

publication is worthy of the greatest gratitude and respect from every
seaman in the world. I have the pleasure to contribute mine with pro-
found admiration for that humanitarian servite.

Next follows the great navigation companies, who exhibit in the
ships they possess a most magnificent display of the enormous resources
of transportation for passengers and merchandise across the Atlantic.

Beginning with the American company, the International Naviga-
tion Company, which exhibits the models of the great liners City of
Parh and City of New York. That company is now building a whole
fleet at Philadelphia with a subvention from the American Govern-
ment, and exhibits in natural dimensions a half section of one of her
new steamers, with cabin, smoking and dining rooms, steerage for
emigrants, decks and bridges, which, like the Illinois^ are excellent
reproductions, giving an accurate idea of the ships the same as the ship
itself, and helping the public to appreciate the exact dimensions of the
other models.

Very important is the exhibition of the White Star Line, with
models of her fleet, and one suite of cabins in natural size, but the
exhibits of the Cunard and Peninsular and Oriental companies, though
not more important, are more original. The Cunard Company exhibits
a good model of each set of ships that the company has built from
1840, beginning with the Britannia,, a wooden paddle steamer, to tiie
Campania^ the last ship, and the best success in fast steamers. The
model of that ship is duplicated in the Exhibition, one model being
exhibitexi by the constructors, a product of their industry, and the
other model, quite equal to the former, is exhibited by the Cunard
Company as an appropriated instrument to fulfill their engagements
to the public, which circumstance is in pursuance of the policy adopted
by the committee in making a distinction in the exhibits according to
the exhibitor, in one case the builder, in the other the owner.

The Peninsular and Oriental Company exhibits a very curious
display of very small models of ships, 2 or 3 inches in length, but
in which exhibit are all the ships that have been owned by the
company; and the number of ships is so considerable that it impresses
the public most favorably in behalf of the great progress and impor-
tance of the Peninsular and Oriental Navigation Company.

Very important also is the exhibit of the Spanish Transatlantic
Company, with its extended service to the West Indies, Philippine
Islands, England, New York, Africa, and the Mediterranean; also the
Hamburg- American Packet Company and the North German Lloyd,
which lines compete with the oldest English and French lines with fast
steamers of the best reputation. Very good also is the Union Steam-
ship Company and the Canadian Pacific Railway, with the splendid
steamers that cross the Pacific to China and Japan from the western
coast of America. All of these ships are so good that it scarcely could
be determined which of them could be called in justice the best.

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WORLD^S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1496

And though not in competition, at their own request, as were all the
exhibits of France, I can not omit the French Compagnie G^n^rale
Ti-ansatlantique, with the models of the steamers, one of them the
splendid liner La Tmiraine^ which by its splendid regulations, great
comfoili and special behavior, and very good seamanship has made that
line the favorite of the most distinguished passengers of the North
Atlantic. The exhibition of this powerful company with its fast trans-
Atlantic vessels, by the extent of capital employed in them, the great
skill, intelligence, and industry displayed in construction, the enor-
mous movement of cargo and passengers involved in their continuous
runs from one harbor to another, and growing dimensions, make one
of the most complete and impressive displays in the exhibition, which
facilities are perhaps the safety valve of the excess of production
that menaces communities at the end of the nineteenth century.

After having considered both the shipbuilding and the trans- Atlantic
service in full I shall refer to particular exhibits, many of them very
important, for it is by the perfection of details possessed by modern
ships that it is possible for man to command these enormous bodies in
spite of an enraged ocean.

Worthy of especial mention is the model in full size of the 120-ton
hammer of the Bethlehem Iron Company, which reaches nearly the
top of the Transportation Building. The model of that powerful instru-
ment for heavy forgings, used alike for machine work as well as for
ordnance, is close to some of their splendid forgings exhibited. There
is a 62-ton gun made at the navy -yard at Washington with the tube and
jacket made by the Bethlehem Iron Company. That the gun was
accepted by the Government is the best proof that the materials are of
superior quality. • It is true that they must employ Swedish iron made
with charcoal, and can not compete in price with Krupp, Creuzot, and
other more advanced factories of Europe; but from the American point
of view its price must not be considered. This exhibit shows enormous
progress to the level of the more advanced manufacturers.

Very impoiiant as a mechanical display in their application to
different purposes is the exhibition of windlasses, capstans, and similar
appliances. All the exhibits are American, with the exception of one
ship-steering engine of German production. It is a very important
invention, where the high price of manual labor, as in the United States,
requires the substitution of so much mechanical labor. But the exhib-
itors in no other part of the group gave the trouble that some of these
have to the committee of judges, as they made every possible exertion
not to have their exhibits judged by foreign judges, sometimes even
passing the limits of conventionality; but that could not be allowed, as
the jury had decided that nobody could be a juror for the exhibits of his
own nation. There was no reason for that want of confidence in their
exhibits, as they were very good and complete; and though we missed

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some self- steering engines for big ships of high speed, they had no
competition; and as what is exhibited only must be considered,
because if it were otherwise it would become more profitable and less
risk to those that do not come, if they were considered on equal foot-
ing, I must repeat that the exhibit is very complete, and that the
naval architects can find there almost anything to suit all their pur-
poses for ships' use.

Not very numerous, but very good, were the exhibitions of steel,
iron, hemp, and manila ropes exhibited by different companies. There
were also some chains, but very few kinds, and some anchors of new
device, though all with movable posts. One of these anchors has been
accepted by the American Navy in some of the new ships. It seems
to be much better than the usual Martin anchor, though made on the
same principles. Of anchors for pleasure boats there was a greater
selection, and some folding ones of very good designs and finished
with great delicacy that would be also veiy useful for steamers.

Asking room for something new were several North American and
English exbibitors^ of steel barges, seamless boats of the same metal,
rafts, and life-saving appliances, that can l)e kept out of the water
without danger of leaking, as are those made of wood. Some of the
boats were provided with air tanks in each end to obviate the danger
of sinking. The public has not yet come to a decision in this matter,
perhaps becauvse of the difficulty of repairing or the fear of heavy
blows against wharves or ship side ladders; but they would be very use-
ful for boats on the decks of trans- Atlantic steamers, which sometimes
are never taken from their davits, and when wanted will always leak.
For boats of men-of-war, which in battle will have their planks opened
by the concussion of the gun shots, perhaps these boats could be
trusted to be in better condition in circumstances of the greatest
urgency than those used to-day.

Very complete and important is the life-saving station exhibited by
the United States Government, with the best boats, guns, carriages,
and appliances produced in Europe and America, as a service where
only the very best should be used, no matter where produced. That
service is very popular in this country, and is a great credit to the
Government because of the manner in which it is attended to. Some
life-saving apparatus is exhibited by Drei, of Wilmington, Allen, of
Massachusetts, and Muller, of Hamburg, but nothing so important as
the hydraulic lifeboat of J. Green, of London, a real success in every
form after a very severe trial, but its high price compared with that of
common lifeboats has prevented the adoption of this powerful means
more than is desirable, except in some localities where frequent dis-
asters should call for more powerful relief than can be given b}' the
ordinary pulling boat.

The excavators, dredges, and shovels in their special application to

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1497

marine purposes are scarcely represented in the World's Fair. There
are some few models of canal excavators and dredges. In the United
States they have been used on a very large scale in canal building and
railway construction, substituting mechanical for manual work. This
exhibit in itself has importance as representing the usefulness of the
practical employment of those instruments that are already over their
experimental- trials. The foremost exhibitors are one from South
Milwaukee, one from Chicago, two from Genuany, and one from
England.

Very little can be said of marine engines in this department. Of
modern engines there has been exhibited only one working model of
a quadruple expansion engine by Denny & Bros., of London. The
Bethlehem Iron Company, Krupp, Brown & Co., and the Continental
Iron Works of Brooklyn, have exhibited shafts, propellers, boiler-
plates, and corrugated furnace flues, besides some other different
objects for engine construction. In boilers, the great problem of high-
pressure steam and a boiler that answers all the military conditions
required by war ships, there has appeared even less in the marine divi-
sion of the transportation department. Not even the smallest refer-
ence is made to the great experiment which France is going to make
on board the new iron-clad Yaurehiguerry.

The electric department of marine appliances has two special repre-
sentations, the United States Government as owner and the General
Electric Company as manufacturer. The United States Government
on board the model ship Illinois has selected the best material now
in use, with the exception of the switch-board that belongs to the Edi-
son system. All the rest is manufactured by the Genei'al Electric
Company. Only the maneuvring table for the searchlight can be
described as a new design, but the great improvement consists in the
constant use of electricity for everything, bringing into familiarity
the use and working of it. On board of the IlUmrU there is a large
battery of accumulators to be used by a reduced number of lamps when
the dynamos are stopped after midnight; which plan, adopted in many
ships already, is always to be recommended for economy, to save
unnecessary strain to boilers, machines, and dynamos working contin-
uously, and giving more rest to the persons whose work should stop
at a reasonable hour at night.

The General Electric Company manufactures dynamos for the marine
use, specially made to be worked at a moderate velocity and low ten-
sion, so as to have the best conditions for security and constant work.
Their projectors with Mangin reflectors, made in Paris, are very good.
All have regulators for their carbons, and some of these are placed hori-
zontally so as to keep the arc light always in a focus of the projectors.
Finally, they have a great variety of designs for detiiils of lamps, side-
light switches, and small electric appliances of every description.

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1498 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

Special consideration must be given to a very interesting working
table for the searchlights that is established on board of the model
ship Illinois in the exhibit of the General Electric Company. In this
table, and by two working hammers, and through one electric motor
that is in the stand of the searchlight, the light can be moved in
any direction, it being unnecessary for the operator to be stationed
behind the light, exposed to the enemy's fire, but they can be worked
from the captain's turret. It is especially adaptable when the light
is placed very low, as at present used, obviating the diflBculties of
misunderstanding and the indecision of the operator when he can
not see the susptvted object at which the light must be aimed.

Torpedo warfare is very little represented in the Exposition. Tor-
pedoes are exhibited, perhaps, more to impress the public than to con-
stitute a proper exhibition. Of the fixed torpedoes of the well-known
Albot system there are only two models, but they are not complete.
The fish torpedo is represented by the Lay, the Sims, the Edison, and
ihe Howell. The last by the Government of the United States and
the others by the Hotchkiss Company, who own the patents, and is
refused specifications for the judges. Some of their torpedoes were
not even complete, and no launching tube was on exhibition. Acting
very wisely, the American Navy has just bought the Whitehead fish
toipedo patent and the right to make them in this country. The
Whitehead toipedo and its twin, the Sewartzkopflf, were not in the
exhibition, perhaps because there still remains several nations of the
world to pay high prices for that deadly weapon which has already
produced more money than would have been produced by the dis-
covery of a remedy that would cure consumption, cholera, and yellow
fever altogether.

Though not very numerous, the exhibits of marine charts are very
good. The exhibits of Austria, Japjin, and the Coast and Geodetic
Survey of the United States are excellent; but the charts of the Geo-
detic service were not only good, but they have been made upon
such an extensive plan, short time, and enormous expense that they
are in these respects unique in the world, and deserve great credit,
not only to those who made that magnificent work, but also to the
nation which has given the great amount of money necessary to sur-
vey the whole coast of the United States by a great number of com-
missioners at the same time, in pursuance of a general plan. To this
service belongs the U. S. S. Blakt\ anchored at the exhibition, com-
nianded by Lieutenant Mentz, with the most advanced appliances for
the study of currents and very deep soundings. That ship had very
few visitors, but should have had many, as it was a lesson in itself;
but visitors seldom went for that purpose. One could learn a ver>'
good and useful lesson in the apparatus of Lieutenant Pilsburg, who
formerly commanded the ship, whose apparatus, while the ship was

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 189S. 1499

at anchor in 3,000 yards, could be used in taking observations on
the Gulf Stream. Not less interesting were the arrangements for
getting specimeqs of life from the deepest sea — the self-recording
electric instruments to determine the movements of the Atlantic. All
these were more than very good; they were excellent, and bring the
greatest honor to the American Government, to the Navy, and to the
Coast and Geodetic Survey lOr their persistent work in behalf of
science and humanity.

No dynamite gun was exhibited except the model of the Vesuvius;
but as this ship has not been imitated, and many other ships of the
usual types have been built since, we may suppose that it is yet in the
experimental stage. Only a gun to throw dynamite air torpedoes has
been exhibited in the marine section. The inventor offered with his
gun to throw a man safely into the air with a parachute to take obser-
vations of the enemy; but I reserve my opinion till the inventor has
made the experiment on himself and informs us of his impressions
during his aerial trip.

It is not possible to make a complete descriptive study of minor
exhibits, inasmuch as none of them is so complete as to show the
development and tendencies of certain industries — as, for instance, the
exhibition of steel, iron, hemp, and manila ropes, all very good,
exhibited by different nations, but by very few productors, being
impossible to ascertain in what ratio they are employed and what
changes are being made.

The enormous quantity of pleasure boats noakes an important exhibit,
where one can find anything to suit any purpose of the builder.
There were the Coston night signals — very good when the electric
light is not at hand, and always useful in boats and small vessels.
The exhibition of compasses and binnacles was of no importance.

There are two models of the Erie and Nicaragua canals that give a
very good idea of both works; also plans in relief of the harbors of
Calais and Dunkirk, and a set of models in relief of the military har-
bors of Spain, said by those competent to judge to be the best models
of their class in the Exposition.

There are exhibited samples of pyrotechnics for marine signals,
luminous buoys, antifouling paints, asbestus goods, and a greater or
less quantity of the various materials which constitute the details of
ships.

Though perhaps not belonging to this section, there were examined
by the marine judges the exhibits of lanterns of the United States
Government These lanterns were manufactured by Basbier & Co.,
of Paris, and are very complete for their purpose; but there is one of
them made from the plan of Captain Mahan, of the United States
Engineers, which gives a varying number of flashes, so that each light
may be distinguished by the number assigned to it in the list of

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lights; which patent, if the experiments prove it to be practical, will
be of the greatest advantage to navigators.

Being the Columbian Exposition, an historical commemoration, I
must consider those objects connected with that part of history con-
nected with Chicago.

The Elssex Institute exhibited a collection of paintings connected
with the history of the country, and also the historical society of
Wisconsin.

The Argentine Republic has sent a sternpost, claimed to belong to
one of the ships which visited the Rio de la Plata in 1588.

Spain has sent the magnificent book of Monteon, not yet printed,
of which the eminent Professor Elgar states that nothing similar
exists in the world. She has sent also the original charts of Amer-
ica, but the diflSculties attending the proper custody in the Convent of
Rabida of this valuable collection of charts, where are also the origi-
nal documents connected with the discovery of America (also belong-
ing to Spain), has resulted in their being examined by a very limited
number of persons. Spain has also exhibited an astrolobe, falstef,
and other instruments used by the navigators of the fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries, from the naval museum at Madrid.

Russia exhibited some models of the barge upon which Peter the
Great worked during his apprenticeship, who was "The grandfather
of the Russian navy."

There are also exhibited some models of Chinese and other Oriental
crafts, both of present and historic times, that are very useful for
historical study, as they aflford the means to know how difficulties were
overcome in old times.

A boat is exhibited that is said to have been used in the time of
Christ; but nothing attracted such attention as the Viking^ of Norway,
and the three caravels of Columbus from Spain, in their natural size,
all of which came from the other side of the Atlantic. The Vtkiiig^
built in Norway by public subscriptions after a model of a ship found
buried at Sandefjord in 1880, supposed to be similar to the ship com-
manded by Lieutenant Ericson, who, tradition says, visited a land that
is supposed to have been America, from Iceland to Labrador and from
there a little farther south, although some suppose that Lieutenant
Ericson found vines and discovered the coast of Massachusetts. There
are some documents in the Vatican speaking of very poor lands of diffi-
cult access that might have been Iceland, and possibly onl}^ Norwaj".
The Danish were there, the head of the Norse nation, and the enthu
siasts might have gone on until they would swear that they had bishops
and perhaps railways.

Beginning with the name of the Norwegian ships, and the model of
another very similar exhibited in the (xerman section, 1 must say that
the Norsemen's ships were commanded by Vikings — the name of the

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1501

captain's raok, and not of the specimen of the vessels — the same error
that would be committed to-day if we called the ironclad battle ship
lUinms a lieutenant-commander because that is the rank of her actual
captain. The ship is made with superposed planks united with bolts
perfectly riveted, while the frames are bound to those planks by small
pieces of roots of a plant, as if they did not know even how to make
ropes in that time, which circumstance, compared with the plan of the
whole ship, is in the most complete discord. The Viking has a jib
which, as is known, was used only in the last century, and further,
whether the north Atlantic with its prevailing west winds could be
crossed and a return made without a compass is a matter for serious
investigation; but be the truth what it may, they kept the secret so
well that neither Columbus nor the Spanish people knew anything
about it, for which kindness we must certainl}^ be very thankful.
From an historic point the actual Viking/ has come directly from the
coasts of Norway, under the very intelligent direction of Capt. Magnus
Andersen, who crossed the stormy North Sea in an open boat, prov-
ing that the daring navigators of this country of so great renown and
histoi7 of Europe have not ceased to exist.

Now follows in the exhibition the three Spanish caravels, Santa
Maria,, Pinta^ and JVina^ composing the fleet with which Columbus
discovered the new world on the 12th of October of the year 1492.
The Santa Mar ia^ the larger of these ships, was built after the most care-
ful investigation by the Spanish academies of history and archaeology,
under the direction of two distinguished oflScers of the Spanish navy.
Dr. Monleon and Fernandez Duro, and the two smaller by Lieut. W.
McCarty Little, of the United States Navy. A great number of
original documents that exist in the Spanish archives, with the inven-
tories of these ships, has permitted a reproduction that may be consid-
ered at perhaps nine-tenths of the original ships. The Santa Maria^
called Nao^ as she was really more of a cargo ship than anything else,
was built by the Spanish Government for the great celebmtion of
August and October, 1892, and afterwards to be kept in memory of
the centenary, but came to Chicago at the special request of the
United States Government. She crossed the Atlantic under my com-
mand, sailing without any escort, and employing thirty-six days, the
same number of days that Columbus occupied in crossing it. The
Pinta and Nina^ called caravels, from being smaller and faster ships,
were built in Spain by the United States Government to complete
the Columbian fleet. They were towed to Habana and then delivered
to the Spanish navy, in order to have the caravels made in Spain,
manned by Spanish crews to come from Spain, under, as nearly as
possible, similar circumstances under which the memorable ships
opened a new world to the white race. These three ships reached
Chicago by way of the St. Lawrence River, and after remaining two

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1502 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

month8 at the Fair, the two small caravels were returned to the care
of the United States, and the Nao {Santa Maria) was presented by
Spain and ac^cepted by the United States Government the 12th of Sep-
tember, 1893, as a token of the best friendship between both countries.
The expedition of the Columbus fleet was under the special care and
charge of the Spanish Government, the officers and crew were from
the navy, and the ships allowed to display on board the old flag of
Castile, in memory of that great exploit which has been saluted and
honored by all nations of the world.

Besides the Nao Santa Maria, which I have just described, there
were a great many models of it in the exhibition. There was one very
good from the Spanish Government; three models of the three caravels
from the municipality of Genoa — excellent models in history and work-
manship. There are Santa Marias of very large dimensions and also
of small, some made in wood and even in cut paper. There were
paintings by hundreds, all proving the hearty interest of modem
societies in that great historic memorial.

I consider that in these exhibits there are only two which may be
considered to completely fulfill their objects, and these are the trans-
Atlantic service and the pleasure craft. The trans-Atlantic service
shows the greatest progress. It has proposed a ship which shall cross
the Atlantic at the tremendous speed of 30 nautical miles an hour —
that is, at the rate of 31 statute miles, with which some of the northern
railways cross the American continent — and the competition will everj^
day bring improvements and progress. That this competition exists
is evident from what appears in the exhibition.

The show of pleasure craft can not be more complete, and the
competition can only be in quality and price, and advancement will
be surely appreciated by the great number of amateurs. The other
exhibits, as I have said, are all very good and characteristic of peace.
There were not those great displays of military industries that fill
other exhibitions, with the exception of the Illinois, exhibited by the
United States Government; and other ships of war are exhibited
by their builders as a product of their industry. The exhibition of
naval warfare is more naval than warfare, and though everybody will
profit by the many lessons that can be learned in the exhibition, I am
sure that the naval industries of peace will have the greatest progress
as a consequence of the great display of 1893.

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WOOL

1503

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NEW SOUTH WALES WOOL EXHIBIT.

By Henry G. Kittredoe.

The foreign-wool exhibit at the World's Columbian Exposition had
a twofold interest to Americans, because of its great intrinsic merit
and of the part it is likely to play in the near future in the manufac-
turing industr}' of the country, as representative of the wools that will
enter our ports in large quantities free of duty. No finer exhibit of
foreign wools was ever before seen in the United States. The Argen-
tina wool exhibit was a revelation to our manufacturers for its gre^t
excellence, more because of their unfamiliarity with the wools which
the exhibit represented than for any particular points of superiority
which it possessed over that from Australia. In case of the importa-
tion of wool free of duty, the Argentina wools, both the Merino and
the cross-breds, will be more seriously considered for our manufac-
tures than would have been the case had no exhibit of this kind been
made.

It is my purpose, however, to confine my remarks to the wool
exhibit of New South Wales, with an occasional allusion to that of
Victoria, Australia. The colony of New South Wales is the mother
colony of the Australian group. Her wool exhibit was under the
immediate charge of Alexander Bruce, chief government inspector of
stock in the colony, and for the past forty years identified with the
pastoral industry of Australia. To him is due the credit of eradicat-
ing the scab disease from among the sheep flocks of New South Wales
by strictly enforcing the law requiring thorough dipping of sheep at
shearing time in prophylactic decoctions.

The New South Wales exhibit contained representative wools from
all the sheep districts of the colony except those of Cobar, Ivanhoe,
and eleven small districts, whose flocks numbered in 1891 2,400,000
sheep. Thus less than 4 per cent of the number of sheep in the
colony were unrepresented at the Fair, and this small proportion was
confined chiefly to the uninviting region between the Lachlan and
Darling rivers. There are 63 sheep districts in New South Wales
and 20 wool districts, containing altogether, according to the 1891
stock returns, about 62,000,000 sheep. By reference to the map the
various wool districts, or 19 of them, will be seen indicated upon it.
It will be observed that the railway intersects most of them. The wool
COL EXPO— 02 95 ^ 1505,

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1506 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON li. WARDS.

districts, according to their importance in the number of sheep, are
as follows:

Bheep.

Lachlan 5,452,571

Riverina 5, 231 , 146

Upper MuiTuinbidjfee 5, 099, {\Sl

8heep.

Gwydir 2,856,598

New England 2,581,642

Bogan 1, 709, 055

Upper Darling 4,808,672 Monaro 1,439,841

Western Darling 4,745,382 ' Mudgee 1,181,644

Southern Riverina 4, 101, 115 1 Hunter River 695, 152

Caatlereagh 4, 076, 196

Liverpool Plains 4,055,365

Namoi 3,909,a30

Western Riverina 3, 267, 946

Bathurst 2,979,550

Goulbum 641,428

Lower Darling 631,176

Total 59,463,990

Over 87 per cent of this number of sheep are in the districts between
the Lachlan and Muri-ay rivers; over 24 per cent in the northern dis-
tricts, from Castlereagh River t-o the upper tributaries of the Darlinji^
River, and nearly 14 per cent in the upper and western Darling
districts.

There are about 13,200 sheep owners in New South Wales; 750 of
these own over 62 per cent of the whole number of sheep. The flocks
owned by these large proprietors range in size from 20,000 to 500,000
and 600,000 sheep. Seventy-three of these own nearly one-sixth of all
the sheep in the colony, distributed among the different wool districts as
follows: Seventeen in the Riverina and Lachlan districts, owning
2,528,704 sheep; 15 in the Upper Darling, Bogan, and Castlereagh
districts, owning 2,548,884 sheep; 19 in the Gwydir, Liveipool Plain,
and Namoi districts, owning 2,440,785 sheep; 18 in the Western and
Lower Darling districts, owning 2,420,898 sheep, and 4 in the district
about Cobar and Ivanhoe, owning 454,508 sheep. The great flocks are
west of the western Siope of the mountain range.

The various breeds? of sheep in the colony are the Merino long-
wooled sheep, as the Lincoln, Leicester, Downs, and Romney Marsh,
and the crossbreds, principally the long-wooled breeds with the Merino.
Over 97 per cent of the sheep are Merinos. Over 70 per cent of the
Merino sheep yield combing wool, the remainder yielding clothing
wool. Over 17 per cent of the combing-wool sheep produce a super-
fine gmde of wool, and about 46 per cent a medium grade. Of the
long-wooled sheep the Lincoln is in the greatest favor, though the
Leicester is in no mean repute. It is generally thought among the
flock masters of Australia that there is no room for improvement in
the quality of the Merino fleece by any further admixture of European
or American blood. Some efforts have been made in the direction of
building up the avoirdupois of the animal, but they have not proved
generally successful, as deterioration in the quality of the wool has
followed. Large carcasses for mutton, as experience has demonstrated

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<

X

I-
I>

o

8

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1507

the world over, are inconsistent with superiority in the fineness of
wool.

The geographical position of Australia is a grand one, an ideal one
for sheep husbandry, where the climate is neither too hot nor too cold,
tempered by the breezes that come over the surrounding sea, and
where- the air is clear and dry. On the east coast there is a chain of
mountains, generally known as the Great Dividing Range, extending
north and south some 1,500 miles, in many places coming within 30
miles of the ocean, and touching it at Point Danger, between Queens-
land and New South Wales. Its highest elevation is in the southern
part of New South Wales, where Mount Kosciusko rises 7,120 feet
above the sea level, and where snow may be found at all times of the
year. The colonies of New South Wales and Victoria occupy the
choicest parts of the continent, where the climate is congenial and
where the best lands are to be found for pastoral and agricultural
pursuits.

New South Wales is divided into three physical divisions, desig-
nated as the coast district, the mountain district, and the western dis-
trict. The latter two we shall have most to do with in connec'tion
with my subject. The coast district is a narrow strip of land from 30
to 150 miles wide, watered ])y a number of small streams having their
sources' in the mountains. The home of the mutton breeds of sheep
is distinctively to be found here. The mountain district embraces the
highlands and elevated plains that extend the whole length of the
colony and slope gradually toward the west. This district varies in
width from 120 to 200 miles. With the extension of the railway sys-
tem and the increase in population this district is becoming more agri-
cultural and less pastoral. The soil is rich and highly productive,
the herbage is excellent, and were it not for the higher wants of agri-
culture the land would be taken up from choice for the pasturage of
sheep instead of that farther to the west. The western district includes
all the area from the elevated plains to the Darling River and beyond.
All this region is now given over to grazing puiposes, and with a gen-
eral system of irrigation, as is now in contemplation, it will become
equal, if not superior, to the most beautiful parts of the colony for
husbandry of all kinds. As it is, sheep thrive there in a remarkable
degree, very largely on account of the dry and healthy character of
the climate. All the great rivers of the colony are found in this
district.

From Bathurst, northward to the twent^^-fif th degree of latitude, all
the western streams are tributary to the Darling River. This river is
navigable from Walgett to its junction with the Murray River, 1,758
miles, thence to the sea. At some periods of the 3'ear its waters are
very low; but four, and oftentimes twelve, months' navigation can be
depended on as far as Bourke. This allows the transportation of wool

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1508 BErOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

and other things at certain seasons. The Murray River and its tribu-
taries form the most important river system in the colony. The Mur-
ray has never been known to be dry, l)eing fed by the heavy rains and
snow on the mountains about Mount KovSciusko. This perennial flow
in such steady volume can not be said of any other stream in the colony
west of the mountains. It is navigable from Albury to the sea, 1,703
miles. The Murrumbidgee River is navigable up to Gundagai, while
the Lachlan is navigable for several hundred miles. The great trian-
gular region in the western district, lying between the Lachlan, Bogan,
and Darling Rivers, has no surface streams. It is a comparative desert,
yet some of the flocks of sheep in Australia are pastured there, about
Cobar and Ivanhoe. The wools of this section were the only ones of
New South Wales not represented in the World's Fair exhibit. The
country northwest of the Darling River, notwithstanding its undulat-
ing formation, has also no surface streams of consequence, and the
few streams there have their ]>eginning and ending in the sands, except-
ing at occasional flood times, when one or two of the principal ones
empty their waters into the Darling. Were it not for this lack of
surface water the western plains of New South Wales would be the
finest pastoral country in the world. This objection, however, bids
fair to be overcome at no very distant time by the sinking of deep
wells, by means of which the underground waters can l)e brought to
the surface in abundance. Experiments have been made in this direc-
tion sufficient to establish a reasonable amount of certainty that it is
possible to obtain an unfailing supply of water from below the surface.

The region west of the Lachlan and Bogan districts is the saltbush
country of New South Wales. It is not regarded with particular
favor for the raising of flne-wooled sheep, on account of the heat and
the vegetation peculiar to a light, sandy soil of saline characteristics.
But this region is improving, as the country east of it has improved
and is improving, for both pastoral and agricultural purposes. All
of this broad expanse of country is for the Merino, not the mutton,
sheep. While the Merino sheep will not thrive in the coast region
because of the climate being too moist, the mutton sheep will not
thrive in the interior on account of the climate being too dry. But
the nuitton breeds are not good for a new country, for reasons distinct
from climate.

The climate of Austmlia has had a peculiar influence upon the fleece
and fiber of Merino wool, improving it in most all particulars. The
wool has been made softer and more elastic. If there has been any
deterioration it is in the density of the fleece; but this has been made
good in a largo degree by increased length of staple, so that there has
been little or no loss in the weight of the fleece. It is difficult to say
in what locality climate has had the most beneficial effect upon the
fleece of the Merino. Certain it is that no place has been found

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1509

superior in this respect to the Mudgee district, where an experience
of over sixty 3^ears has shown that no better wool has been grown
than there. So far as experimental knowledge goes this district may
be considered as possessing all the essential elements for the superior
growth of Merino wool. The mean annual temperature of Mudgee is
about the same as that about Nice, in southern France. It is very
much like that of the great sheep walks of Spain. The mean maxi-
mum temperature in the hottest months is about SiV^ and the mean
minimum temperature in the coldest months is about 38^, taking the
records of 1891 as a standard.

The rainfall for that year was 84 inches, but this was 27 per cent
above the average, the mean annual rainfall being nearer 26 inches.
The mean annual rainfall in the Bathurst (24), Upper Murrumbidgee
(23), and Liverpool Plain (25) districts is al)out the same — a few inches
less. The mean annual rainfall through the Darling lliver Valley is
12 inches at Wentworth, 13 inches at Wileannia, 16 inches at Bourke,
and 19 inches at Walgett. In the Bogan district the mean annual
rainfall is 17 inches, while about Cobar and Ivanhoe it is only 12
inches, but through the Riverina district it is from 26 to 28 inches.

Ever since 1820 there has been a constant improvement in the breed-
ing and preparation of wool for the market. It was about this time
that sheep breeding was commenced in the Mudgee district. In 1860
special attention was directed toward improving the fineness of the wool,
owing to the increased demand for it at relatively high prices. This led
to the importation of French, German, and American blooded Merinos,
of the Ilambouillet, Negretti, and Vermont types, respectively. The
German and American Merinos were in special favor, chiefly for the
density of their fleece. Improvement in the length of staple soon fol
lowed, because of the increased demand for it for combing pui'poses.
A change in the style of breeding resulted in more attention being
given to purely Australian-bred sheep, which were found to possess
special qualifications for the growth of long-stapled wool, not observed
in those imported from Europe or America.

The French, German, and American bloods, however, were con-
spicuous in the specimens of New South Wales wools at the World's
Fair. The Vermont blood was found almost if not wholly pure in
some of the specimens from the Gwydir, New England, and Riverina
districts. It was prominent in crosses with Australian tjpes of wool,
known as the Wanganella, CoUaroy, and Tasmanian. The German
blood was found almost pure in specimens from the Hunter River and
Mudgee districts. The CoUaroy blood, being the name of a stud flock
at Merriwa, is derived from a Rambouillet and Saxon cross, and
appeared to be a favorite infusion in many of the specimens from the
Upper Darling, Gwydir, Namoi, and Monaro districts, and pure in
many of the specimens from the Bathurst, Bogan, Castle reagh, (jwy

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1510 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDt^.

dir. Hunter Rivor, LiveriK)ol Plain, and Mudgee districts. Some of
the Collaroy fleocos weighed 18 to 11) pounds. The CoUaroy blooded
wool IS characterized for luster, evenness, and length of staple. The
Collaroy and Brinley Park estates at Merriwa are famous for the high
character of their Merino blooded floi*ks. The Brinley Park wool was
represented by two specimens at the World's Fair. The sheep from
which this wool was taken are descendants of a few rams and ewes
imported into Australia in 1880 from Silesia. Subsequent importa-
tions were made, one being made in 1860 of several rams from the
renowned flocks of Prince Lichnowski. Great care has always been
pmcticed in culling and selecting. This blooded wool secured high
honors at the Philadelphia ExiX)sition of I87t>. The Mudgee district
type of wool is noted for the comparative density of its fleece. It
possesses certain distinctive features that give it a classification of its
own, and as such was better represented in the wool exhibits at the
World's Fair than that of any other. It appeared pure in specimens
from nearly all the districts, or crossed with the Tasmanian and other
bloods. Another well-known blood in the Mudgee district, the Havi-
lah, was represented in a single sp cimen — one bale — at the Fair, but
it failed to attract particular notice. The sheep from which the wool
was taken had been pastured on poor soil, badly infested with grass
seed. The blood, however, is in good repute in Australia for pro-
ducing wool that is lustrous and supple and suitable for worsted and
hosiery yarns. The wools of Liveipool Plains are chiefly of the Tas-
manian, Mudgee, and Collaroy types. In some of these there are
traces of Saxon and French blood that was fii*st imported in 1825
and afterwards renewed by some Negretti blooded sheep from Ger-
many. These wools in time came to be regarded as pure Australian
Merino wools, being improved from time to time by infusions of blood
from the Mudgee district, as the Collaroy, and from the famous stud
flock of the Ercildoune estate, Burrumbeet, Victoria. In regard to
the Ercildoune wool it may be well to state that the sheep can trace
a pretty direct lineage from the first great importation of Spanish
Merino sheep into Germany, in 1785, by the Elector of Saxony.

A portion of the electoral flock was afterwards purchased and taken
to Tasmania, and from the Tasmanian flock thus established a few
sheep were taken, in 1838, to start a flock upon Lake Burrumbeet,
near Ballarat, that afterwards came to be known as Ercildoune. This
latter flock has undergone much cliissing and selection, till its wool has
attained a standard of quality for fineness, elasticity, softness, and
luster that has no superior. It is highly esteemed for mixing with
silk. Some of this wool can be spun into worsted as fine as No. 140.
In order to accomplish this the wool would have to be as fine as the
finest Silesia and Saxony. This means that one pound of this yarn
will extend over 44 miles in length. Victorian wools are in more or

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WOBLD's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1511

less favor with American manufacturers. Take the wool, for instance,
grown in the neighborhood of Ballarat, as the Lismore wool, which is
prized for its light condition and strength of staple. It commands a
high price for worsted and hosiery purposes. This wool will spin
into Nos. 60 and 70. Victorian wools are characterized by their bold
and lustrous qualities, while the Riverina wools are esteemed for
their soft and silky properties, and the South Australian for their
length, strength, and metallic brightness, with a tendency toward
coarseness.

The wools in the Naomi district, New South Wales, are very much
of the Walgett type, as represented in some specimens seen at the
World's Fair. These wools are raised with special reference to the
country in which they are grown, the fleecefi being dense and the tips
inclined to f uzziness, preventing the heat and dust from penetrating
into the fleeces and thus injuring the wool. These qualities are secured
by certain crosses of Victorian, South Australian, and Riverina bloods.
An objection has been raised concerning these wools on account of
their hairy or fuzzy tips producing an excess of noils, yet they are
capable of producing good worsted yarns of Nos. 60 to 70. The wools
grown in the upper Darling district, as about Brewarrina, are similar
to those about Walgett; that is, the fleeces have more or less fuzzy
tips. Yet this style of wool is looked upon as particularly useful,
considering the circumstances under which it is grown. The heat and
dust to which the sheep are exposed have a tendency to produce open,
loose, hairy tips. Fineness of fiber is not arrived at, but a fiber of
medium qualitj^, of good length, that will spin down to about No. 60.
Bogan district wool is not unlike that of the neighboring districts,
being of medium grade, spinning into the fifties and in some instances
into the sixties. The fleeces are apt to be light on the tip, and there-
fore noil considerabl3\ The wools of the western Darling district
show more or less poverty in the better characteristics of Australian
wool. The summer heat is unpropitious for the growth of heavy
fleeces. Every effort is being made to improve the wool by the intro-
duction of blood from the best stud flocks of Victoria and South Aus-
tralia, particularly the latter. It is doubtful if wools of the first
quality are ever raised in this section. A fuzzy tip characterizes the
fleece. The Riverina districts produce a variety of grades of wool.
Some of the best grown in Australia are produced there. Take, for
instance, some of the wool exhibited at the Fair from Wagga Wagga,
in which Vermont and Mudgee bloods were prominent. The speci-
mens represented a superior type of combing wool. Some of the most
perfect wools in the world are produced in this district, being bright,
silky, fine, and lustrous. The wools of the southern Riverina district
at the Fair were of a high character. Those from Mulwala, west of
Albury, were particularly noticeable. These came from a flock of

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1512 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

sheep descended from Mudgee, Ercildoune, and Tasmanian blooded
stock. Trade objections have been made to some of the wools from
this section because of a wasty top, causing a large percentage of noil:?.
Seasons, however, have much to do with these defects.

The heaviest fleeces of Australia come generally from Victoria.
They become lighter as one goes toward Queensland. The fleecer are
more open and freer from yolk. This applies more particularly to the
wool grown in the western districts of New South Wales. The aver-
age weight of Australian fleeces from stock sheep may be put at 6 to
7 pounds. A plain, not wrinkled sheep is prefeiTed. The advantage
of the infusion of American or Vermont blood is that it imparts a
density to the fleece which it is diflicult to get from the Tasmanian or
Mudgee blood. The objection to it is that it gives to the wool a
harsher feeling, and the staple is shorter than that obtained from the
stud flocks of purely Australian blood.

The great superiority of Australian wool is supposed to l>e due
mainly to climatic conditions, but no little credit is also due to the
grasses and herbage upon which the sheep feed. The native grasses
of Australia are looked upon as superior for pasture to exotic grasses-
Experience has inclined opinion that way. They possess greater
reproductive powers, and there is very little necessity for reseeding.
The most abundant variety of grass is that known as the Kangaroo,
which not only supplies the sheep with nutritious food, but is capable
of resisting heat. It is found over all portions of New South Wales
and Victoria, and is perennial. It is pronounced by all as being one
of the finest and most useful of grasses for pasturage. It sometimes
attains the height of 3 feet when on rich soil. In the autumn, when
its foliage turns brown, its nutritive qualities are said to be at the
highest, and when cut as the flower stems appear it makes excellent
hay. There are other native grasses of great value, among them the
millet, which is found throughout New South Wales and is much liked
b\' all stock, and the small burr grass and the variety known as the
Wallaby, both of which are favorites with sheep. There are some
troublesome weeds in Australia, as the Bathurst burr — known in the
United States as the cockle burr — the trefoil burr, and certain thistles.
These are exotic, having been introduced from abroad. In the western
parts of New South Wales there are indigenous grasses that are per-
ennial, and possess fattening qualities even when dried up. The several
varieties of the salt bush, a forage plant, grow there, thriving on the
arid plains in most adverse seasons of heat and drought.

It is not to be presumed that the arid regions of Australia will always
remain as they are now, of little value even for ordinary pastoml pur-
suits. The soil is undoubtedly naturally rich, requiring only a proj^er
amount of moisture, properly distributed throughout the season, to
become highly productive. To accomplish this most desired end a

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1513

genei'al system of irrigation is contemplated, especially in New South
Wales, involving the sinking of artesian wells and the diversion of
water courses. In Victoria no efforts of any moment have been made
to obtain water by means of artesian wells, but ditching has been
resoiled to, and immense tanks constructed for the conservation of
rainfall against times of drought. To allow any material increase in
the number of sheep in the interior regions it will become necessar}"
to resort to some expedient of this kind to supply surface water for
the vegetation. The sinking of artesian wells in New South Wales
first received government attention in 1879, and the first practical
effort made in this direction was in 1884, near Bourke, where a flow
was obtained of 24,000 gallons a day from a depth of 89 feet. Other
wells have since been sunk in different localities, in most cases with
satisfactory results, in one instance obtaining a flow of 2,000,000 gallons
a day. The government is working upon a system of boring series
of artesian wells in two lines, one extending from the mountain range
to the western boundary and the other from the Murray River to
Queensland. The great river systems of the colony can, and unques-
tionably will, be utilized for irrigation puiposes before many years
pass b3\ It has been carefully estimated that the underground supply
of water is all sufficient and obtainable by means of sunken wells to
convert the arid regions into highly productive ones. Take, for
example, the 200,000 square miles area drained by the Darling River.
The average minfall over this is 20 inches per annum, and even assum-
ing that one-tenth of this finds its way into the Darling and its tribu-
taries, in order to carry off the water the river would have to be 200
feet wide and 100 feet deep all the year round, which was never
known to be the case even in flood times. The water, therefore, must
sink into the ground and flow at a lower level. If this lower level can
be reached and the water brought to the surface and distributed by
economical means, the whole aspect of the interior districts of the
colony will be changed and verdure prevail where aridity now exists.
Fe\y sheep are now shepherded in Australia. The paddocking sj^s-
tem is almost invariably in vogue. By this system the country is
capable of carrying one-third more sheep, the fleeces are better in con-
dition and in all other respects, and the wool is longer and stronger.
The sheep themselves grow to larger size, live longer, and are freer
from foot rot and disease. In addition to all this the expense of
watching and caring for the sheep is less, and more time is at the
command of the owner to devote to the improvement of his flock.
In Victoria all the sheep stations are now inclosed by fences, and
most of them are divided into paddocks. It has been found that more
sheep can be kept and made to thrive on land under fence than when
left open for general pasturage. Fencing has become a matter of
preference as well as one of necessity. The question of cost is of

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1514 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

secondary importance; in fact, it is fully offset by the improvement
in the health and condition of the sheep and in the less expense and
trouble attending their care. The cost of establishing a fenced run or
paddock is covered in five years by the saving in the cost of labor
alone. At first fences were made of logs and brush, where these were
obtaina})le, but now nothing but wire is employed in their construc-
tion, at a cost of from ^125 to $150 per mile. The usual height of a
fence is 8 feet, with the wire strung at intervals of al>out 6 inches, on
stout posts set about 120 feet apart. Between these latter are placed
smaller posts or stakes at distances sufficient to keep the wires in place.
Some runs have several hundred miles of fences. These large runs
are divided into many paddocks or inclosures. An average paddock
is of about 800 acres in size. In New South Wales there are about
42,000 runs, of which over four-fifths are inclosed, and seven-tenths
of these are subdivided into paddocks. The area comprised in these
holdings is not far from 11)0,000,000 acres. This would make the
average run of about 4,500 acres. Over 80 per cent of these holdings
are leased from the colonial government. All, or nearly all, of the
best sheep country in the Australian colonies is now occupied, and any
additional increase in the number of sheep which the country can be
made to carry nmst })e eftected })y improvements in the way of irriga-
tion and the diameter of the herbage. The management of a station
consists usually of a manager, an ov^erseer, a tookkeeper, and a cer-
tain number of boundary riders and common laborers, according to
circumstances. The fencing in of sheep runs and their division into
paddocks has had much to do toward the extermination of the scab
disease among sheep. The last license for scabby sheep in Victoria
was issued in October, 1874, and on June 6, 1876, the governor pro-
claimed the colony clean of the disease.

The extermination was accomplished through the rigid enforcement
of the scab act of 1870, still in force, which requires certain medica-
ments to be used in the dipping of sheep, consisting of a mixture of
tobacco and sulphur in water or of a mixture of lime and sulphur in
water, the mixture in either case to be at a temperature of not less
than 100-' F. at the time of dipping. Two immersions are required at
an interval of not less than seven nor more than fourteen days. The
lime and sulphur dip is acknowledged to be effective, but it is regarded
by sheep men as too severe, making the skin dry and the wool harsh.
A preferable receipt, because of its milder action upon the skin and
wool, yet equally efficacious for the emdication of the scab, is the
tobacco and sulphur one at a temperature of about 104^ F.

The loss of sheep on account of disease due to natural causes is
almost as nothing compared with that caused by the multitude of mb-
bits that infest the land by eating up everything that is green and
leaving nothing upon which the sheep can feed. With- the exception

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world's colttmbian kxposition, :893. 1515

of drought, there is no impediment to profitable sheep husbandry so
damaging as the rabbit pest. Colonial laws have been directed toward
its complete elimination, at a great cost to those engaged in pastoral
pursuits, with the great object of extermination still unaccomplished.
The colony of New South Wales alone expended during the eight
years ending with 1890 nearly $4,300,000 on account of rabbit destruc-
tion, and over 40 per cent of this was derived from assessments, the
balance coming from the general revenue. There are various means
resorted to for ridding the country of rabbits, such as tmpping, poi-
soning the food and water, shooting, and hunting with packs of dogs.
Some idea may be had of the destruction that has been going on among
rabbits by the exports statistics of rabbit skins from Victoria. For
the ten years ending with 1886 there were exported from that colony
nearly 29,000,000 rabbit skins.

The shearing season in Australia depends on the location, beginning
about the 1st of July in Queensland, and ending about the 1st of
March in Victoria. Thus there is given fully eight months for shearers
to ply their vocation, commencing in the northern parts and complet-
ing their season's labor in the southern parts. Four months are
allowed for rest and return to the north. Much skill is required in
the shearing and handling of sheep, and the compensation is i-ated
accordingly. There is a large class of men who do nothing else but
follow this employment, which is now subject to rigid regulations in
conformity with an agreement reached in 1891 between representa-
tives of the Pastoralists' Federal Council of Australia and representa-
tives of the Amalgamated Shearers' Union of Australia. Both of
these associations are strong in number and in their organization, and
the 1891 agreement was the result of a number of seasons' dissen-
sions, but more ptirtieularly the result of a general strike on the part
of the shearers the year before, when in many instances sheep
remained unshorn till long after the usual time. The main cause of
the strike was the employment of ''nonunion" shearers; but under
the agreement employers are free to employ, and shearers are free to
accept employment, whether ])elonging to shearers' or other unions
or not, without favor, molestation, or intimidation on either side.
The meaning of all this is "freedom of contract." In New South
Wales the agreement establishes the price of shearing at 20 shillings
for every 100 sheep shorn, except rams, for which 40 shillings are paid
for every 100 shorn. The employer is bound to keep the shearer fully
supplied with sheep unless prevented by weather or by some unforeseen
cause, and also to provide him with hut accommodations, cooking and
table utensils, wood and water, free of charge. Certain requirements are
made in shearing. First, the sheep must be carefully taken from the
pen to the shearing l)oard and the belly wool removed first, where
practicable, and laid aside. In opening the fleece at the neck and belly

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1516 REPORT OF COMffiTTEE ON AWARDS.

Ijoth blades of the shears of the machine must be kept under the wool
and close to the skin, so as to avoid twice cutting, and the shearer is
not allowed to run the shears through the fleece so as to break it down
the center or the back, or to stand on the fleece. The shearer is pro-
hibited from kicking or ill using any sheep. He is forbidden bringing
intoxicating liquor into the station or using profane or oKsc^ne lan-
guage in the shed. Shearers are obliged to provide their own cook,
except where cooks work conjointly for shearers and employer, in
which case the cook is engaged mutually by the employer and shearers.
No shearer can be compelled to work more than forty-eight hours a
week.

Shearing by machinery is something of very recent date, long
desired by the wool growers of the colonies. Of the 69 applications
for patents on sheep-shearing machines only 3 or 4 have been
received with favor, and at the Royal Agricultural Show held at
Melbourne in 1891 only 3 competed for the prize offered — the WoLse-
ley, Burgon, and 1 other. The special merits of the liurgon machine
are represented to be overhead safety driving motion, which is self-
adjusting in its action, and can be operated separately from others on
the same line of shafting, and a flexible steel driving shaft made of
hardened steel with universal joints. It requires an engine of tl-horse-
power to drive 10 to 15 of these machines. The best-know n machine in
the colonics is the Wolseley, not dissimilar in essential principles to the
one just described, and first brought to public notice in 1887. Since
then it is calculated that at least 60,000,000 sheep have been shorn by
it. There is a variance in the opinion of sheep men as to the economy
and general advantage of machine over hand shearing, though the
testimony seems to be generally in favor of the machine. The chief
complaint against it is its vibration and the extra strength requii-ed in
holding the sheep to the shears. For a flock of 30,000 to 40,000 sheep
there are required 14 shearers, 2 packers, 4 sorters, 1 classer, 2 pickers-
up, 1 sweeper, 3 or 4 general-utility men, 2 cooks, besides an engine
driver, water hauler, and cutter grinder, in case the labor is done by
machinery.

As required by the rules of shearing already referred to, the
shearer is required to remove the belly wool first, if practicable. This
wool is carried by the pickers-up to the bins provided for such w^ool
by the side of those for pieces, broken fleeces, etc. The fleeces go to
the sorters, who place them upon tables with wire-netting tops, the
meshes of which are about li inches in size. The sorter is an impor-
tant person, oftentimes one who has had experience in the sorting room
of an English factory, and therefore skilled in the art of quickly
judging the different qualities of which the fleece is composed.

The fleece is sorted with the cut side down, the loose locks falling
through the meshes of the netting onto the floor. The sorter is under

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1517

the direction of the classer, who is the one chiefly responsible for the
proper separation of the fleece into its several parts, an operation
known among wool men as ''skirting." After the skirting is all done
the body of the fleece alone is left, and this is the only kind of wool
that is sent to the Anierican market. Technically, this is called the
fleece, the rest being termed the first pieces, which are taken from the
neck and from a portion of the skirts; the second pieces, taken from
the upper part of the legs; the third pieces, taken from the cheeks,
topknot, and lower part of the legs; the stained pieces, taken from
the breach; the bellies, taken from the underparts, and the broken
pieces, or trimmings, not included in the foregoing. After all these
pieces, etc., are removed from the body of the fleece, the latter is folded
lengthwise, rolled, and either tied with cotton twine or secured by
twisting in an end of the fleece. The classer receives the wool in this
condition and throws it into its proper bin, from which it is taken and
pressed into bales of about 400 pounds in weight. Fleeces, whether
Merino or crossbred, are classed as first, second, and third combing,
or Its first, second, and third clothing, as the case may be. Parts of
fleeces have various designations, aside from first, second, third pieces,
etc., as "'• dingy fleeces," '' ram's fleeces," "tender fleeces, etc." This
matter of sorting and classing wool is carried to an extreme, and, in
the opinion of many, to an extent that is uncalled for. The stained
bellies and locks from the fleece are generally scoured before being
put upon the market. Ac(»ording to the record of one flock of sheep
in the Riverina territory, the following proportion of classes and sorts
was made: -^7 per cent first combing, 4: percent second combing, 2 per
cent clothing, one-half per cent dingy and black, 19 per cent broken
fleece, 4 per cent first pieces, S percent bellies, 8 percent stained, and
7i per cent locks. Twentj'-four per cent neai'ly of this clip of wool
was scoured, and only 53 per cent was marketed in the form of fleeces.

The tendency is toward shearing in the grease, which is almost
exclusively due to the price obtained for washed wool not being com-
mensurate with the cost of washing. Over 96 per cent of the sheep
shorn in New South Wales in 1891 were shorn in the grease; in 1880
the proiwrtion did not exceed 70 per cent, 17 per cent being creek
washed. The average weight of fleeces shorn in the grease in 1891
was 5 pounds 9 ounces, packed in bales measuring about 5 feet in
length and 2 feet 2 inches in breadth and depth, and weighing alK>ut
450 pounds. The bales are afterwards subjected to hydraulic pressure
and reduced in size al)out one-half before exportation.

Wool is transported from the stations to the nearest railway by
wagons, drawn either by hoi*ses or oxen, twenty of the latter often
being yoked to one wagon, upon which is loaded as many as 25 bales
of wool, and in exceptional cases as many as 50 bales. The cost of
cartage overland is at the rate of $1.25 for 100 pounds per 100 miles.

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1518 REPORT OK COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

Should the distance exceed 100 miles, a discount of 20 per cent from
this rate is made for the additional number of miles. The railway
freight from Hay, for instance, to Sydney, a distance of 454 miles, is
about 70 cents a hundred pounds of greasy wool; from Bourke to
Sydney, a distance of 503 miles, the freight is about 98 cents a hun-
dred pounds; and from Mudgee to Sydney, a distance of 195 miles,
the freight is about 66 cents a hundred pounds. It is a matter of
report that ^^ not so very many years have elapsed since the Queens-
land squatter, after seeing his last wagonload staited from his station
for the coast, would take a run home to England, returning to the
colony in time to meet his wool on its arrival at the port of shipment,
so long and tedious was the journey. Drays and impromptu slides
had to be made; crcek.s and rivers to be crossed; droughts killed off
the bullocks for want of feed and water; floods converted the banks
of rivoi^s, otc., into 'tented fields,' populated by drivers, whose rations
often mn low; bush fires menaced the safety of the men, cattle, and
freight, besides the occasional attacks by natives; in short, wool, while
in tmnsit from the far-back stations to the seaport, had an adventur-
ous and risky career. There have been instances of two different
years' clips being on the road at the same time."

Freight rate from Sydney to London is from about 75 cents a
hundred pounds by sailing vessel to 1^1.25 to $2 a hundred pK>unds
by steamer.

Nearly all the wool sold in Austmlia is disposed of by auction to
the highest bidder at the principal colonial markets. These sales have
grown in popular favor and importance, having amounted to 697,705
bales for the season of 1891-92 for all the colonies. For that season
42 per cent of all the sales were effected at MeU)ourne and Geelong,
and 40 per cent at Sydney.

The chief and almost only increase in the world's production of wool
is in Australia. For the ten years ending with 1892 the wool produc-
tion of Cape of Good Hope increased about 36,000.000 pounds, that of
the Argentine Republic al)out 66,000,000 pounds, and that of North
America about 18,000,000 pounds — in all about 115,000,000 pounds-
while that of Australia increased about 278,000,000 pounds, or over
70 per cent of the total increase. These figures are based on the
imports of wool into Europe and North America, where they are alone
manufactured and where they are wholly shipped. Pi-actically the
wool production of the world seems to })e stationar}^ or on the decline
in all wool-producing countries except Australia. Nearly 30 per cent
of all the wool consumed is from the flocks of Australia, and this pro-
portion is increasing every year.

I had been in hopes of presenting in this paper some of the results
of the scientific experiments that have been conducted under the super-
vision of Dr. William McMurtrie, affecting the wools at the World's
Fair, but they are not yet ready for publication.

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WOOLS AND OTHER ANIMAL FIBERS.

By William McMurtrie, E. M., Ph. D.

PREFACE.

It is of course natural that differences more or less extended should
prevail between the products of countries so widely separated and so
different in their physical as well as their social and economic features
as those represented in a world's exposition, but a careful study of the
relations of these differences must develop laws of value to all con-
cerned in the great industry of wool production and so add to the sura
of knowledge and stimulate immediately the progress of the future.
The influences of climate, soil, food, care, and general treatment have
each of them a marked influence upon the character of the product,
and while these are neccvssarily interdependent, and while all the con-
ditions may not prevail or be maintained with equal intensity every-
where, it is evident that modifications of one or the other should be
determined from careful study of the facts to the end of bringing
about not only an improvement in the quality of the product, but in
its quantity as well.

Demand undoubtedly influences largely the character of the prod-
uct of any country. In those countries in which flesh production
predominates and wool production is secondary the quality of the
staple must of necessity, and particularly as regards its fineness, deteri-
orate. This condition is growing both in this country and elsewhere.
For our own country it is manifest in the exhibits offered in this
Exposition, and States which have been justly celebrated for the pro-
duction of fine wools have sent exhibits consisting in great part of
wools from those breeds producing large carcasses and coarse staple.
It is also apparent that the breeders who are devoting themselves to
the fine-wooled breeds are giving greater attention to the development
of large, strong, sturdv frames and acceptable pelts rather than to the
production of animals yielding excessivel}' fine fiber. These animals
are more useful for transmitting good constitution, larger frame, and
ph^'sical vigor to the finer wooled and generally less hard}^ strains.
Yet while this is in a great measure true, examples are by no means
wanting in this country in which both these conditions are found in
the same individual, and we have reason to believe that what has here-

1619
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1520 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

iofore been cH)n8iderO:d practically unattainable will be realized, and
that a large body and very heavy fleece may be combined with extreme
fineness of the wool. And possibly, too, a large carcass of good
mutton may be found in an animal producing an abundance of fine
wool. Almost the finest wool from the United States was produced
upon a Merino sheep weighing 300 pounds.

But if the fine-wooled !n*eeds are giving way in this country to the
larger and coarser wooled nmtton breeds, we are not alone in this par-
ticular. The frozen-meat shipping industry is growing with startling
rapidity in the Argentine Republic and Uruguay and in the English
colonies of Australia, and it is fair to say that the day is not far dis-
timt when most extensive changes in the character of the flocks w^ill
be realized in these countries which have thus far been the strongholds
of tine-wool production and have been considered the principal sources
of the supplies of this important commodity. We see, therefore, that
there are conditions other than tiscal which are likely in the near
future to have an important influence upon the profit in breeding and
management of fine-wooled sheep in this country, and our sheep
growers will do well to ttike them into account.

It can not fail to be a matter of regret that the exhibits from our
country in the group and class in which we are interested is so limited.
It is a lamentable fact that serious general apathy with regard to the
exhibition of a large and representative collection of the fine wools of
the United States should have prevailed among the breeders of fine-
wooled sheep and the producers of fine wools. Under the circum-
stances it seems almost remarkable that even so large an exhibit as
was presented should have been made. Instead of the matter being
taken up ])y the associations of breeders and of woolgrowers early in the
years preceding the Exposition, and of preparing collections of good,
clean, strong wool, such as would easil}" be obtainable in such a way,
it was not an uncommon complaint among the commissioners from
different States that in order that the w^ool-producing industry might
be represented at all it was necessary to go into the open markets and
purchase fleeces of whatever might be available, but a short time pre-
vious to the opening of the Exposition, so making it impossible to
secure what was finest and best. That most excellent work is being
done is manifest in the quantity and high quality of the fine wool
finding its way into the market, and it is particularly unfortunate, in
view of the provision that w^as made for the extended study of the
physical properties of the staple, that such a condition of affairs
should have prevailed. The industry of wool production is so impor-
tant, and the repu tuition for high quality of the staple from many sec-
tions of this country is so high, that under all the circumstances it
amounts to a serious misfortune.

And it is also to be regretted that many foreign countries in which

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WOBLD's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1521

woolgrowing has reached a high state of dev^elopment and the prod-
uct obtained is of such excellent quality failed to add to the collections
in this line. This is particularly true of Germany, which has developed
the Saxon and the Negretti races of Merino and whose naturalists have
made such classical researches into the structure and physical proper-
ties of the staple; and of France, whose national stud has maintained
the purity of the Merino race and developed it into the world-renowned
Kambouillet strain. It is further a matter of regret that the exhibits
of Spain, the original home of the Merino, should be confined to the
product of a single grower, and that the same should be true of Russia,
from which in the earlier exhibitions such splendid exhibits of fine
wools have been sent. But the colonies of Great Britain, and the
Republics of the South, so largely devoted to animal production, with
their accustomed enterprise, furnished excellent examples of their
work, and showed clearly what intelligence and energy may accomplish
in the production of good stock.

It has been our endeavor in this work to make as full and complete
measurement of all the physical properties of all the fleeces exhibited
as the limited time available for it would allow. The quantity of
material furnished by the exhibition was sufficient for the work of a
year at least, and some means should be provided whereby someone
interested and capable could take it up and work out all the relations
of practic^al value to either the breeders or the manufacturers. It is
our hope, however, that the results here presented may be carefully
studied by both these classes so vitally interested in the staple, and
that each one may be able to determine for himself facts of value in
his own work, and of interest for communication to others for mutual
benefit and profit.

It is also to be hoped that in future exhi}>itions the plan here followed
may not only be carried out, but that it may be extended. Such an
examination begun in the early months of a summer's exposition, with
ample preliminary preparation, could very well be carried to such a
satisfactory conclusion that the results thereof could be made the basis
of the s^'stem of awards. It would eliminate the empirical methods
necessarily inherent in the ordinary methods common to all examina-
tions for awards, and would make absolute comparisons between
exhibits thoroughlv possible. This is illustrated in the work of the
judges of group A, class 60, of the Columbian Exposition. No com-
mittee of judges of awards could be more thorough or more conscien-
tious in their examinations than were those appointed to it; yet com-
parisons of the results we have to present with the awards of the
judges will show that, in spite of the care and judgment that may be
exercised, the many and varied conditions that prevail may so inter-
fere with reaching accurate conclusions by such empirical methods
tihat wide diflferences must of necessity prevail between them and the
COL EXPO-02 96 ^^^^^^^^^ ^^ Google

1522 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

results arrived at by mechanical moans and with inHtrumcnts; yet it
is interesting to note that in this case, while differences do prevail, the
work of the judges has been most skillful, and that for the greater part
the estimates arrived at are justified by the results obtained with the
instruments. Combination of the two methods would provide almost
perfect means for award work, and furnish a S3'stem practically free
from the perplexities of those usually adopted when carried out by
conscientious men. It must, therefore, be apparent that, in spite of
the difficulties that were met and perhaps not too thoroughly over-
come, the executive committee on awards, through its chairman, acted
wisely in undertaking to establish this combined system in the great
Exposition just closed. The experience of this Exposition in this par-
ticular can not fail to \ye of value for the future, and the results
secured, even if confined to this extent of value alone, would be suf-
ficient reward for the efforts that have been expended to make it suc-
cessful now.

Seveml suggestions resulting from the experience gained by the
judges in their work in this class have become more or less prominent.
It is admitted that it is diificult to secure thorough cooperation of
producers in preparing a comprehensive exhibit of the products in a
given class, but it must be admitted that such cooperation is greatly
to be desired.

First, it is important that early in the preparation for such an Expo-
sition as that just ended, a most thorough and extensive classification
of the material likely to be entered should be made. Such classifica-
tion should be made not by one versed simply in the matter of museum
arrangement, but by one skilled in the handling of the materials them-
selves, and having full knowledge of the different qualities which these
materials present. In such an Exposition products are offered and must
be judged from two widely varying standpoints — that of the producer
and that of the consumer. And these two standpoints involve two s^^s-
tems of classification, one systematic and scientific, covering all the con-
ditions of production and the results thereof; the other commercial,
covering the uses to which the product is to be put. And the exhibits
should be separately judged from these standpoints, each exhibit in its
preestablished class. It must be evident, therefore, that for the pur-
poses of systematic study and for the work of the judges of award,
if such thorough and extended examination and comparison is to be
undertaken as it was attempted to carry out on this occasion, such
classification as is here suggested, arranged and established by special
experts in each class, and worked out in the fullest detail, should be
published and presented to intending exhibitors, to the end that they
might intelligently prepare and arrange their exhibits and be fully
instructed with regard to the conditions of comparison and competi-
tion they will be compelled to meet.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1523

Next it is important that the exhibits in each class should consist of
more than one example of its kind. For instance, suppose an exhibit
of pure-bred Merino fleeces; from the breeder's standpoint it would be
manifesth' unfair to compare a ram's fleece from an animal 5 years
old with a ewe's fleece 2 years old. Nor should it be considered suflS-
cient that a producer should have an}' class of his wool represented by
a single fleece. In many cases only a single fleece of value is available,
the remainder of the product being of low grade. The exhibit would
not, therefore, be representative. It would bo better to require that
each class should be represented in each exhibit by at least five fleeces;
for instance, five rams' fleeces from animals 2 years old. This plan
would serve a double puipose of insuring representative exhibits, and
if such systematic examination of the exhibits jis we have carried out
on this occasion is to be applied there may be sufficient results to enable
the examiner to secure reliable general averages of the results for each
class. The increase in the knowledge of the ultimate quality and value
of the staple to be obtained in this way would be almost inestimable.

Furthermore, in fixing the standard of each exhibit the yield of clean
wool should play an important part. In the preparation of wools for
exhibition the endeavor to secure large volume as well as large weight
leads to practices not always creditable to the exhibitor. Regulations
should be provided in the systems of classification and examination as
to insure the thorough abolition of such practices. To the producer,
other things being equal, quantity becomes the important considera-
tion, and if the comparisons in this particular are to be referred to a
perfectly cleansed product no opportunity for unfavorable comment or
criticism can arise.

In addition to all this it should be required that in all cases the
fullest information concerning the history of the material exhibited
should be furnished with it. The value of an exposition of the products
of the world consists not only in the opportunities for personal exami-
nation and inspection of the products themselves but also in the subse-
quent study of all the relations tending to the development of the
standards exhibited in the products themselves. It is only by such
means that mutual benefits may be attained and the work elevated
above the plane of an ephemeral show.

COLLECTION OF THE MATERIAL.

Upon organization of the committee of judges of awards for
wools it was determined that the examination to be made with
regard to the results of breeding and the commercial qualities of the
staple should be made in accordance with a scale of points agreed upon
after most careful deliberation, and that in carrying out this plan each
fleece exhibited should be opened up and each part thereof carefully
studied. This scale of points was as follows; Density, 16 points; even-
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1524 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

ncss and fullness of covering, 20 points; brightness, softness, and
yolk, 14 points; wave, freedom from kemp, and fineness, 16 points;
strength and elasticity, l-i points; evenness of quality of wool all over,
20 points. Total, 100 poinb^. It was determined further that a record
should be made of the breed of sheep represented, the sex, age, and
weight of the animal, the age of the fleece and its weight, and the
length of the staple.

To carry out this plan of examination each fleece was taken from its
place and spread upon a table b}' experienced wool handlers specially
employed for the purpose, and the various points of excellence deter-
mined so far as this was possible by handling, and the application of
the ordinary mercantile tests. This examination was carried on very
much after the method followed by coumiercial sorters, and the esti-
mates of value were made only after the most careful consideration.
When the examination was completed, and before the fleece was again
rolled up to be returned to its place, a portion covering an area of pos-
sibly 3 by 8 inches, and making a good handful, was taken out for the
purpose of the minute examination of the physical properties. In
order that this examination should be as nearly as possible represent-
ative of the fleece, it was taken from that part of the fleece lying just
back of the shoulder and oflf the back. This part was selected because
in the former examinations of wools it had been found that although
the length of the staple found here is not as good as that from the
shoulder, and often not as good as that from the hip, it is not as poor
as that from some other parts of the fleece, and that it is fairly repre-
sentative of the average for the entire fleece. And since it was tiiken
from as nearly as possible the same position in each fleece the results
of the examination must be faii'ly comparable.

As soon as the sample was taken it was inclosed in a box of manila
cardboard about five inches square and one inch thick. It was sug-
gested that because of the possibility of the absorption of grease of the
wool by the paper of the box it would be better to inclose the samples
in tin, so that in case it should be considered desirable to determine the
quantity of grease contained in the sample and so the possible loss of
the fleece in scouring no loss by absoi*ption would have occuiTcd. But
since such determination would be of little practical value because in
this particular the sample taken could not represent a fair average of
the fleece the use of tin became really unnecessar}^ although in this
instance a number of tin boxes were really used. Experience, how-
ever, showed that the paper of the boxes absorbed almost no grease,
or at leiust so little that if detennination of the grease had seemed desir-
able vitiation of the result from this cause would not have occurred.

The paper boxes arc more desirable on many accounts. They are
less heavy. The}^ are sufficiently strong. Notes may be inscribed upon
them and they may easily be packed for shipment or storage. Fui-

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1525

thermore, they may be most convenient for classification and preserva-
tion of the samples during the examination in such a way that anj'- sam- .
pie needed may be readily found.

When each sample was taken and was put into its box there was
inclosed at the same time with it a label bearing all the information
which accompanied it and had been required by the Exposition author-
ities and the data recorded bj^ the judges. As a measure of precaution,
which afterwards proved most useful, this information was likewise
copied upon the outside of the box. This duplication of information
is most impoitant, especially when a large number of samples is to be
taken and so much depends upon the extent and character of the
information furnished with the fleeces in the subsequent examination.
In this pjxposition the information thus furnished, with a few impor-
tant exceptions, was generally most complete and satisfactory and very
faithfully given. We have endeavored to enter in our tables of results
all the facts concerning the fleeces thus secured, and they will be found
exceedingly useful in connection with the studv of the relations that
may be worked out.

The samples so taken and inclosed were packed in cases and shipped
to the Pratt Institute in Brooklyn, N. Y., where through the gener-
osity of the Messrs. Pratt ample provision for the prosecution of the
examination was made. It was at first intended that only a limited
number of samples should be taken, say 100 or 200 in all, considered
suflScient to represent the qualities of wools in the exhibits from the
different countries and sections, but the extent and variety of the
exhibits and the difficulty of rapidly making the proper selection of
samples during the examination of the fleeces for the purposes of the
awards made such a plan impracticable. At least lO samples from
each grade or quality of wool, or of the wools of each countrv, would
be necessary to establish averages of any value, thus bringing the
number of samples necessary to be taken largely in excess of the
bounds mentioned. Altogether it was deemed better, therefore, to
take as far as possible a sample from every fleece examined b}^ the
judges, and even of many not entered for competition, so that after
the examination had been begun and was fairly under way such selec-
tions could be made as the requirements demanded and the time avail-
able allowed, and if possible all might be examined, making a record
never before attained in any exhibition, and a series of results which
could not fail to be of the highest value if properly studied, either from
a commercial standpoint or in the interests of the breeders. In all
something over two thousand samples were collected, and it is a source
of satisfaction that in spite of the brief time available and the difficul-
ties experienced in getting together the apparatus for the work, nearly
all of these have been measured and tested, with the results exhibited
in the tables presented farther on.

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1526 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

In the study of our tables of results it will be manifest, however,
that not every Heece in the exhibits is represented anion^r the samples
we were able to collect. But it will doubtless be admitted that a fairly
representative collection was taken. The difficulties surrounding the
gathering of such collections in the usually crowded condition of an
exposition, and even the training of persons for the work with the
short notice for it that was given were too great to make perfection
in this particular possible. In such case most careful preliminary
preparation is necessary and perfect provision for all contingencies
should be made long in advance.

While some exhibitoi*s ma\' consider omission of samples from their
fleeces a matter of neglect, they should bear in mind the conditions
prevailing at the time at which the samples were taken, and believe
that an earnest endeavor was made to gather everything that was avail-
able. Furthermore, it nmst not be forgotten that in very many cases
fleeces were not opened by the judges, because the information called
for by the regulations was not furnished with them, and they were not
therefore admitted to competition for award. In such cases naturally
the wool handlers who took the samples would have no opportunity to
secure representatives of the fleeces.

The samples prepared and delivered at the Pratt Institute in the con-
dition described were first carefully catalogued and the label records
compared with the official records in order that the samples themselves
might be readily identified. This done the samples were divided and
a portion of each inclosed in a small box of manila cardboard, 3 by 4
inches by about | inch thick. Upon the side of this box was inscribed
all the information concerning the sample found upon the label inclosed
within the larger box. The numl)er of the sample and the origin of
the fleece it re[)resented was then inscribed upon the end of the box.
When all the samples were thus divided and transferred, the small
boxes with the samples were stored in drawers with the end bearing
the numbers upward, samples from each country or State being grouped
together and arranged in series in the order of their numbering. In
this wa}' the samples were easily found when needed for examination
or for reference.

EXAMINATION OF THE MATERIAL.

Certainly with such a collection of material from such widely sepa-
rate sources and of so man}" different qualities, a careful study of the
minute structure, external and internal, and the general moiphology
of the several varieties of fiber would be of the greatest interest, but in
view of the limited time and facilities available this was out of the
(juestion. The examination was therefore confined practically to those
general qualities which principally influence the commercial value
of the product, and included measurement of the length of the staple

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WORJiD's COLUMBIAN EXPOSiTION, 1893. 1527

in crimp, its fineness, its strength, and its elasticity, each one of these
qualities and their combination being considered requisite to the
proper estimate of ultimate value. The methods employed in each
case were as follows:

MEASUREMENT OP LENGTH.

The object of the measurement of the length of the staple to obtain
the result as we have stated was intended to determine the depth of
the fleece rather than the actual length of the individual fibers. To
take this measurement without stretching or removing the crimp, a
small lock was taken from the sample, and without stretching more
than was sufficient to make it generally straight it was laid upon a
i-ule and the length covered recorded. For wools of the same grade
the result so obtained furnished a suitable basis for comparison and
classification.

MEASUREMENT OF FINENESS.

This operation, which involves a good deal of important detail, is
carried on in the manner usual for such work, with the microscope.
In the preparation of the material for this purpose the sample under
test is taken from its case, a small tuft of the staple drawn from it,
and a portion of this separated so that between 30 and 50 fibers are
secured. This ultimate tuft is then divided throughout its length into
equal portions about half an inch long. Then one of these sections
from nearest the middle of the length of the staple is selected and
mounted in Canada balsam upon a glass slip and the others are rejected.
Mounts so prepared are made from each sample and to each slide is
attached a label bearing the number of the sample, the breed and sex
of the animal represented, and the name of the exhibitor. When thus
prepared they are arranged in series in the boxes of a Pillsbury cabi-
net for preservation and ready reference.

For measurement of the fineness the fibers of each slide was placed
upon the stage of the microscope, the fibers brought successively into
the focus of the objective, and the width of the image of each meas-
ured by means of an eyepiece micrometer. The instrument was so
arranged that when used with a one-eighth inch objective and the tube
was properly drawn, ten divisions of the eyepiece micrometer corres-
ponded exactly one-one thousandth inch, thus making record and
reduction of the measurements simple and most convenient.

It is accepted that the selection of any one portion of a tuft of the
staple taken for the fineness measurement may give a result which is
not the true avei'age of the sample. It can not be questioned that the
proper mode of procedure would be to divide such a tuft into portions
of two or three or more parts, mount each part separately, measure it,
and deduce the average for the sample tiom the results of all the

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1528 REPORT OV COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

measurements taken. But in this case such a plan would be impracti-
cable. A j^reat deal of time and patient work is required for the
mountinj^ and measuring of so many sections, and the brief period of
about two and a half months at our disposal for the examination would
not admit of it. A better plan might be to take one or more tufts
from different parts of a sample, cut them into several sections of
about half an inch in length, make thorough mixture of the sections,
and take from the mixture portions for mounting on the slide. This
however, would be surrounded with troublesome difficulties, and would
also have its sources of error, which after all might be as great as could
occur in the method we have used. Really the most satisfactory
method consists in measuring different sections of the same tuft, which
may be made up of smaller tufts taken frou} several portions of the
sample.

In this connection it is interesting to note that the sanitary history,
as it were, of the animal during the periods of growth of the fleece is
fairly well recorded in the staple. Thus, if we take a tuft of Abel's
from a sample and cut it into twelve equal sections throughout its
length, the average of the measurements for each section will fre-
quently be found widely different. If, then, these averages may l>e
compared with a carefully kept record of the physical condition of the
animal, it will be found that variations from the average, or at least a
lower average, will generally correspond with observed conditions of
indisposition. Such depression of the diameter of the fiber is particu-
larly marked as a result of fevered condition following exposure to
cold, wet weather, and with this reduction of cross section of the fiber
there is naturally reduction of the strength of the fiber in the same
part. Strong, vigorous constitution and continued good health tend
to the production of even, strong staple and a larger fiber than can be
obtained with poor constitution, poor food, or deficient care. The
fineness of the fiber in its different parts may therefore become a reg-
ister of the health of the animal, and from measurements taken in the
manner described it is f requentlj^ easity possible to compute the date
of any illness or indisposition the animal may have suffered through-
out the year. It also illustrates the importance of giving to wool-
producing flocks the best care and management and protection from
exposure that is practicable. It also shows the advantages of sections
of equable and temperate climate for the industry of wool production.

The medium in which the fiber is to be mounted for measurement
of its fineness is most important. After considerable experience in
this matter we have selected for the purpose Canada balsam, and
there arc several reasons for this. It is in most convenient condition
for it. In the liquid condition a drop of it may easily be transferred
to the slide and the small tuft of fibers laid upon it. After the thin
cover glass has been put in place over the whole and lightly pressed

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1529

down, the slide may be heated suflSciently to evaporate all or nearly
all of the solvent when, upon cooling, the balsam becomes perfectly
hard, leaving the slide in most excellent condition for preservation.
It readily dissolves the grease of the staple, so that this grease may
not impair the condition of the mount or interfere with the perfect
outline of the image in the microscope. It apparently penetrates the
fiber, and, having nearly the same index of refraction, it renders the
fiber very transparent, so that it is possible to bring into focus of
the microscope without difficulty the longest diameter of the fiber.
And above all, notwithstanding the fact that it apparently penetrates
the material of the fiber, it produces no enlargement or swelling thereof,
nor does it in any degree cause contraction. The fibers may easily be
brought into focus, therefore, and accurate measurements easily taken
when this medium is used for mounting.

But for purposes other than the mere measurement of the fineness
of the fiber, it is by no means a desirable mounting material. It is
almost impossible, on account of the transparency it produces, to bring
out the fine differences of structure and the form and dimensions of
the scales upon the surface of the fiber which seem so prominent when
other mounting media are employed. For these latter purposes we
have found glycerin jelly to be greatly preferable and to meet almost
every demand. Yet this has a tendency to swell the fibers, and fine-
ness measurements made upon slides prepared with it are surely unre-
liable. Slides prepared with balsani may be preserved almost indefi-
nitely, and are always ready for reference or remeasurement.

When the slide has been prepared as described for each sample and
properly labeled, it is placed upon the stage of the microvscope, brought
into the focus of a one-eighth-inch objective, the width of the image
measured by means of the eyepiece micrometer, which has been stand-
ardized with a stage micrometer, and the result recorded. In this way
measures of the width of the image of 25 fibers is taken for each sam-
ple, the average of all these measurements determined and recorded.
The result is stated in thousandths of an inch, and thus, by means of
the table for the purpose given in report upon an investigation of
wool and other animal fibers, reduced to centimillimeters and the vulgar
fraction of an inch. Such reductions have seemed necessary in order
to make the result thoroughly familiar, and therefore intelligible, to
all to whom the results may come.

It is possible that for some samples a good average could be obtained
with a smaller number of measurements, but our experience has been
that in order to have fair averages for all samples, at least this number
should be taken. A little consideration will show that this work has
involved taking at least 50,000 observations with the microscope.

It is conceded that, for the purposes for which these measurements
were made, the use of the microscope after the manner we have

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1530 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

described is not the best means for the determination of the fineness
of the staple. It has been repeatedly shown and is well known that
the fiber is rarely if ever perfectly cylindrical, and that its right cross
section is frequently rather an ellipse than a circle. In the measure-
ment of the width of the image of the fiber mounted on a slide we noay
take the length of the longer diameter or the shorter accoi-ding to the
position that may have l)een taken b}- the fil)er in mounting. The
average results of the measurements would, therefore, be above or
below the truth as presentation of either of these diameters predomi-
nated. From all the experience we have had it seems that a much
better way to measure the fineness, when time and means are available,
consists in mounting a tuft of the staple in some suitable supporting-
material and making, by means of a section-cutting instrument, cross
sections of the tuft and its fibers perpendicular to their length. These
sections, freed by proi^er solvents from the supporting material,
should then be mounted in balsam or other medium on the glass slide
used for support in microscopic examination. If, now, the tube of the
instrument be turned to the horizontal position and the sections be
brought into the focus of a good objective, their images may be pro-
jected b}' means of a strong light, either from the sun or the electric
arc upon a screen, or with a suitable reflector be thrown upon a table.
Here the outlines of the image may be traced for preservation upon
paper, or it may be traced upon a sheet of tin foil laid upon the table.
If the tracing be done with a needle or other sharp instrument the foil
may be cut through and patterns of the image so cut out. Now, if the
tin foil has been rolled to perfectly uniform thickness, the requisite
number of patterns so made from diflerent sections from the same tuft
may be weighed and the weight compared with that of a quantity of
tin foil of the same thickness and of known area. By this means, from
the weight of the patterns taken the exact area of cross section of the
fibers may be measured and the correct average for the sample so
determined. It would yield a result of almost absolute accuracj' and
leave no room for question or doubt concerning it.

It is true that such a method would require greater time and labor
than that needed for measurements with the microscope in the usual
way, and that the expense otherwise attending it would be also greater,
but the greater accuracy secured would be commensurate with it all.
It is particularly important that this cross section should be determined
with accuracy in order to compare the ultimate tensile strength of the
fibers as shown by the tests with the dynamometer. Slight variations
in the fineness cause larger variations in the ultimate resistance when
computed to pounds per square inch of cross section and to the modulus
of elasticit3^ And as the economic value depends so largely upon these
standards, it is easy to see how important the careful and accurate
measurement of the fineness becomes.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITlON, 1893. 1531

On this occasion the examination of the material was almost purel}'^
emergency work. It was the very earnest desire of the authorities
that it should be completed and reported upon before the close of the
Exposition. But this, for many reasons, was a pi-actical impossibility.
Still, the urgency was such that the old methods were perforce resorted
to, and the results we have to offer were so obtained. It is to be hoped
that the study of the wools of the world may some time be so provided
for that the most improved means available may be used and results of
the highest accuracy obtained. However, the results obtained at this
time will be found of great value in the comparative study of the wools
of this Exposition, and they will be found to be sufficiently near the
truth to serve the practical purposes of the breeders or the manufac-
turers, and the methods followed are so simple that they may be used
by even the most inexperienced in microscopic work. We can not
refrain from expressing the belief that the application of this method
of studying wool by the breeders in the selection of studs would do
much to increase the value as to fineness of the wool produced-

MEASUREMENT OF STRENGTH AND ELASTICITY.

The commercial value of wool and its usefulness, both for manu-
facture and as textile material, is so closely allied with its strength
and elasticity that the consideration of these qualities becomes of the
highest importance. Except for certain limited uses, small varia-
tions of fineness are unimportant, but in all cases in which the best
and most durable fabrics are desired the qualities we have now to
consider are of the first importance, and as differences in these quali-
ties in a good product and a bad product are so comparatively wide,
they have peculiar significance in the classification of the staple for
commercial purposes. Their measurement requires no little skill and
a great deal of patience, for it involves the test of separate and indi-
vidual fibers, and in order to secure a proper average for each sample
a large number of fibers must be tested.

On this occasion there was practically no opportunity for choice of
instruments with which to make these tests. A goodl}^ number have
been devised and some of those lately developed, while more or less
complicated both in construction and operation, are nevertheless most
convenient, both because of the accuracy of the results obtained with
them and because of the provisions made for their automatic opei-a-
tion and registration. But these instruments are costly, and their
construction requires so much time that it was impracticable for us to
consider their use for the present work. Fortunately the instru-
ments used in the work which furnished the results for the Report
of an Investigation of Wool and Other Animal Fibers, published
under the direction of the United States Department of Agriculture,
were still in existence and available for the purpose, although some-

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1532 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

what out of repair. A complete description of them may be found in
the report just mentioned, but for the benefit of those to whom this
report may come and who may not be acquainted with the instrument
and may not have access to that report, a transcript of the description
therein given is offered here.

Many good authorities on strength of materials and the measure-
ment of weights and strains in general maintain that satisfactory
results can be obtained only when a beam balance is used, and it is
upon this principle that the construction of the instrument we have
employed is based. To arrive at this as nearl}^ as possible we have
made use of a pendulum attached to the shaft of a pulley free to turn.
The power producing strain upon the fiber is transmitted to the periph-
ery of the pulley and the pendulum moved from the vertical by the
turning or revolution of the pulley furnishing the resistance. The con-
struction of the instrument is indicated in the adjoining illusti*ation.
A is a standard for supporting the pulley B, to the shaft of which is
attached the pendulum arm C bearing near its lower or free extremity
the small weight or counterpoise D. At the point E in the periphery
of the pulley is attached the end of the chain F, which passes over the
periphery and in a groove provided, and at its other extremity is
attached to the frame G, in the middle of the head of which and to
the end of the chain is fixed the small clamp H. Now it is plain that
any power applied vertically downward at the clamp H must be com-
municated to the periphery of the puUy B, causing it to revolve and
so move the pendulum from the vertical position. The deviation of
the pendulum from the vertical, or the distance which its point moves
over the arc I K, will be in direct relation with the power applied. To
standardize the instrument and graduate it — for this must, of course,
be done by experiment — it is only necessary to apply successively at
the point H weights of different denominations and locate the point on
the arc at which the point of the pendulum comes to rest after the
oscillations communicated by the application of the weight, or started
by hand, cease. As might natunilly be expected, the divisions of the
arc corresponding with different weights vary with their position; that
is, they are smaller near the end I and gradually increase toward the
end K. But there is a section in the quadrant where sines and cosines
are nearly equal, and to secure as nearly as possible uniformity in the
length of the division of the scale, an endeavor was made to confine
the motion for the majority of the tests to that part of the arc. The
pendulum was therefore so countei*poised by an initial weight that
when in equilibrium it hangs at an inclination from the vertical line
passing through its center of motion.

In the instrument we have used, which for convenience was grad-
uated according to the metric system, the range given is 80 grams;
but this range is necessary only in tests of the coarser wools, though in

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1533

our later tests samples were found for which this range was too small.
The instrument with this large range is less delicate for tests of the
finer and weaker wools than one of shorter range as regards weight,
and in order to secure both conditions in the same instrument the fol-
lowing plan was adopted: The weight, or counterpoise D, was made
detachable, and when it was removed the scale upon the upper edge of
the arc was graduated in the same manner as the other. With the
counterpoise thus removed, the shorter scale may be used for testing
the finer fibers, and the aiTangement makes the same instrument
adapted to the test of fibers of widely differing strength and has
proved exceedingly convenient on several occasions. The divisions
of the are representing grams are sufficiently large for the eye to
detect and read off differences of a quarter of a gram and even less,
though the scale is not so graduated. The other essential parts of the
instrument are the following: The clamp L, entirely independent of
the frame G, attached to the Rod m^ >vhich slides vertically through the
hollow Screw 72, works through the nut friction pulley, which in turn
is in contact with the wheel or pulley Q, having the crank R for
application of motion. The guides S S insure steadiness of the parts
in operation. In practice the fibers to be tested are held between the
clamps H and L, which are opened and closed by means of the thumb-
screws shown. Originally these clamps were made of brass or com-
position metal, but long experience has shown that this metal is
wholly unsuited to it and is too soft. The wool fibers repeatedly
compressed between the clamps produce grooves in the metal, and
finally to such an extent that the clamps must be renewed. It was
our practice to dismount the clamps when this condition had been
produced and to bring the surfaces to a smooth polish by means of a
whetstone. This, however, is very tedious and troublesome. Finally,
it was concluded to go to the other extreme and have the clamps made
of the hardest steel, and this proved to be just what was needed.
Those made for our latest work served admimbly, and after 25,00()
tests have shown no sign of wear. Indeed they have been most satis-
factory, for they showed no tendency to cut the fiber as in the case of
the composition-metal clamps, but they held the fiber to be tested
most finiily and slipping, so common in the old clamps, was absolutely
avoided. We are therefore convinced that no metal will serve this
purpose so well as thoroughly hardened steel.

It is plain that if upon the application of power, which may be effected
by turning the larger friction wheel or pulley Q, if the fiber be per-
fectly rigid, the distance between the clamps H and L will always
remain the same until rupture of the fiber occurs, but in case of
stretch of the fiber previous to rupture the distance between the
clamps must be correspondingly increased and the measurement of
this increase, and consequently the elongation, or ductility, or elasticity,

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1534 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

of the fiber provided for. A scale is ruled upon the frame G, while
the indicator T passing over it indicates the amount of increase of
distance between the clamps, and consequentlj' of the stretch of the
fiber. The initial distance between the clamps being fixed, the indi-
cator is brought to zero of the scale by sliding along the rod M and
finally fastened with its thumbscrew. The sliding rod is held in posi-
tion by the thumbscrew M.

In the construction of the frame bearing the scale for measurement
it is important that the sides should be able to swing freely in the
direction of the opening of the clamps, for since the fiber can not
always })e placed in the upper clamp and directly in the central line of
motion, the frame must, upon the application of power, if all the
parts are rigid, be moved from the vertical position and there must
consequently l)e a loss of power. But if the sides are made free to
swing they readily maintain their vertical position whatever ma}" be
the ix)sition of the fiber in the clamps. The ends of the shaft of the
wheel B are pointed and rest in conical bearings, this construction
having been found to reduce friction to a minimum and make the
instrument approximate more closely to the balance with hard bear-
ings and knife-edge supix)rts. The surfaces of the friction pulleys
may be covered with rubber or other similar material to avoid noise
and jarring but this was found not to be really necessary and for our
present work was not used.

The combined instrument is mounted upon a substantial table, sup-
ported by leveling screws X and provided with the necessary spirit
level, so that when in operation the pendulum may hang and swing
in a vertical plane. The screw motion for application of power insures
perfect steadiness and freedom from jerks, so that the strain may be
incTcased slowly and with great regularity.

Originally the instruments were provided with stop arrangements
to catch the wheel and hold the parts at the points reached at the
instant of rupture. But experience showed that all such as could be
applied simply and without great expense would not operate quickh^
enough, and in the actual tests it was necessary for the operator to
watch the end of the pendulum in its motion over the scale and note
the point at which rupture occurs. Then holding the pendulum at
this point the stretch suffered by the fiber in millimetei^s read from
the scale and recorded.

In making the tests, practically the following procedure is employed:
First, the clamps are brought into position at proper distance from
each other as determined by the coincidence of the indicator T with
the zero of the scale on the frame G, the indicator having been pre-
viously properly set. The fiber to be tested is grasped by one end
and inserted between the jaws of the upper clamp H and the latter
closed by means of the small thumbscrew provided for the purpose.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1535

The remaining free end of the fiber is drawn through the lower clamp
L and fixed, the operator being careful to apply no more strain than
is just suflicient to overcome the crimp and make the fiber straight.
With the fiber thus fixed the wheel Q is slowly turned and power
applied to the fiber through the screw motion and the standard M.
Considerable practice is required to enable the operator to apply the
power with proper rapidity. If the application be made too rapidly
the result for strain is likely to be too high and that for stretch too low:
As a rule, it has been found better to move along regularly and toler-
ablj'^ rapidly until considerable elongation has been produced and then
to proceed only just fast enough to prevent the pendulum from reced-
ing on account of the stretch. The pendulum is constantly watched,
the point upon the scale it has reached at the instant of rupture
noted and finally recorded, the pendulum again raised to that point
and the stretch suffered by the fiber under the strain read from the
scale on the frame G and entered upon the record. One ami of the
frame being graduated to millimeters and the other to parts of an
inch, it is possible to state the result in either standard. In the
present work we have used the metric scale.

This method has l)een employed in the tests for this work, and it
has been found very satisfactory. The length of fiber tested has
been uniform for all varieties, and has been the same as that adopted
in our former work, which we have found no good reason to depart
from, namely, 20 millimeters. This is a convenient length for all the
wools tested, particularly for the fine wools which largely predomi-
nate among the samples collected at this time. The results secured
with this length will not vary greatl}'^ from the average for different
lengths in the same sample, being rather higher than those for greater
lengths, especially in the matter of stretch. It is interesting to note
that as the length subjected to strain increases the percentage of
stretch decreases, and this decline is common to all varieties. The
length adopted has been used for all the samples tested, and this uni-
formity makes all the results fairly comparable.

Former experience also determined that in order to secure good
averages it is necessary to tost at least 30 fibres in each sample.
Greater accuracy would doubtless be secured b}^ testing 50 fibers, and
on some accounts it would be better to do so, especially when different
samples are to be tested by different opei'ators. The matter of per-
sonal equation in operating the instrument and observing the result,
in taking the fibers to be tested, the inequalities in the individual
fibers, all these have a tendency to produce variations in the results
and to impair the accuracy of the average. But the variations occur-
ring in averages secured by several series of tests upon the same sam-
ple are so comparatively slight that for practical purposes they may
be rejected. In practice for this work, therefore, the 30 tests were

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1536 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

recorded and the averages determined from them. These being
expressed respectively in grams and millimeters are converted into
grains for sti*ain, and into percentages of length tested (20 millimeters)
for stretch. The averages are entered in the final record.

The ine(iualities in the individual fibers are frequently sources of
embarnissment in securing perfect averages for the samples. If wool
is defective it is generally so at some certain portion of its length and
not throughout. It is very sensitive in growth and suffers greatly from
any indisposition or delicate health in the animal producing it. If, for
instance, a flock of sheep is exposed to inclement or rough, cold, wet
weather, and the animals suffer in consequence, the wool produced during
the pendency of such suffering will have a smaller average cross section
and a lower strength. It so happens that in the examination of wool
by commercial nu^thods the tuft taken will show such weakness at a
given portion of the length, which portion will correspond with the
growth during a period of indisposition and the fleece will be, perhaps
justly, condemned. At the same time the remaining length of the
staple ma}" be in perfect condition and of high quality. Such conditions
are to be found in flocks bred and fed in sections of sudden changes of
climate, where food and care are variable. An improvement in the
method of testing such wools to secure a proper average might be made
by testing the same fiber in several paiis of its length, adopting the
average of all the tests that may be made as the tine average for the
sample. This, time permitting, could be managed well enough with
the longer and coarser wools, but it would not always serve or be prac-
ticable in the course of examination of the shorter merino wools. But
with these the defects spoken of w^ould doubtless oc(*ur within the limits
that would be subject to the test in the instrument and the difficulty
thus be automatically obviated. In the long wools, too, the same end
might be attained l)y taking care to test in each sample different fibers
in different parts of their length. For instance, in fibers seveml inchas
long one or several fibers should be tested nearer the butt or skin end,
others nearer the middle, and others again nearer the tip. Thus the
results of tests of thirt\^ fibers of the sample would yield a good average
for the sample. If this does not give sufficient indication of the special
weakness occurring, the difficulty may easily be met by adapting spe-
cial methods to special samples, and in the end a true estimate of the
value of a sample will be arrived at.

Another precaution to be observed is to see that fibers for the tests
are taken from every part of the sample and not from a single tuft.
It is a common temptation to the operator to take a small tuft from
which to take the individual fibers, but experience has shown that the
qualit}'^ of the wool may vary considerable from one part to another not
far removed. So, then, instead of taking a small portion of the sample
to the instrument for the test, it is nmch better to take the entire sample.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1537

and, spreading it alongside, dmw fibers from one part or another until
the proper number has been tested. The chai*acteristic-s of the fleece
will thus be better brought out and the valuation of the quality be more
satisfactory.

STATEMENT OF THE RESULTS.

As may be gathered from what has preceded, the number of actual
observations made in this work has been enormous, and the individual
results are full of interest and value for detailed study in connection
with the history of the material they represent. They are too numer-
ous, however, for this report, and we must be content with a presenta-
tion of the averages deduced from them and the data developed from
these averages by computation. What we have to present now will
serve the immediate puiposes for which this examination was designed
and provided, but the details have been preserved for future reference
and will be at the disposition of anyone desiring to devote to them the
study necessary to the development of the relations to be found in
them.

After careful consideration it has been decided that it will be better
to avoid making a separate catalogue of the samples taken, since, for
the most part, the information given with the fleeces was limited, and
what is offered is stated in such a way that it could be easily included
in the tabular statement of the results. We have therefore included
in our tables all the information required by the Exposition authorities
from the exhibitors and furnished by them. They include the follow-
ing: Name and address of the exhibitor; breed, sex, age, and live
weight of the animal represented; the weight of the fleece. These have
all been entered on the same line, under appropriate headings, with the
results of our own observations and the figures deduced from them.
The days of growth of the fleece was omitted, but the weight of the
fleece and the obsei-ved length of the staple in crimp were as far as
possible reduced to the equivalents of 365 days' growth. This, per-
haps, is not altogether just, for it is a fact that animals sheared twice
in a year do not yield as much wool as those sheared only once, and it
is therefore possible that the rate of growth of wool is not uniform
throughout the year. Still, some means for bringing the data offered
to a standard that would serve for comparisons were needed, and this
seemed the best that could be devised for the present.

Entering all the information available concerning a given fleece in
the same place is more convenient for study of the relations exhibited
than could be possible by having a catalogue separate from the results
of the tests and computations. It was our original plan to enter in
this table the results for each breed or grade together in groups to
further facilitate study and comparisons, but the time at disposal and
the large amount of clerical work involved rendered this impossible.
COL EXPO — 02 97 ^ T

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1538 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

It is hoped, however, that it will not seriously interfere with the
ready understanding of the tables, and that they nmy lead to the
development of facts of value to both breeders and wool producers.

The results of all observations are stated in the averages. Fineness
measurements were taken by a scale graduated in thousandths of an
inch, but our correspondence with wool growers and wool handlers in
ditferent part* of the world has shown such diversity in the standards
used that it has been considered better to express the fineness in
accordance with all the standards, and so add to the clearness and the
convenience of the ttvbles to all concerned. We therefore express it
simulttmeously in centimillimeters, thousandths of an inch, and vulgar
fractions of an inch.

The strength was observed in grams, and the stretch in millimeters
for a length of 20 millimeters tested. The avemges of the results
were entered in the table, but for the sake of further clearness the
averages were likewise expressed in grams for strength, and in per
cent of length tested for stretch previous to rupture. But to make
the results serviceable for proper comparisons, it was desirable to
reduce these results, as in previous work, to equivalent'for equal cross
sections. For such comparisons of the samplers among themselves a
uniform diameter of 4 centimillimeters was arbitrarily selected, and
for comparisons of the animal fil>ers with other materials an area of
cross section equal to 1 square inch was selected. The new strain, or
strength corresponding with 4 centimillimeters, is represented by S in
the table, and the strength or resistance corresponding with 1 inch of
cross section by R. The percentage of stretch may be represented
by P. The modulus of elasticity, or the ratio between the resistance
at rupture in pounds per squaie inch of cross section, and the per-
centage of stretch at rupture constitutes the modulus of elasticity, and

R

is represented by E^p- This latter ratio serves for comparison of

the samples with each other as regiirds the capacity of the staple to
resist wear or destruction, either in the process of manufacture or in
use as fabric. These results are arrived at in the following manner:

The "ultimate tenacity " or ''resistance'* determines the strength of the staple, and
in the results secured in each test with the dynamometer it seems to vary widely
from fiber to fil)er and from sample to sample, and comparison l)etween them l>ecomes
possible only when fil)ers compared happen t-o have the same diameter. It l)ecom«3
necessary to reduce the results of siwcific tests to figures which correspond to strains
for samples having a common diameter, and this diameter we have assumed to be
4 centimillimeters. The formula for the reduction is made as follows:

I^t 4 centimillimeter=iy, the assumed common diameter.

I^t D=the average diameter of the fil)er for the sample.

Let S=the average actual tensile strain necessary to rupture.

I^t S'=the tensile strain necessary to rupture of a similar fiber with a diameter
of 4 centimillimeters.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1539

Then, since the strains will })e to each other as the sciuares of the diameters of the
corresponding fibers, we have the proportion,

D*:(iy)»::S:S'

anai? D'i^' ^^ jy-i '

This affords a means for the direct comparison of each sample as regards the ulti-
mate resistance to rupture. It is expressed in grams for an area having a diameter
of 4 centimillimeters, but to very many it will be more readily comprehended if
expressed in corresponding pounds i)er square inch of cross section, and this value is
obtaine<l as follows:

Using the same letters for the resiiective values as above we have , -=the8ec-

4

tional area of the fiber in square centimillimeters.

Since 1 square millimeter contains 10,000 square centimillimeters, 1 gram per square
centimillimeter will \ye equivalent to 1,000 grams or 10 kilogrammes per square
millimeter.

And since 1 kilogramme per square millimeter= 1422.30786 pounds per square inch,
1 gram per square centimillimeter =14223.0786 pounds per square inch of cross section
of fiber.

The general formula for this reduction then l)ecomes ^_^-X 14222. = 18109 ^ =

R=the ultimate resistance in pounds per square inch.

The results obtained by this formula may be usefully employed in making com-
parisons of a certain class in which the elasticity of the fiber need not be taken into
account. But in a material the value of which depends so much upon thit quality
it can not be ignored. This relation is expressed in the modulus of elasticity or the
ratio between the ultimate resistance and the percentage of stret(!h suffered under
the corresponding strain. This may 1^ found as. follows:

Let E=the modulus of elasticity for the sample.

Q

Let R=the average tensile resistance in pounds per sciuare inch=18109— •

Let P=the per cent of stretch expressed in decimal form.

R

Then the general formula becomes E= •

Applying the values obtained from the tests made, the computations
necessary to the determination of the data given in our tables were
made. It is believed that the tables will further explain themselves,
and will make it possible for each one to determine for himself the
superiority of any fleece exhibited over any other fleece exhibited and
represented here.

MATERIAL EXHIBITED.

It must be admitted by all interested in or acquainted with the wool,
producing industry of the United States that the exhibit of wool from
this country presented in the Columbian Exposition was totally inade-

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1540 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

quate to represent the condition or the position of the industry at the
present time. States which send enormous quantities of the staple to
the markets, and which almost even control the market prices, are not
to be found in the i-61e of exhibitors at all. And even the States that
were represented failed to enter into the matter with the earnest zeal
necessary to successful exhibition, and most of them furnished collec-
tions entirely too limited to fairly indicate the progress made or the
standard of the product obtained. The two States of Wisconsin and
Ohio furnished almost half of the wool exhibited from this country,
while the most of the States west of the Mississippi, from which the
markets largely draw for supplies, were conspicuously absent. The
States of Vermont, New York, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia, upon
the stud flocks of which not only other States of this country, but all
the sheep-growing countries of the world, draw for the blood for
improving the condition of the wool-producing flocks, showed collec-
tions which, while containing some good examples, were by no means
up to the standard of those shown in earlier expositions, nor, it is
believed, fairly illustrating the high state of development attained in
the production of large bodies, strong, hardy frames, long staple and
heavy fleeces, combined with satisfactoiy and even great fineness of
fiber. That the sheep breeders should have been so blind to their
best interests is surprising, and it is scarcely characteristic of the energy
and enterprise of native American producei-s.

It will be difficult here to undeitake any extended statement of the
condition of sheep breeding and woolgrowing in the diflferent States
of the country, for in the conditions in which the judges were placed
satisfactory information with this regard was not obtainable in the
Exposition. Such information is, however, available in the publica-
tions of the State agricultural boards and departments, and to such we
must refer those desiring it. But it is likely that the exhibits made
in Chicago are, in a measure, an indication of the tendencies in wool
production in the several States named, and a brief review of the
general character of the exhibits from each of the States may be of
interest.

Of greater interest to American breeders and woolgrowers will be
the study of the character of the exhibits from other countries, and
these are worthy of the most serious consideration. The great com-
petitors in the wool markets of the world are the colonies of Great
Britain and the Republics of South America, and certainly the highest
credit is due to the energy, skill, and intelligence shown in the collec-
tions presented by the Australian colonies, the Cape Colony, and the
Argentine Republic and Uruguay. It is unfortunate that so important
producers of wools as South Australia, Queensland, Tasmania, and
Adelaide were absent from this great exhibition of the world's products,
yet American producers may find in what was offered much material

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1541

for profitable study, and it is to be hoped they will take advantage
of it.

The collection of foreign wools finding their way to the markets of
this country prepared and exhibited by Mr. Carl Grubnau, of Phila-
delphia was most unique and full of interest. The enterprise and
public spirit which prompted this presentation of the wide range of
animal fibers is most commendable, and it added greatly to the educa-
tional value of the exhibits in this class.

FOREIGN WOOLS.
NEW SOUTH WALES.

Of wools not produced within the United States exhibited in the
W6rld's Columbian Exhibition, by far the largest collections were sent
from the colonies of Great Britain, and, while some of these were con-
spicuously absent from the collection, those represented showed
remarkable skill, both in the selection and presentation of the material
exhibited. Among these the exhibit made by New South Wales is to
be particularly commended, not only on account of the high quality
of the wool, but for the attractive manner in which it was exposed to
visitors, the systematic description oflFered in the carefully prepared
catalogue, and pamphlets of information concerning it and sheep and
wool growing in the colony in general.

The wools from these English colonies were, almost all of them, of
the fine-wool or merino type, and if we were to judge from the exhibits
alone we should be led to conclude that these colonies were devoted
wholly and exclusively to wools of this type. It is true that they con-
stitute the large proportion of the product, but we learn from the
most interesting and valuable little pamphlet, entitled Sheep and
Wool in New South Wales, which accompanied and really formed a
part of the exhibit, that in later years a very considerable infusion of
long- wool blood to the flocks has taken place and that a good deal of the
wool now sent to the markets consists of either pure long wool or of
wool from crosses of the Merino with the long-wool races. So we
learn that the breeds predominating are the Merino, Lincoln, Leicester,
Downs, and Romney Marsh, together with crosses of the long- wool
breed, principally with the Merino. At the close of 1891 the respec-
tive numbers of Merino and long-wooled sheep and crossbreeds stood
thus:

Merino 60,252,458

Long-wooled sheep 641, 152

OroBBbreeds 937,806

Total 61,831,416

The flocks of New South Wales represent nearly half the wool-
producing capacity of Australia^ as is shown by the following table

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1542 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

from the same source, giving the number of sheep in each colony at

the close of 1891 :

' ''''^X'''

New South Wales ' 61.831,416

Victoria 12,928,148

QueeriKlancl 20,289,633

South Australia I 7.646,239

Western Australia 1,962,212

Tasmania 1,661,118

New Zealand 18,128,186

Per cent <»f
total aren
of Austral-
asia in eat-h
CK>lonv.

49.7

10.4

16.3

6.1

1.6

1.3

14.6

ToUil for Australasia 124,449,952 ] lOO.O

The Annual Review of the Victorian Wool and Grain Markets
181U-92, published by the New Zealand Loan and Mercantile Company,
gives thb following figures for the number of bales of wool shipped
from Australasia from June 30, 1891, to February 29, 1892:

New South Wales 533,000

Victoria 418, 407

Queensland 147, 276

South Australia 153, 48-5

Western Australia 14, 805

Tasmania 24, 151

New Zealand 220,098

Total 1,511,222

The total shipments for the year ending February 29, 1892, equal
1,812,695 bales. This does not include a not inconsiderable quantity
of the product retained for home consumption and manufacture.

The authorit}^ first quoted states that —

The different dejjjrees of success attending sheep farming in different parts of the
country have long since directed attention to the fact that eat;h part of Australia is
not equally fitttnl for the produc^tion of fine wools. New South Wales may be divided
climatically into four zones: (1) The coast country, extending from the seaboard to
the main range, the breadth of which varies from 20 to 100 miles; (2) the table-land
districts on the summit of the range; (3) the upper part of the western slopes; and
(4) the interior or "salt- bush country."

The climate of the eastern 8ealx>ard for a considerable distance inland is too moist
and a large portion of it is too poor for the ati equate sustenance of Merinos, but it is
proba])le that the coarser bree<isof sheep would not deteriorate through the limited
food Hupj)ly and the rugged nature of the (x>untry. On the Hunter and Northern
rivers and in the southern coast districts, where the soil is very rich, dairy fanning
and agriculture are the leading, and no doubt the most profitable, industries. Sheep
breeding is carried on to some extent in the regions towani the summit of the coast
range, but, as in the case of the country near the sea, the soil as a rule is unfavorable
to sheep. On crossing the coast range, however, the contrast between the aspect of
the country just entered and that left behind is very striking. Here the grazing and
wool-growing capacities are at once apparent, and farther westward still a greater
improvement is visible.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 154^

In the abundant pastures of the river districts the wool is less fine than in the
country immediately west of the table-lands, but the fleeces are generally sound and
heavy. Farther in the salt-bush country the wool suffers both in weight of fleece
and in its quality, but the country is fattening and the stock are generally more
healthy than those nearer the sea. In the country on the farther side of the Darling
the great summer heat is adverse to the production of heavy fleeces, but even here
a fair class of wool is produced, as the stock owners are constantly introducing fresh
biood, and so counteracting the tendency toward the degeneration of the breed of
sheep which might otherwise ensue.

The experience earned in Australia in the matter of selection of
proper altitudes and climate for sheep breeding for wool production
is important, interesting, and significant. They should be borne in
mind bv the wool growers and those interested in the woolen indus-
tries in the United States. There is no doubt that too little attention
is given to such influences as have just been describee^ and that many
of the failures that have followed the enterprise of some growers in
this line may be traced to the climatic conditions of the section chosen
for the work.

The authority just quoted further says:

Sheepbreeding was about this period (1823 to 1825) commenced in the Mudgee
district, and the climate of that region has produced still more favorable result upon
the quality of the fleeces than any other part of the colony, and it is thence
that the finest Merinos are now produced. * * * As might be anticipated, the
climate of Australia has in some respects changed the charat^ter of the Spanish fleece.
The wool has become softer and more elastic, and, while having diminished in den-
aity, it has increased in length, so that the weight of the fleece has only slightly
altered. The quality of the wool has thus, on the whole, improved under the bene-
ficial influence of the climate, and if no further enhancement in its value can be
reasonably hoped for, there is at least every reason to believe that the Australasian
will maintain its present high standard of excellence.

And further:

The climate of New South Wales admits of stock of all kinds being left in the open
air, and there is no necessity for housing them during the winter months. The sheep
are either kept in paddocks or under the care of shepherds, though on some stations
they are both shepherded and paddocked. During 1891 there were —

Paddocked 60,127,284

Shepherded 917, 321

Paddocked and shepherded 786, 811

Total (51,831,416

The advantages of the paddocking system are now universally acknowledged. The
country will carry one-third more sheep, the wool will l)e longer and sounder, and
the fleece as a whole one-third better, the feed will be cleaner and less liable to grass
seed, the lambing on the average of years will be l^etter, the sheep will increase in
size, they will live longer and continue longer profitable, they will he freer from foot
rot and other diseases, the expense of working the station will be less than a quarter
of what it would \ye if the sheep were shepherded, and, finally, the owner will
be able to devote the principal part of his time to improving his sheep instead of
spending it in attempting to manage a number of shepherds and hut keepers.

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REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

A table given in this connection shows that the percentage of Iambs
secured in paddocks is considerably greater than when the flocks are
shepherded, in most cases by from 10 to 15 per cent. In 1891 the ratio
was 69:63 and in 1885 79:64. Careful study of the very excellent
tables describing the exhibits of wool in Chicago can not be too strongly
recommended. It is a most valuable example of what should be done
for this and every other wool-growing country for the advancement of
the great industi-y of wool production. From this table we learn,
l>esides what we have transcribed to our own tables in the matter of
age and weight of animals represented in the fleeces and the weight of
the fleece in each case, the elevation above sea level, and the nature of
the soil on the estate on which each fleece or bale offered for exhibition
was produced, the average summer and winter temperature of the
same locality, and its average annual rainfall in inches. From this
we learn that the elevation above the sea level of the sheep ranches
varies from 300 to 4,000 feet. But nearly 60 per cent of the sheep
are grown at elevations below 1,000 feet.

The weights of the fleeces exhibited, as may be seen upon consulting
our tables, were high as compared with the average weights for the
colony as shown in the table given in the pamphlet report already
referred to. The majority of the sheep are sheared in grea^^e, but
some are still washed with hot water, and under a spout, or in the
brooks, while some of the fleeces are scoured before being sent to
market. The table referred to gives the avei-age weight of fleece
taken under each of these conditions and it will suflSice for our pur-
pose if we take the figures for the last five years named in the table:

Year.

L

Sheep.

Lambe.

Ingreane. ^^^ Scoured. | In grease. Washed.

1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
1891.

IJ>8. oz.
5 9
5 64

5 m

5 11}
5 9

IJb9. oz.
3 U
3 U
3 3
3 2
2 Hi

Lb». oz.
2 14

Lbs. oz.
1 124
1 11
1 lU
1 14i
1 15

Lb9. oz.
1 5
1 7
1 9
1 7h
1 4*

Naturally the fleeces exhibited are all of them lieavier than the aver-
ages given here, for these represent the averages returned from all
flocks. The weights given in our table indicate that the fleeces range
in weight from somewhere about 5 pounds as a minimum to 15 or 20
pounds as maxima, the most of the fleeces ranging at about 12 pounds
in weight.

We learn both from these published sources and the data found in
our own tables that there is a growing tendency in New South Wales,
even as there is in this country, to get away from the Merinos having
small frame, short staple, and light, fine fleeces, and to breed to animals

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1545

having larger, heavier frames, and denser, deeper, and heavier fleeces,
but a less fine fiber. So we find animals ranging in weight and prob-
ably the larger number represented in the exhibits ma}^ belong to this
class, weighing from 40 to 100 pounds, but there are others in very
considerable numbers ranging in weight from 100 to 130 pounds, while
a few, notably some from the Duntroon estate in the Upper Murrum-
bidgee district, have live weights ranging from 150 to as high as 233
pounds. Yet from these exceedingly large animals fleeces of from 9
to 15 pounds were obtained, those weighing 233 pounds giving only 9
pounds of wool. Such animals will, however, without doubt have an
important and valuable influence upon the flocks of the colony in the
direction of forming better frames upon which to produce wool, and
better and stronger constitutions to withstand the vicissitudes to which
large flocks must of necessity be subjected.

From another report prepared by the commissioners from New
South Wales for the information of visitors we glean the following
statistics showing the number of sheep in the diflferent districts of the
colony, the elevation of the districts above sea level, the average sum-
mer and winter tempei-atures, and the annual rainfall in each one. It
must be admitted that the very equable climate of the colony has a
marked influence upon the character of the staple, insuring evenness,
softness, and high luster, and there is no doubt that the higher alti-
tudes at which the larger proportions of the flocks are pastured also
aifect the quality of the product. Such relations as these must be
worthy of the closest study and then detailed consideration should fur-
nish results of the highest value to the growers of both this and other
countries.

Wool district.

Bathurst 2,

Bogan 1,

Castlereagh 4,

Darling (Lower)

Darling (Upper) 4,

Darling (Western) 4,

Gonlburn

G wydlr 2,

Hunter River 4^

LAchlan 5,

Liverpool Plains 4,

Monaro 1,

Mndgee 1,

3,
2,

Number
of sheep.

Namoi .

New England

Murrumbidgee

Riverina

Kiverina (Southern)

979,560
709,065
076,196
631,176
806, 6?2
745,832
641,428
856,598
055,365
452,571
055,365
489,841
181,944
909,880
581,642
099,381
267,946
101,115

Elevation.

1,000-3,000

625
400-1,000

112

850-680

800-350

2,265-2.360

360-1,700

1,500-2,500

700-1,000

850-3,000

2,700-3,500

1,350-2.000

420-770
1,360-4,000
743-2,600
304-821
890-450

Temperature.

Average
summer.

Degrees.
66-73
79.7

77-85.6
77.5

80-85.7

69.9

75.4^84.2

70.1

74-80

74-77

71.4

73-79

74.5^82.3

67-72

69.8-80

73-79

76

Average
winter.

Degrees.

42-*5

57.7
55.4-67.4

52.6

54.7^7.2

47.2

46.6-66.1

53.4

55-56

46-56

44.8

48-54

52-68.2

47-49

47-49.6

46-49

48

Average
annual
rainfall.

Inches.

24-33

24.6

31.3-33.3

19.7

14-19.7
. 28.78

28-33.4
41.5
24-26
37-49
20.38

27.28-45
82-37
24-35
24-30
27-29
32

In addition to the general exhibit of fleeces and bales of wool the
commission from New South Wales presented the following, which

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1546 REPORT OF COMMITTKE ON AWARDS.

were arranged in a most attmctive manner, and were subjects of the
most instru(!tive study:

5480. Photographs of Australian wool stores, from the Australian Mortgage and

Agency Company, iSidney.

5481. 12 photographs of New South Wales sheep, from the oommisBioners for New

iSouth Wales.

5482. 13 photographs of sheep and cattle stations of the colony. Commissioner for

New South Wales.
5488. 2 photographs of wool rooms, from Dalgety & Co., Sidney.

5484. Photographs of the wool stores of New Zealand Ixmn and Mercantile Com-

pany, Sidney.

5485. Photograph of wool warehouse oi the (Joldsborough Mortgage Company,

Sidney.
5480. Photograph of wool waiehouseof Hell, Clark & Co., Sidney.

5487. Photograph of sliowroom, Wcnchcomhe, Casten & Co., Sidney.

5488. System of sheep brands and marks, AleirRence, chief inspector, Sidney.

5489. Squatter's wool wagcm and |)hotograph8 of wool showroom, Henry Goodwin,

Sidney. Type collections of Australian wools, prepared by the department
of public instruction. Technological Museum, Sidney.

5723. Stud wools. No. 1, 13 fleeces.

5724. Commercial wools, 20 fleeces.

5425. Fine merino wools from stud sheep, 128 samples.

5726. Classification of wools as y)repared on the stations, 76 samples. Samples of

wool and prices of 1892-3 fro?n wool brokers, Sidney.

5727. Superior clothing wools, 12 samples.

5728. Harrison, Jones & Devlin, 43 samples.

5729. New Zealand I^oan and Mortgage Company, 28 fleeces.

5730. Dalgety & C^o., 30 fleeces.

5731. John Bridge & Co., 35 fleeces.

5732. Winchcombe & Co., 38 fleeces.

5733. Australian Mortgage and Agency Company, 13 samples.

5734. J. H. Ge<ldes & Co., 14 samples.
571^5. Hell, Clark & Co., 14 samples.
5730. Greasy lamb's wool, 40 samples.

Altogether the exhibit of wool from New South Wales may serve as
an excellent model to be followed and copied in future exhibitions, and
the commissions from that country have reason to be proud of the suc-
cess attendino- their efforts to make a clear exposition of the extent and
the advancement of the wool-producing industry in their colon3^ Par-
ticular credit is due to Mi*. Alexander Bruce, chief inspector of .stock
for New South Wales, to whom the presentation of the exhibits in this
class was intrusted.

VICTORIA.

Lying so closely adjacent to New South Wales and so closely allied
thereto in all interests, and particularly as regards the sheep and wool
industry, it is natural that the wools sent from Victoria should be in
many respects similar to those from the neighboring colony. The
woolgrowers of Victoria were the sole representatives of the country
in the exposition, and the exhibits in the class were prepared and exhib-

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1547

ited through the instrumentality of the Austi*alian Sheep Breeders' Asso-
ciation. The wools were contributed by about a dozen growers, and
are believed to fairly represent the product of the country in this line.
They consist principally and almost exclusively of fleeces of the Merino
type. With the exception of one bale of cross-bred Leicester, sent by
Sir William Clarke, Bart., of Bolinda Vale, and 13 fleeces of Victoria
Merino ci'ossed with Vermont Merino, all the fleeces were pure Victo-
rian Merino. The valuable influence of the introduction of the Ver-
mont blood to the flocks is well illustrated in the exhibits of Joseph
Mack, which show fleeces weighing nearly 19 pounds, with staple
under 3 inches in length, while the avei*age weight of all the fleeces
exhibited is under 10 pounds. Such fleeces must of necessity be full
and dense, and must cover the bodies completely and evenly. As a
rule the wool is very fine, and has length in crimp corres^wnding with
the Delaine types, over 3 inches, and not infrequently exceeding 4
inches.

Our own wool producers may profitably take example from these
exhibits, also in the indications manifest with regard to the care and
cleanliness in the management of the flocks which produced the wools
here offered, and the manner in which the fleeces and bales were pre-
sented for exhibition. They were free from burrs and diil of every
kind, and were spread in cases in such a way as to show the several
parts without the difficulty of the removal of ribbons and cutting and
pulling of strings. Altogether the exhibits were a source of pleasant
and profitable study.

NEW ZEALAND.

The exhibits of New Zealand in the class in which we are particu-
larly interested were not as extensive as those from the other Aus-
tralasian colonies of Great Britain, but they were fairly representative
of the product of the country and of most excellent qualit}'. It is
unfortunate that more complete records concerning the exhibits were
not at hand, and that at the time when the judges were ready for their
examination no representative of the exhibitors was present to furnish
the information required for intelligent work. The exhibits were
exposed upon uncovered tables, and at the time of the examinations
many of the lal)els of the fleeces were either misplaced or lost, causing
no little confusion and difficulty in the matter of securing accurate
and satisfactory samples. What we have secured, however, is sufficient
to illustrate the character of the product of the colony and show the
advanced stage of progress that has been attained in the improvement
of the flocks.

The general characters of the wools are similar to those of the
neighboring colonies of New South Wales and Victory, being pro-
duced under much similar conditions of climate, soil, and general

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1548 REPORT OF OOMMITTKE ON AWARDS.

environment. We are indebted to Messrs. Parrott & Co., of San Fran-
cisco, for publications relative to the production of wool in New
Zealand, and the soil, climate, and pasturage, from which we shall
offer the following abstracts:

Wool is undoubtedly the most important production of New Zealand, its value in
export approaching nearly treble that of gold. Wool is divided into two claaseB^
combing and clothing. The first comprises the long staple wools of the Lincoln,
Leicester, Cotswold, and Romney Marsh breeds of English sheep. This is a class of
wool for which the soil and climate of New Zealand are very suitable. The ion^-
wooled sheep of Great Britain improve by the change; the length of the wool is
increased and all its valuable properties preserved, owing, doubtlees, to the genial
climate and absence of exposure to the extremes of an English temperature. The
Leicester breed has received great attention in New Zealand and is the favorite
with the Auckland sheep farmers.

The Cotswold wool is very similar to the Leicester, but of a somewhat deeper and
harsher character, and lacks the luster so much in demand for certain classes of
manufac!tured goods. The Cotswold appears quite as much in favor with the New
Zealand breeder as the Leicester, and probably its habits and character are more
generally adapte<l to the climate of the South Island and the mountain pastares of
the colony than any other long-wooled sheep. The Cotswold bear exposure better
than the Lincoln or I^icester, wih live and thrive on poor land, and come to more
weight of carcass than any other breed.

The value of this breed as a cross with either I^eicester or short-wooled sheep can
not be too much spoken of, and the favor in which crosses with the Cotswold are
held is a sufficient proof of their excellence.

The Romney Marsh partakes in a measure of the qualities of the Leicester and
Lincoln, being a soft, rich, and good-handling wool, rather finer in quality than the
Leicester, and having the glossy "luster" appearance of the Lincoln. Wool of this
description is much in demand for certain fabrics, and is much sought after in the
French markets.

The Cheviot is a wool that has grown mto considerable popularity of late years
and is largely used in worsted manufacture. It is & small, fine-haired wool of
medium length and moderate weignt of fleece.

The second kind or clothing wool comprises the short-stapled wool grown by the
Southdown and Shropshire Down breeds of English sheep and the Merino (Spanish)
sheep.

The Southdown is a short-stapled, fine-haired, close-growing wool. The 'value of
this breed to New England sheep farmers consists mainly in the improvements
which crossing with it imparts to the carcass. Some breeders have crossed the
Southdown with the Merino and with crossbred Romney Marsh and Merino.

The Shropshire Down is a breed which is growing every year into more impor-
tance. It produces wool longer in staple and more lustrous than any other Down
breed. It has been cultivated in New Zealand to a small extent only.

The Merino is the most valuable and important breed cultivated in New Zealand,
and of sheep of this class the flocks of the colony are chiefly composed. They are
of the Australian Merino variety, improved through the importation of pure Saxon
Merino rams from Germany. The excellence of the Merino consists in the unex-
ampled fineness and felting property of its wool, which in the fineness and the
number of serrations and curves exceeds that of any other sheep in the world. The
Merinos adapt themselves to and thrive in every change of climate, and with
common care retain all their fineness of wool as well under burning tropical sun as
in cold mountain regions.

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REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS. 1549

The home consumption of wool was, in 1888, 4,079,563 pounds, and
the export in 1889, 102,227,354 pounds, worth £3,976,375.

The mildnees of the winter season (which does not require that any special pro-
vision shall be made for keep of the stock during that period), the general suitability
of the country for grazing purposes, and the production of a superior class of wool
caused the attention of the first settlers to be much given to pastoral pursuits, so that
at a very early date all grass lands were taken up as sheep or cattle runs. By
improvements in fencing and sowing with English grasses, which thrive remarkably
well in the colony, the bearing capabilities of the land were increased many fold.
While in the North Island there are considerable tracts of grazing ground with
natural herbage, a large extent of the country consists of hill land of varying quality,
covered with forest, or bush, as it is called in the colony. This land, after the bush
has been cut down and set fire to, if grass seed be sown upon the ashes, is converted
in a few weeks into good grazing land. Much forest has already been destroyed in
this manner and the land supports large flocks and herds.

In the South Island the bush is chiefly confined to the western slopes of the
dividing range, the open hills, plains, and downs to the east of the range being
available for grazing purposes. The extent to which pastoral pursuits have been
followed may be estimated by the quantity of stock in the colony in 1886 ( when the
last census was taken, as follows: Horses, 187,382; cattle, 773,028; sheep, on May 31,
1890, 16,116,113. These numbers do not include animals in the possession of
aboriginal natives. The Maoris were found to have possessed at the time of the
census of 1886 at least 112,850 sheep, 42,103 cattle, 92,091 pigs, besides a number of
horses of which no account was obtained.

CLIMATE.

The climate resembles that of Great Britain, but is more equable, the extremes of
daily temperature only varying throughout the year by an average of 20**, while
London is 7** colder than the north and 4** colder than the middle island of New
Zealand. The mean annual temperature of the north island is 57° and of the middle
island 52°, that of London and New York being 51°. The mean temperature for the
different seasons for the whole colony is, in spring, 55°; in summer, 63°; in autumn,
57°, and in winter, 48°.

The climate of the west coast of both islands is more equable than on the east, the
difference between the average summer and winter temperature being nearly 4°
greater on the southeast portion of the North Island, and 7° on that of the Middle
Island than on the northwest, on which the equatorial winds impinge. The constant
wind is the most important feature in the meteorology of New Zealand, and is ren-
dered more striking by comparing the annual fluctuation of temperature on the
opposite seaboards of the South Island, which have a greater range of temperature by
18^ at Christchurch on the east than at Hokitika on the west.

Mean annual rainfall.
North Island:

Auckland 45.306

Taranake 58.084

Napier 37.260

Wellington 50.781

Middle Island:

Hokitika :112.156

Christchurch 25.774

Duredin 32.019

Southland 43.674

The observations that have been taken show that the northern part of New Zea-
land is within the influence of the subtropical winter, rainfall in winter in that part
of the colony being twice as large as in summer. Digitized by GoOqIc

1550 world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

In the south, however, the rainfall, though irregular, is distributed more equally
over the year. The chief difference to be ob»«erved is that on the west coast spring
rains prevail, and summer rains on the east coast; while in the middle of the colony
the driest season is autumn, and in the south it is the winter and spring.

The contrast between the rainfalls on the east and west coasts, as with the tem-
perature, is most striking. Thus, in North Island, Napier on the east has only half
the amount of rain that falls in Taranaki cm the west. But Middle Island, w-ith ifc*
longitudinal range of lofty mountains, exhibits this feature in a still more markeil
manner, for the rainfall on the west is nearly five times greater than on the east.
The excess of i)recipitation on the coast is clearly illustrated by the distribution of
the glaciers on the opposite side of the range. Those on the west slope have an
excessive supply of snow, and descend to a line where the mean annual temperature
is 50° F., while on the east slope they descend only to the mean annual tempera-
ture of 37°. The winter snow line on the southern Alps on the east side is 3,000 feet
and that on the west side is 3,700 feet.

Periods of lasting drought are almost unknown in New Zealand, and only in two
instances do the records show a whole month at any station without rain. The
greatest day's rain recorded is 6J inches at Auckland, and 9i inches in Nelson.
Similar heavy showers occur at the northwest stations, where the general average
shows 70 inches in 85 days in the year. The opposite extreme is on the southwest,
where 34 inches fell in 180 days.

The area in New Zealand sown with English grasses is 7,400,000 acres, of which
about 1,100,000 acres belongs to Auckland. The sheep flo<-ks of the colony increased
from 16,753,752 on May 30, 1891, to 18,475,500 on May 30, 1892. Auckland claims
131,994 of this increment, and the total numl)er of sheep in this province at the latter
date was 460,601. These figures indicate very marked progress, and there is no doubt
whatever that with favorable conditions the totals of next year, especially on North
Island, will give further evidence of advancement. (Wool season of 1892-93, New
Zealand Loan and Mercantile Agency Company.)

The total quantities of wool exported from New Zealand during the
years 1890 to 1893 had the following values for each year: 1893,
£3,774,738; 1892, £4,313,307; 1891, £4,129,686; 1890, £4,150,599.*

The following table** will illustrate the distribution of wool produc-
tion in New Zealand. It shows the shipments of wool at various points
from March 1, 1891, to February 29, 1892:

Bales.

Moerc-argill 27,078

Dunedin 30, 819

Omaru 15, 172

Tinmni 22, 274

Christchurch and Ly ttleton 57, 530

Blenheim 8, 004

Wellington 52, 525

Napier 54, 416

Gisborne 10,400

Auckland 14,404

Waganui 11,512

Total 304,134

•New Zealand Trade Review, Febniary 22, 1894.

■» Annual Review of the Christchurch wool and grain markets 1891-92.

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REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS. 1551

The character of the wool produced in New Zeahind, even as in
other wool-producing countries of the world, is likely to undergo
rapid and serious change in the coming years, due to the widely extend-
ing development of the frozen-meat trade everywhere springing up.
The fine- wool Merinos have too small carcasses, and are so little adapted
to laying on fat and so making good nuitton that on account of this
new industry they must give way in the sheep pastures to the larger
bodied and longer and coarser wooled l)reeds. It is therefore prob-
able that in the near future the Merino flocks will be replaced b}- the
Downs and the sheep of the long-wooled type. The seriousness of
this condition is illustrated in the following table, showing the ship-
ments of umtton from different countries to England during 1891.''

Australia

New Zealand

River Plate and Falkland Islands .

carca.ssLj<. ^ ^.^rcass.

335,912
1.906.002
1.1-27, 153

Pounds.
66
52
44

THE CAPE COLONY.

The w^ools exhibited by the Cape Colony w^ere a delight to the lovei's
of tine, strong, lustrous wool. Produced in a country of equable
climate and excellent pasturage, and upon animals w^hose pedigree
extends to some of the most celebrated flocks of Spain and Saxony, it
is natural that these wools should take a high rank, for, from an inter-
esting paper from one thoroughly convei-sant with the wool histor}^
of the colony, we learn that the present flne-wool flocks sprang, many
of them, from the famous Electoral flocks of Saxony by importations
in 1812, and from the celebrated and original Escurial flocks by impor-
tations in 1820. These flocks have l)een carefully guarded b\'^ the
masters, have been improved b}' selection, and by the introduction of
rams from Australia, France, and even the United States, until the
product leaves almost nothing to be desired.

The area of wool production in the colony may be divided into two
principal sections, the Karoo and the Grass Veldt, the former lying
inland and to the northwest, with plentiful pasturage of the best
quality, and the latter lying nearer the coast, to the east and north.
Both these principal sections were represented in the Exposition, the
Karoo Desert most extensively.

The woolgrowers of the colony showed most intelligent discrimina-
tion in the selection of fleeces for the Exposition, and it was rare to find
among those exhibited any from animals over two years old, and most of
them were from either ewes or wethers. This in large flocks is, how-

^Christchurch Review.

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1552 REPORT OF OOMMITTEK ON AWARDS.

ever, to be expected. The fleeces were generall} of light weight, vary-
ing from 5 to 10 poundn, some exceptions rising to 12 and 14 pounds.
The wools aiT. soft and elastic, with sufficient yolk and of most attractive
quality, while their length makes them valuable for either clothing
or fine combing uses.

The growth of the woolgrowing industry began in about 1820 with
the importations of the Merino sheep from Spain. Constant inei'easc?
has followed, and while it is stated that in 1830 the export of wool from
the colony was only 30,000 pounds, it had grown in 1891 to 75,520,700
pounds.

Closely allied with woolgrowing in Cape Colony is the growth of
Angora hair or mohair. From the articles of Mr. Mitchell we also
learn that the Angora goats were first introduced from Turkey in 1854.
Since that time repeated importations by others have been made from
Asia Minor and elsewhere, until in 1891 the expoitation of mohair
reached very respectable proportions, amounting to 9,953,548 pounds.
The flocks of Angora goats in the colony are now said to number
3,000,000, so that the avemge annual yield per head is about 3 pounds
of hair.

While the wools of the merino type were the principal kind
exhibited in Chicago, the sheep growing is not exclusively confined to
this type. The other type grown in the Colony is the fat-tailed sheep
of the eastern nations, and it is stated that the flocks of this breed
contain at least 3,500,000 animals. Unlike their relatives* in Turkey,
Asia Minor, and Russia, they produce practically no wool, and the
sheep are grown principally for their mutton, which is of excellent
quality; for the skins, so serviceable for making glove leather, and
particularly for the fat tails, which yield from 20 to 30 pounds of fat
of quality greatly prized in different paits of the world, and which in
those sections in which these sheep are grown serves as a substitute for
butter. This breed has in some places been crossed with the Merino
with good results; and it is stated that some of the breeders are accus-
tomed to breeding the crosses for a few generations when the demand
makes them more profitable, and breeding back to the original fat tail
when the reverse is the case.

The following table, prepared by the commissioners from the Cape
Colony, and showing the number of sheep, the weight, and description
of the wool produced in the several provinces, will be of interest.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1553

Proxince.

Number ot Weight of
' Hheep. wool. I

Nature of country
and climate.

Western .

Northwestern .

Pounds.
255,905

Southwestern .

961, M3

877,844 I 2,6g7,20e

Midland.

Mountainous, with fertile
and well- watered valleys
suited to vitlculiure, the
leading farming indus-
try: 1,590 square miles.
8, 816, 7*28 Mountainous, and well wa-
tered in the south, arid
and uncultivated in the
north, but with excellent
Karroo pasturage in the
eastern portion; 66,040
square miles.

Fertile and well watered
undulatin^countr>', with
regular rainfall and tem-
perate climate, afTording
excellent pasturage in
I>arts; 18,016 square miles.

Description and quality
of wool.

SetHly, short, and irregular.

16,323,870

Southeastern .

335,048 1,819,344

Northeastern I 2,616,883

£astem.

Griqualand West .

Total .

4.636,439

283,577

13,631,011

56,038,659

•KarrcK)" c<)untr>': exten-
sive plains intersected
with lofty mo u n t a i n
ranges: ven- fertile, with
excellent pasture, but
marred by frequent
droughts: 63.800 square
miles.

An arobU country with
luxuriant grasny slopes,
but poor pasturage,
known as "sour grass"
veldt; temperate climate,
with plentiful summer
rains: 11.214 square miles.
11,778,229 Extensive grass veldt plains
intersected with lofty
mountain ranges;
healthy pasturage for
sheep; climate dry. with
I heavy thunder rains in
I summer; 18,716 square
, miles.
19,561,742 , High table-lands (K)mpris-
ing the chief pastoral dis-
tricts of the colony; reg-
ular rainfall, and healthy
climate; 26,311 square
miles.

785,633 I High table-land, sandy soil.

' with little vegetation;

I climate dry, with ex-
tremes of heat and cold;
15,197 square miles.

Principa ly mountain wool,
which is of bluish color, of
long, strong staple. Kar-
roo wcx)l IS afs*) grown
in parts, and is nf yellow
color, fine texture, but
heavy, owin^^ to the na-
ture of the soil.

The principal wool-produc-
ing district is Calodon,
which pnxluces long
combing blue gra.s8 veldt
of strong staple and good

?|uality, which finds much
avor in the American
market.
The lx»st Karns) w(s>l is
grown 1u this province,
varying fnmi very luiivy
and irregular to long
combing. >ellow. yolky
wools. Through the im-

Eortation of thorough-
red st(K'k, much im-
provement is noticeable
of late years.
Qrass veldt wfH>ls of indif-
ferent quality, but im-
proving during the la.st
few seasons.

These provinces pn since
the grass veldt w«k)1 sim-
ilar to that obtaiiKHl in
some districts of the
.southwestern province.
It differs from the Karns)
w(X)l in being more
yolky, but not ns heavy,
iind is of a bluish color.
The shrinkage is Rcner-
ally from 50 to TiO per
cent. Thc^e wcmjIs arc
being greatly impnned
owing to extensive im-

I portation of thonnigh-

' bred stock.

Grass veldt W(X)1 of very su-
perior quality is obtained,
but, unfortunately, only
in small quantities,
which, however, is annu-
ally increasing.

THE ORANGE FREE STATE.

The wools of this little Republic exhibited in Chicago were ail of
the merino type, and evidently purely bred. Lying at an elevation of
4,000 feet above the level of the sea and in a latitude of the equable
climate so favorable to wool- bearing animals, it was to be expected
that the product of the flocks would be of very high quality. Unfor-
tunately those in charge of the exhibits were provided with no
knowledge of the history of the wools shown, and their intelligent
examination by the judges was impossible. So closely adjacent to the
COL EXPO — 02 y8

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1554 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

Cape Colony it is natural that the wools should have many of the
characteristics of those of that country, and doubtless the stock for
the establishment of the original flocks were drawn from that source.
On the whole, the fleeces and bales were considered by the judges to
be of good quality South African wool, of sound long staple and bright
color. They partake of the fineness and softness of the Cape wools,
containing comparatively little yolk and grease, and indicate the excel-
lent possibilities of the Republic for fine-wool production.

It was a matter of some surprise to those interested in wool produc-
tion that the Canadian sheepmen failed to offer representative exhibits
of their products. It is true that their highest reputation is for mutton
production, and that wool is with them a secondary consideration.
Yet the former can not be had without the latter, and surely wools of
good quality could be shown. The few samples offered were exhibited
by the Northwest Territory, and consisted of one Cotswold and a few
pure- bred and crdssbred Shropshire fleeces. These do not by any
means represent the breeds grown in the Dominion, for the Dorsets,
Lincolns, and Southdowns are very popular among the breeders, and
are the source of much of the fine mutton exported to the English and
United States markets. .

THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.

It was naturally to be expected that the Republics of South America,
in many of which animal production is the leading industry, should
be largely represented in the exhibits of wool; and, so far as the
Argentine Republic was concerned, there was no cause for disappoint-
ment. The commissioners from that country prepared a large and
thoroughly representative collection of wool, and displayed the fleeces
in a most attractive and instructive manner.

The exhibit contained, besides a large number of fleeces, numbering
several hundred, skins with the wool still attached to them, plans of
sheep ranches or estancias, photographs of sheep, shelter sheds, runs
for disinfectant treatment of the animals, shearing sheds, and ranch
scenes generally. And while the information furnished concerning
individual fleeces was in some cases limited, the information supplied
in the admirable works of Mr. Herbert Gibson, entitled '' The History
and Present State of the Sheep- Breeding Industry in the Argentine
Republic," prepared specially for the occasion, left nothing to \ye
desired. It is so full of facts, not only regarding the industry in the
Argentine, but of results of the experience gained in various direc-
tions in the production and management of flocks, that it should be
anxiously sought after and carefully studied by flock masters in every
part of the world. It is to be particularly commended to the sheep

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1555

and woolgrowers of this country who at the present time need all the
information possible to guide them quickly and surely to the most
profitable basis of sheep farming, and particularly to that position in
which meat and wool production may be combined without serious
detriment to either product, either as to quantity oi quality. This
seems to have been in a high and satisfactory degree attained in the
Argentine, and most intelligently, too, on the estancia with which Mr.
Gibson has been so closely identified. It seems both proper and
desirable that some abstract, limited though it must of necessity be,
should be embodied in this report. In the following pages we shall,
therefore, endeavor to present some of the data collected by Mr.
Gibson, following pretty closel}' his text and in many cases his
language.

The Argentine Republic, occupying the eastern slope of South
America from the River Plate to the south is practically, and so far
as the sheep and wool industry is concerned, a broad prairie extending
from the sea on the east to the foothills of the Andes and Cordilleras
on the west. The land which gradually slopes toward the hills is,
therefore, more or less flat or rolling and the elevation above the sea
comparatively slight. As we shall see the climate is temperate and
particularly well adapted to wool- growing. These facts are best
expressed, however, in the following paragraph from the introduction
of Mr. Herbert's book. Speaking of the province of Buenos Ayres and
the Central Pampa, he says:

Here is a land covered with nutritious and abundant grasses with no heavy forests
to be cleared, no difficulties to contend with. * * * And here also the climate
is perfect; the rainfall which varies from 26 to 34 inches is well distributed through-
out the year and serves to refresh the grasses and flush the water supplies. The tem-
perature w^hich at its coldest does not descend below 20° F., at its extreme heat in
the shade does not exceed 96°. There are neither snow storms nor atmospheric erup-
tions of any nature sufficient to do damage to the stock or occasion loss. There are
no diseases of epidemic character to cause serious mortality, and such diseases as do
exist or occasionally visit the country come in such benign form as to be easily dealt
with. Neither rabbits nor other destructive animals infest the land. In a word this
vast smiling pampa is the home elect of the sheep, and its numerous natural advan-
tages place it far in the van of all sheep-breeding countries.

The history of the sheep and wool industry of the country is most
interesting, and Mr. Gibson has apparently collected the data in this
particular, as in all others, with the greatest care. From him we
learn that the first sheep were brought from beyond the Cordilleras in
1539 by Don Nufle Chaves, attracting at once the attention of the
early settlers of Paraguay. In 1550 Don Juan Nunez del Pmdo
brought sheep from Peru, and in 1587 Don Juan Torres de Nera y
Aragon brought 4,000 Spanish sheep from Peru, distributing them
among the provinces of Santa Fe, Buenos Ayres, and Corrientes.
These animals were allowed to roam at will and multiply without care

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1556 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

or attention, the energies of the breeders being devoted particularly
to the production of cattle and horses. Such a state of things contin-
ued till the beginning of the present century. At this time two classes
of sheep were found to have developed:

The Pampa sheep desfended from the mountain, long-wooled sheep imported by
tlie conquerors from Spain, and the Criollo, or Creole, descended from the Spanish
Merino, but so degenerate from interbreeding and other causes as to but little resem-
ble the latter either in wool or type. The Pampa sheep was leggy, with a white
face; bare alx)ut the nei'k and belly; sometimes with four and even six horns; hardy
and prolific, l)earing long, weak wool with no yolk. The GrioUo was a smaller ani-
mal, many of them black or brown, thinly boned, with shaggy, hairy growth on the
neck that had the appearance of a mane; the wool mixed with hair and generally of
a slaty or red color.

Merino sheep were imported directly from Spain in 1794, but all
trace of these importations seems to have been lost. In 1813 Mr.
Henry L. Lindsay imported a flock of Merinos which, after many
vicissitudes, ultimately yielded the parent stock for the fine-wool pro-
duction of the Argentine Republic. The cross between the new,
imported Merino and the native Criollo, or Creole, sheep was termed
a "Mestizo," and this prevails to-day, being specially applied to the
fine-wooled sheep of the Merino type to distinguish it from the long-
wool crosses which have since been introduced through the more recent
importations of the Lincoln and other long-wooled English breeds.

In 1825 Dr. Bernardino Rivadovia introduced some Southdown
sheep, but, on account of the poor yield of wool therefrom, the preva-
lence of diseases among the flocks and losses caused thereby, the breed
was ultimately practically abandoned. Later the long-wooled English
breeds were introduced and the popular ones were Lincoln, Leicester,
and Romney Marsh.

After a few years* experience most stock owners of experience decided in favor of
the Lincolns. They throve well, gave great increase, and their wool sold at a high
price in Europe. They made a good cross with the Merino breeds and the cross
wools brought exceptionally high figures. For a number of years, however, the
Lincolns and other long wools remained unpopular even on those lands where the
Merinos manifestly suffered owing to the damp climate and soil. The breeder
feared the long, strong wool, accustomed as he was to the golden fleece of his Merico;
and the white face and clean legs of the English sheep recalled to his mind the value-
less Pampa sheep of his youth, and he dubbed the symmetrical English 1t)l eaters with
the same name. Not until 1882 did the Lincoln become a generally popular breed,
and to-day it disputes the land with the Merino in every corner of the Republic
Thus the Merino breeders saw the whilom despised long-wool produce a better return
in every respect, a secure increase, a valuable canvass, and a fleece which topped the
market in price. * * * By 1889 Lincoln cross wool became a most important
feature in the Argentine wool market and in the present year, 1892, there is no sign
of abatement in the furore for long wools.

The greater portion of the sheep stock of the Argentine is of the fine-wooled or Merino
sort. The two principal classes which have served as prototypes are the Rambouillet
and Negretti, the former l)eing the more jwpular owing to its superior size. These
two great branches of the Merino family have served as standard types up to which

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1557

the general breeder aspires to refine his stock. The common fine-wooled flocks all
resemble more or less one of these two classes in proportion to the amount of care
and outlay which have been expended b> their owners to obtain rams of first-class
quality. The number of pure Rambouillets and Negrettis is, of course, very limited,
and the common flocks are classed as Mestizos, a term specially applied to the sheep
which have no other blood in them than the primitive Cridillo improved by crossing
with the Merino. The Australian Merino has been introduced upon one or two
occasions without obtaining much foothold with the Argentine breeders, who, upon
comparing with the Australian animals they saw for sale with their own stock, found
the latter better types of their ideal. The Vermont has been introduced from North
America and has done well crossed with the Rambouillets.

It is probable that at the present time nearly one-half of the total sheep in the
Argentine own to one cross or more with the Lincoln or Leicester breeds, princi-
pally. 1ft * * Judging from the continued and still increasing demand for Lincoln
sires it may be presaged that in another four or five years the pure Merino or Mes-
tizo stock left in the Argentine will be a small fraction of the whole The years 1888
to 1893 witnessing the conversion of 50,000,000 sheep from one type to another — ^a
conversion probably without parallel in the annals of the sheep-breeding industry.

The most popular of the long wools is the Lincoln. These have been largely
imported from England and crossed with the Mestizo sheep, as well as bred pure.
The fleece of these first strains is heavy, the wool healthy and fine, being consider-
ably longer in staple than that of the Merino, and still sufficiently soft to suit the
manufacturer. The offspring of the long-wooled sire and the Mestizo dam is healthy
and vigorous, of a larger build than the Mestizo, and a kindly fattener, more so,
indeed, than the later crosses, which approach more the Lincoln in type. As the
process of crossing goes on the wool gains in length but loses in fineness. The Lin-
coln stamps his type upon the stocks very rapidly. Other long wools, such as the
Leicester, the Cotswold, and the Romney Marsh, have been introduce<i without
obtaining general favor.

The Romney Marsh, with its healthy frame and soft wool, may possibly become
a greater favorite than it is at present when the general breeder has learned to dis-
tinguish with greater discrimination than he can at present boast the various classes
of English sheep. The Cheviot has also been imported, but in too small quantities
to be worthy of notice; nor is it likely that this breed, adapted for a poor cold coun-
try, with an inferior fleece of irregular coarse staple and light weight, will find
much favor in a land capable of carrying more productive, thou'^h more delicate,
stock.

There are breeders who hope to preserve the Lincoln-Merino cross as a stamped
type by crossing back to the Merino again, when the wool becomes too lengthy and
strong. Such an attempt is not likely to be attended with much success, and the
breed subjected to this treatment will become prey to all the caprices of atavism.
More profitable would be a practice of selection carried out on the same scientific
principles that have served to form all the typical breeds of the world, to produce
sheep which should, happily, combine a good carcass with a good fieece, holding in
view the particular requisitions of the country in which it is to live.

(Crosses between the Downs, i)articularly the Southdowns and Ox-
fordshire Downs, have been tried without satisfaction. It is said that
the wool proved to be of harsh quality and the fleece of light weight.
They likewise suffered badly from the diseases incident to the country
and climate, and so have been practically abandoned.

Of the several States of the Argentine Republic we have the follow-
ing information relative to the conditions of sheep breeding and wool

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1558

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

growing. The State of Buenos A3'^res is by far the most important
as regards the number and distribution of sheep. The author has
divided this State into four principal divisions, showing how the sheep
are distributed in numbers per square mile:

I

Area jj umber of
' (square i ^JJl
miles). ^'^^♦^P-

Section I

II

Ill

IV

Total

Average
number

per
square
mile.

48,415
36,»40
18,260
6,770

48,141,000

14,279,000

2,417,000

523,000

99.-.

132
77

110,285 65,363,000

592

This province carries also 10,422,0(X) cattle and 2,020,000 horses in
addition to about 5,000 square miles under general culture. The
author estimates that if we consider ''that a cow consumes as much
as 5 sheep and a horse as much as 7, then the natural pastures of
the province of Buenos Ayres maintain stock at the rate of 186 sheep
per 100 acres per annum, ^ * * the natural pasturage being all
the forage consumed."

The average rainfall in this province is 30 inches, the fall beinj? less in the south
than in the east and west. The atmosphere is somewhat humid, more especially
in the east. O.wing to this circumstance and also to the proximity to the meat
markets, this is where most of the long wools and their crosses flourish.

In the other provinces the rainfall is reported to be somewhat higher
than in Argentina. An avemge for the localities in Santa Fe is placed
at 42.2 inches and that for Entre Rios at 44 inches. In the Pampa,
central the soil is light and sandy, the rainfall slight, and the atmos-
phere a dry one. Merino sheep thrive well here, and the State is
undoubtedly best adapted for the fine-wooled breed. The more south-
ern provinces have not yet become important producers of mutton and
wool. The distribution of sheep in the entire Republic is shown in
the following table:

state or department.

Buenos Ayres

Kntre Rios

Corrientes

Santa Fe (south)....

Santa Fe (north)

Cordoba

San Luis

Santiago del £stero .
Salto ,

Fampa, central .

Rio Negro

Neuqucn

Chubut

Santa Cruz

Gallegofi

Total

Pastoral
area

Number of

Average
number

(square
miles).

sheep.

per
square
mile.

110,286

65,863,000

d92

30,000

4,900,000

163

22,000

610,000

28

23,000

2,400,000

104

27,000

520,000

19

45,000

1,386,000

31

20.000

240,000

12

25,000

780,000

31

36,000

160,000

5

b5,000

6,000,000

92

85,000

2,520.000

90

45.000

115,000

3

240

17,200

72

48,000

26,500

10,350

116,000

11

591,875

85,153,700

142

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1559

The exportation of wool from Argentina in 1891 amounted to
310,000,000 pounds, or an average of 4 pounds for each animal, if we
accept the enumeration of 78,000,000, and as almost all of the wool
is exported this may be accepted as the average net individual yield
of the animals. Pure-bred Merinos naturally give larger yields of
wool, the weights of fleeces from this breed being about the same as
are obtained in other countries. It is staited that well-bred mestizo
sheep yield 6i pounds of crude wool, which shrinks from 60 to
65 per cent in scouring — that is, giving from 35 to 40 per cent of
clean wool. The land will support 2i fine-wooled sheep per acre,
but of the long-wooled breeds it will support only two. These lat-
ter shear from 5i to 7 pounds of greasy wool, which is said to lose
from 50 to 60 per cent in scouring. Crosses with the Lincoln, which
approach closely to the Lincoln type, readily yield from 7i to 8i
pounds. Such crosses give wool of good marketable quality, and
wethers of 1 to 2 years old yield from 56 to 75 pounds of mutton,
much sought after by the freezing establishments, and bringing from
3 to 4 cents a pound. On these accounts, and on account of its hardi-
ness and the better quality of the wool produced from it, the Lincoln
breed is the favorite for crossing with the Merinos and mestizos.
Unquestionably there is much to be learned from Argentina breeders
and woolgrowers in the great industry of combined mutton and wool
production, and the experience already gained in this far-away south-
ern Republic could find extensive application in many sections.of our
own country in the advancement of successful management of the
flocks for profit.

The descriptions of the estancias of Argentina and their management
are full of interest and value. We shall undertake to coUate some of
the data presented regarding them, the number of sheep in each flock,
the yield of the wool, etc.

Los Remedios and Las Acacias: Owned by Messrs. Olivira Brothers.
The sheep are Merinos, of French and German origin, the ewes yield-
ing from 10 to 18 pounds of crude wool and the rams from 20 to 28
pounds.

El Carmen: Owned by Dr. Estanislas S. Zeballos. The flocks con-
sist of 1,000 Rambouillet Merinos, 10,000 Lincolns, 1,000 Southdowns,
and Oxfordshire Downs. The Rambouillet rams yield 18 to 24 pounds
crude wool.

Los Jaqueles: Owned by Mr. Richard Newton. The flocks consist
principally of Lincolns and Lincoln crosses.

El Venado: Owned by Felipe Senillosa. This estancia, with an area
of 19,760 acres, carries 20,000 sheep, 3,000 cattle, and 300 horses.

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1560 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

Tho sheep flocks consist principally of RambouiUet Merinos and
Lincolns, and the yield from these is stated as follows:

34 shearling Ram bouil let rams average per head. - 16 3

Firststud flocks do 10 12

Second stud flocks do 8 2

General RambouiUet flocks do 5 14

Lincoln :

First stud flocks do 7 8

Se<'ond stud flocks do 7 5

Third stud flocks do 6 10

General Lincoln cross flocks do 5 5

San Felipe: Owned by Don Pastor Senillosa. The area of the
estancia is 42,640 acres and it carries 50,000 sheep, 9,250 cattle, and
1,400 horses. The flocks of sheep consist of RambouiUet Merinos,
yielding for rams 15 to 26 pounds, and for ewes 8 to 13i jx>unds.
The yield for the general flocks is 6.29 pounds.

Negrete: Owned by Mr. David A. Shenman. It has an area of
27,300 acres and carries 35,000 sheep, 7,500 cattle, and 1,800 horses and
mares. The sheep are made up of the following flocks: One Negretti
stud flock, 1 RambouiUet stud flock, 3,500 pure-bred RambouiUet
sheep, 30,000 Leicester, 500 Lincoln, 1 Leicester and RambouiUet
cross flock. The avei'age yield of crude wool in these flocks is as
follows: Negretti stud ewes, 10.48 pounds; RambouiUet stud ewes,
8.70 pounds; RambouiUet general flocks 6.94 pounds; No. 1 Leicester
ewes, 7.81 pounds; Leicester general flocks, 6.29 pounds; No. 1 Lin-
coln ewes, 10.24 pounds; first-class Leicester and RambouiUet, 6.64
pounds; general return from 35,000 head, 6.42 pounds.

Jispartillar: Owned by Mr. John Fair. Area, 40,000 acres, carry-
ing 54,000 sheep, 8,000 cattle, 1,900 horses, or the equivalent of 2.50
sheep per acre. The flocks consist of Lincolns and RambouiUet Me-
rinos. The average of crude wool from 21,(X)0 RambouiUet Merinos is
5. i2 pounds and that from 33,000 Lincolns 7.77 pounds. The general
average for all flocks is 7.01 pounds, and this is said to be the heaviest
yield obtained in the Argentine Republic.

Dos Hermanos: Messrs. Santamarina, owners. These gentlemen are
owners of 300,000 sheep distributed over several ranches. The area of
this ranch is 22,724 acres, supporting 45,000 sheep, 5,000 cattle, and
500 horses, or the equivalent of 3. 24 sheep per acre. The flocks consist
of 30,000 Rambouillets, 15,000 Lincoln crosses, and the average yield
from all is 4.84 pounds of greasy wool.

La Isabel: Owned by Dr. Celedonio Pereda. It covers 16,067 acres
and supports 20,000 sheep, 3,400 cattle, and 750 horses, all equivalent
to 2.80 sheep per acre. The average yield from the Lincoln stud is
9.33 pounds; from 13,000 Lincolns, 5.64 pounds, and from 7,000 Ram-
bouillets, 5.21 pounds. The genei-al average yield for all flocks is 5.40
pounds.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1561

Manantiales: Also belonging to Dr. Celedonio Pereda. The area of
this i-anch is 10,600 acres, supporting 10,600 sheep, 4,200 cattle, and 800
horses, equivalent to 2.62 sheep per acre. The yield of crude wool
from the Lincoln stud is 9. 11 pounds; from 6,000 Lincolns, 6.21 pounds,
and from 4,600 Rambouillets, 4.30 pounds.

Frece de Abril: A third ranch, belonging to Dr. Celedonio Pereda,
having an area of 40,014 acres and supporting 5,000 sheep, 10,500
cattle, 1,600 horses, equivalent to 1. 71 sheep per acre. The yield from
the Lincoln stud is 8.05 pounds, while from the general flock Lin-
colns it is 5.97 pounds.

Nueva Castilla and San Baldomero: These estates, likewise the prop-
erty of Dr. Pereda, are located near the town of Trenque Lauqueen,
in the extreme western portion of the province of Buenos Ajn-es.
Though it has the generous area of 98,800 acres, it is not largely
devoted to sheep raising. On one-half the estate Dr.. Pereda herds
10,000 sheep, 4,400 cattle, and 1,200 horses. The remainder of the
ranch, let to colonists, carries 30,000 sheep. The Rambouillet stud
gave an avemge yield of 8,41 pounds of wool per head, while the
average for the entire 40,000 sheep on the estate in 1891 was 4.67
pounds. It is interesting to note that the averagre yield from 75,000
sheep on the foui estates of Dr. Pereda amounts to 4.97 pounds.

Las Barrancas, owned by Mr. Patrick Ried, covers an area of 11,676
acres and supports 19,500 sheep, 2,500 cattle, and 200 hoi'ses. This
would be equivalent to 2.86 sheep per acre. The flocks consist prin-
cipally of Lincoln sheep, but there are also some fine-wooled sheep of
Rambouillet descent. The latter yield per head from 5i to 13, scour-
ing to 40 to 42 per cent of clean wool. The Lincoln fleeces weigh
from 5i to 18 pounds, and scouring to 48 to 55 per cent of clean wool.

The Cummalan estate is owned by a stock compan3\ Its area
exceeds 700,000 acres, and at present it carries about 300,000 head of
sheep, 50,000 head of cattle, and 18,000 head of horses and mares.
There are three colonies upon the estate, each with its center of popu-
lation, and comprising in all a cultivated area of 160,000 acres. These
colonies are worked b}^ Russian, Italian, and French emigrants, and are
already turning out immense quantities of gmin.

The flocks consist of 125 pure Lincoln ewes and hoggets, 63 pure
Lincoln rams; 1,995 crossbred Lincoln i-ams, 300 crossbred Lincoln
ram lambs, 254,611 general sheep. The average individual 3ield of
washed wool from 254,100 sheep is 6.03 pounds.

Los Ingleses: The history of the estancia is probably fairly repre-
sentative of the sheep and wool industr}'^ in the Argentine Republic.
It is located in the department of Ajo, province of Buenos Ayres, in
the vicinity of Cape San Antonio, and is the propert}'^ of the famous
Gibson family. At the present time it is under the management of
Mr. Ernest Gibson and Mr. Herbert Gibson, the author of the work

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1562 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

from which the above tlata have been collated. Originally the area of
the estate was 26,356 acres, but this has been increased by various
acquisitions to about 65,000 acres. The climate of the section is mild,
the maximum temperature during the year never exceeding 90^ F. in
the shade, and the minimum never falling below 28^ F. The atmos-
phere is moist and heavy dews very prevalent. The minfall amounts
to 32.54 inches annually and is equally distributed throughout the
year. The pasturage is therefore abundant and of the best quality.
At the present time, land suitable for stock in the estancia amounts to
about 36,000 acres. This area carries 75,000 sheep, 15,000 cattle,
8,400 horses, or the equivalent of 2.75 sheep per acre. The flocks are
now all of them of the Lincoln type, and for three years, 1890 to
1892, inclusive, the average yield of wool from them was 6.28 pounds
per head. For the ten 3^ears, 1S83 to 1892, inclusive, the yield was
6.66 pounds per head.

From 1868 to the present the flocks have passed through different
types of breeding, and after years of breeding the proprietors have
finally adopted the Lincoln as the most favorable and most profitable
type for all puiposes, and the forty-six flocks now held are of this kind.
The Romney Marsh was at one time the favorite breed, but this breed
was finally abandoned for the Lincoln.

Most of the estancias here mentioned were represented by the product
of their flocks in the exhibits in Chicago, and the study of the data here
presented in connection with the results of the examinations made by
the judges must be a source of profit to those speciall}^ interested in the
production of either, or both, mutton and wool.

The conditions affecting sheep breeding and woolgrowing in Uru-
guay are in man}^ and, indeed, in most respects similar to those which
control in Argentina. The social conditions, the topography, climate,
soil, and pasturage are all much the same, and the tendencies in the
development of the flocks exhibit naturally like similarities. It is to
be regretted that the commission in charge of the exhibits of wool
from that country were provided with so limited information concern-
ing the industry and its development. What was available is embodied
in the following memorandum from the Hon. PrudenciodeMurguiondo,
president of the commission:

VV^ithout any statistical or historical data at my command that would assist me in
giving a description of the wool- producing sheep in the Oriental Republic of Uru-
guay, with the needs re(iuired for so important a matter, I have availed myself of
the casual presence of Mr. Romula Chopitea, who is visiting the Chicago Exposition,
is (conversant with the matter, and has supplied some reliable information regarding
this industry in Uruguay.

The report furnished by Messrs. Carlus Maria de Pena and Ilonore Rouxtau in
1S51 may be said to mark the time when the general demand arose for the improve-

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1563

ment of this stock in the Republic of Uruguay. It was checked by the civil and
foreign wars at short intervals, causing the fields to be deserted and the fanners to be
terrified by the onslaughts of the warring factions, which threatened the partial or
entire destruction of their flocks and the progress begun in the interbreeding of their
sheep.

Since 1873, however, these interruptions have been less frequent, and tbe improve-
ment— crossing of breeds — made great headway, and has continued ever since. There
is nothing that better proves the exactness of the changing point of this development
and improvement of this industry, beginning in 1851, than to see the statistics of the
following year, which show the existence of 796,000 sheep in the country, where
before the great war, referred to by Dr. Pena, its rich fields were covered with three
classes of domestic animals— cattle, horses, and sheep, the two former predominant.
A greater part of these fields remained deserted during the war.

The army and guerrillas supported themselves on these animals. The degeneration
of the flo<*ks must be attributed not alone to the lack of care and attention of our
farmers before that period, but also to the complete desertion and the consequent
wild life and intermingling of the different breeds. The general type of these animals
when the farmers commenced to domestic ate them again was a slender, lean body,
thick, coarse wool, without elasticity, though long; fore legs and belly bare. These
sheep are called Creoles, while the name "Mixed blood " is given to those preserving
some resemblance to the Dorset Horned breed.

Commencing from this time an economical struggle is conspicuous of improvement
and importation into the country of several European breeds of sheep which the
great landowners believed to \ye best adapted to their various fanns. Doubtless from
that date there can be observed a great awakening of the country's energy from the
terrors of the dark days of war. The finest specimens of the beautiful German
' Negrete" breed and the finest French Rambouillet breed were introduced into
Uniguay, and these continue to l)e imported on a much larger scale than ever before.
These were crossed with the mixed blood, interchanging them in some cases. For
several years some raisers have given this matter great attention and have crossed the
offspring of the former breeds with large English flesh females, and so far this (Toss-
ing has given good results, both as regards the fineness of the wool and also the meat,
which is bought eagerly by the butchers for food purposes.

The breeds most preferred for crossing are the Lincoln and the Romney Marsh,
their choice depending largely upon the conditions of the fields or the taste of the
raiser. The Romney Marsh is better adapted for fields with short grasses.

The Uruguay exhibit in the agricultural building at the World's Columbian Expo-
sition shows clearly the progreas made in wool products since 1851, and the fleeces
have not l:)een prepared for the purposes of exhibition especially. The .samples show
wool fleeces taken from bales that were about to be exported and in market, and were
not selected by the farmers themselves for exhibition.

The number of sheep in Uruguay in 1852 was 796,289; in 1860, 1,939,929; in 1886,
17,245,977, and at this writing alx)ut 23,000,000. These figures give solely the num-
ber on which the Government has received taxes, and therefore to be considered
authentic.

Exportation of wool.

Year.

Quantity.

Value.

1889

Kilos.
45,433,529
21,939,517
25,910,039

19. 149, 932

1890

7,865,811

1891

8,206,692

I regret that I have not the data of the product and export for the year 1892, but
know that it is very much larger than that of the preceding two years.

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1564 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

This memoranduin of Mr. de Murguiondo confirms the statement
that the conditions of the sheep and wool industry in Uruguay are in
every respect similar to those prevailing in Argentina. The flocks
are descended principally from the CrioUos, or Creoles, and Mestizos,
common to the South American Republics, impmved by admixture
of blood from the English long-wooled breeds and the French and
German improved Merinos. As in Ai^entina, the Lincoln blood has
had the preference in building up the flocks, and the Lincoln type
therefore predominates. The Merino type is, however, plentiful, and
the exhibits in Chicago from Uruguay contained some excellent exam-
ples of veiy high-bred Merino wool. The collection shown indicates
that the Republic can furnish material for almost every class of woolen
manufacture.

MEXICO.

The exhibits from Mexico in the class of wools were very meager
and not of high quality. What was shown was not accompanied by
infoiTiiation of a satisfactory character showing the pedigree of the
animals producing the wool. Much of the product was from native
stock, some of it, however, showing improvement by admixture with
Merino blood. The State of Pueblaseut some wool of the latter kind,
some of it white, some brown and black. The results of our exami-
nations will show fairly well the standard of quality of the staple
exhibited and will illustrate the possibilities of the improvement of
the sheep-breeding industry in our neighboring Republic.

GUATEMALA.

The chai-acter of the wool from Guatemala is naturally similar to
that from Mexico. The flocks in that country, such as are to be
found, are either pure native breeds or these crossed in a limited way
with the Merino blood. The wool is generally short, of dingy color,
and from animals apparently badly cared for. That from the native
sheep is made up of two classes of fiber, like that of most of the native
sheep of all countries, the longer fiber almost hairy in its natui*e,
coarse, rather harsh, fairly lustrous, sometimes elastic and strong,
and in other cases brittle and weak; and the shorter fiber of under-
growth, taking the place of fnrin other animals and similar in many
respects to the wool of the coarse Merino or the finer Down wools.
Indeed, the wools of these native sheep of southern North America,
and of the mountainous sections of South America are much similar
to those of the Fat Tail native breeds of Turke}^, Asia Minor, and the
East. These breeds of Mexico and Guatemala crossed with the Merino
quickly yield progeny giving wool of the highest quality as regards
fineness, softness, elasticity, and strength. The equable climate of the
elevated table-lands of Mexico and Central America should be tHe
home of enormous flocks of fine wool-bearing animals.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1565

RUSSIA.

One of the most interesting exhibits of animal fibers shown in the
exhibition, both to the merchant and the breeder, was that offered by
Russia, combining as it did the products of nearly every variety of
wool, fur, and hair bearing animals. In previous expositions this
country has made splendid exhibits from her justly celebrated flocks
of pure-bred Merino sheep, and samples from these flocks were not
wanting in this Exposition, though they were not shown in the same
profusion as in the earlier expositions in this and other countries.
The exhibits in this class were far more diversified, and while good
samples of Infantado merino fleeces were shown, visitors had oppor-
tunities also to examine the wools of the native breeds of sheep, so
curious and interesting in the form and outline of the animals and in
the character of the staple. For the sheep breeders and wool growers
of the United States it is unfortunate that some literature on the sub-
ject of these breeds was not offered, and that the magnificent work of
six large quarto volumes, descriptive of the flocks and their manage-
ment in the different provinces of the Empire, exhibited by the com-
missioners from Russia, could not be rendered into English for their
edification and instruction. It is to be hoped that some good authority
on sheep breeding will take up this subject and place the facts concerning
these animals properly before the American public.

Of the merino wools little need be said. They are all of the Infan-
tado strain, descended directly from the early importations from
Spain. In character these fleeces are more nearly similar to those of
France and the United States. They are very dense and heavily
charged with yolk and grease common to the fleeces of the colder
latitudes. The staple is generally short, scarcely exceeding 2 inches
in length in crimp.

The wools from the native sheep are nearly all coarse and consist of
the two classes of staple common to sheep which have not been highly
improved by selection and special care^the longer hairy portion and
the undergrowth of wool. These wools frequentl}' have exceptional
strength and elasticity, indicating high value, not only for manufac-
turing purposes, but the possibility of development from these breeds
by crossing with the Merino of flocks capable of producing finer
wools of the highest quality for all uses. Among these breeds are the
Karakielskaia, the Tshushka, the Tschunduk, and the Tushinskaia.
Such crosses do not seem as yet to have been undertaken by the
Russian breeders, at least no wools from such crosses were shown, so
far as the fine-wooled breeds are concerned. One sample of wool from
a lamb of Tushinskaia, crossed with Oxford Down, was shown, which
was remarkably fine and strong.

A most interesting sample was one of wool or hair from a cross
between a Merino sheep and an Angora goat. Such a cross seems

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1566 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

most remarkable, and is certainly something entirely new in the sheep-
breeding industry. The wool seems to partake of the characteristics
of both ("lasses of animals represented. It is al)out 4 inches long, is
very line and strong, has good luster, and if its production can be
repeated and increased it must become greatly sought after by manu-
facturers of certain lines of goods.

Camers hair was shown in every condition of the crude product and
from every part of the animal. Of this staple the most valuable por-
tion is the undergrowth of fur, which rivals in fineness and strength
the best merino wool, while for softness and silky luster it can not be
surpassed. The colors of the samples shown vary from light gray to
dark brown and from the finest fur to the coarsest hair.

To those who incline to the finest fabrics nothing could be more
interesting and fascinating than the fur of the brcAvn goat, the utiliza-
tion of which constitutes such an important industry in the district
about Orenburg, furnishing employment for the peasant women dur-
ing the long winter months when other employment is imjx>ssible.
These goats are grown in large numbers in this and adjoining districts.
Their fleeces are not shorn as in the case of other wool or fur bearing
animals, but when the goats are ready to shed their coats the fur is
plucked by hand by the women. It is then packed in small bales and
sent to the markets, the principal one being that of Orenburg. Grown
in the surrounding districts, it is brought to Orenburg by caravan, and
here is distributed to the peasant women, who work it up into various
kinds of fabrics, for it seems to find the widest uses.

As found in the markets it consists of a mixture of coarse hair and
fine fur. Comparatively little of it finds its way to the factories to be
worked up by machinery; but, as before stated, it is almost exclusively
combed, spun, and woven by the women of the district named.

In the combing, process a bunch of the crude material is taken in one
hand while a straight needle, similar to a knitting needle, held in the
other hand is combed through it. By this means the shorter fine fibers
of fur are drawn out, leaving behind the larger and very coarse fibers
of hair. The operation is seveml times repeated, until the fur is finally
obtained entirely free from hairs. It is then ready for spinning.
Sometimes the crude material is combed by being drawn over a hatchel
similar to that formerlj^ used in this country for flax. The fine fiber
is held back and preserved and the coarse hairs rejected.

The fiber thus prepared for spinning is placed in bunc^hes upon a
peculiar form of distaff, consisting of a narrow board fastened verti-
cally to the end of a bench, upon which the operator may sit. At the
top of this board is fastened a coarse wooden comb with its teeth point-
ing upward. The fibers are then brought into contact with a pointed
and rounded stick serving for a spindle, and this latter is then made to
spin with one hand while the fiber is drawn down to it with the other.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1567

The yarn as it is spun is wound upon the spindle until sufficient is pro-
duced, when it is wound off and made into skeins. Both in the piuctice
of combing and in spinning the peasant women are very expert They
are able to produce yarns of the most uniform quality from the finest
to the coarsest, and from the finest yarns, both by knitting and weav-
ing, to produce weblike fabrics of utmost delicacy and beauty of design.

The most beautiful fabrics made by these women are the Orenburg
shawls, specimens of which were exhibited in the Women's Building
among the products illustrative of the cottage industries of Russia.
These shawls are so fine that as many as 1,500 stitches are frequently
carried upon a single needle. The persistency as well as the skill of
these peasant women who knit the shawls is shown by the fact that
a year will often be consumed in making them. Those exhibited in
Chicago were 7 feet square (covering 49 square feet), weighed only
8 6unces each and could readily be drawn through an ordinary finger
ring. The designs from these shawls are conveyed from generation
to generation by inheritance, and when finally others are wanting the
women are said to copy the fantastic designs of the frost flowers upon
their windows in winter. B}^ this means they are often able to secure
most unique effects.

The fur is likewise used for making coarser fabrics, such as heavier
shawls and dress goods, particularly attractive because of their soft-
ness and silky luster. The staple is never washed until after it is
made into fabrics, and even then it is f requentl}^ left unwashed. This
is particularly true of it when it is made into the heavy homespuns
which are used for dresses for the ladies or suits for the men. One of
the favorite uses of these goods by the men is in making hunting suits.
The residue of animal grease left upon the fiber makes the fabrics
practically waterproof, while its strength and resistance to wear makes
it almost indestructible. This fur has found its way to the markets
of this country and it must prove invaluable in the manufacture of
fine yarns. It was shown in the splendid exhibit of Carl Griibnau, of
Philadelphia, under the name of noils from Russia. The skin of this
goat is also tanned with the fur remaining and the hairs removed, mak-
ing most attractive fur skins for clothing pui*poses.

We are indebted to Count Rostofzov, of the Russian commission, for
the following very interesting statement concerning the condition of
sheep breeding in his country.

8HEEP BREEDING IN THE NORTHERN GOVERNMENT OF RUSSIA, INCLUDING THE UPPER
VOLGA REGION AND THE LITTLE KNOWN BLACK EARTH REGION.

In the northern regions of Russia sheep breeding is developed to a certain extent
in the following governments l>elonging to the upper Volga region: Yaroslav, Kos-
troma, Tver, southern districts of the government of Vologda, and northern districts of
the government of Vladimir. These districts are interesting chiefly because they con-
stitute that part of the country where the Romanoff breed of sheep is raised. The

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1568 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

center of breeding of this sheep \» the town of Romanov; the farther from this center the
le>« important is the breetl of «hecp. The other governments of northern Russia are
St. Petersbunl Novogorod, Pskov, Olonets, an<l Archangel. In these government?
the industry is of scarcely any imiKirtance, and sheep are here raised by peasantf
exclusively for domestic purposes.

IajcoI tKirieties of aheep, their characier and diMrihution.

In the whole north of Russia but one type of sheep* predominates. It is charatv
terized by a short tail, not over 2 inches long and covered with coarse hair. They
are for that rt^ason calle<l "short-tail" sheep (Brachyura). These sheep constitute
a very large gnmp and can Ix; divided into two classes according, chiefly, to their
geographical ilistribution. The sheep of the first class are found in the north of
Eun){X' and Asia. They were described by Pallas under the name of the northern
short tail shwp (Orw bnichynra borenlU). The other class found on the Baltic and
(lennan seacoast were called by Nathusius the "short-tail" sheep of the plains.

The northern short-tail or Finnish sheep, besides Ijeing characterized. by its short
tail, ha< the following external and physiological characters: Its height is slight,
alMUit 1 archin; its iKxly is covered with long hair, generally gray, which is produced
by a mixture of black and white wck)1; the white iil)er8 grow longer than the black,
in consecjuence of which the sheep change c»olor, ami after shearing they are nearly
black; then, as the hairs grow longt»r, they l)ecome lighter and sometimes l>ecoiiie
altogt^ther white. Very often they have a strii>e of darker color growing along the
middle of the liack.

The rams have nearly black withers (one seldom sees perfectly black sheep), the
head and legs are destitute of hair and are of a black color, the muzzle is straight,
and the horns spiral. In the ewe the horn is straight and just a little bit curved at
the extremity. This likewise sometimes hapi^ens with the rams. They are very
prolific and the laml)s immediately after birth are covere<i w^ith black glittering
down. (The skins of these laml>s, taken at from two to six weeks from birth, are
curtnl for furs and furnish the fur known in this country as "Persian lamb" and
Astrakhan.) This breed is also found in the governments of Yaroslav, Tver, V^olog-
da, Kostroma, in the southern part of the government of Novgorod, and in the
northern part of the govermnent of Vladimir.

Blasius dcH'lared that this sheep is not confined to these parts but is also found in
northern Asia. The northern Iwundary of the distribution of this bree<l in Euro-
jH'an Russia goes farther north than 59°; the southern boundary extends along the
right shore of the Volga, through the northern part of the governments of Nijnii
Novgorod and Vladimir, the southern part of Tver, the eastern part of Novogoda,
the southern jmrt of Olonets, and then enters Finland.

Within the confines of the distribution of this breed in the northern part of Rus-
sia, and in all of southern Russia with very few exceptions, the so-called Russian
sheep is raised. This variety of sheep is small, with a thin, rather long tail. The
rams have generally long horns, twisted in the shape of a corkscrew. The fleece of
wool does not cover the entire animal, and the following parts are covered with a
short and coarse hair — the head, beginning with the eyes to the lower jaw, the legs,
and the knee.

The staple is 3 inches long and under favorable conditions this l)ecomes of better
(juality and is not ea««ily compressed. The color is chiefly white, although blacrk
and gray sheep are occasionally found; the average weight of the adult sheep is
al>out 70 pounds. Sheep of other breeds are only occasionally met with in this
region.

The Merino and Romanov sheep are sometimes found In several parts of the govern-
ments of (^aloga and Smolensk. .According to its geographical distribution this
variety of sheep belongs to one of the most ancient. It was probably brought over

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WOELD's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1569

to Europe by the Finns from the high plateaus of central Asia, where to this day are
to be found sheep greatly resembling it. The severe climate of the countries inhab-
ited by this short-tail sheep has given it a downy fleece. The type has undergone
changes under various conditions; in some cases the fleece has become softer and
more downy, and in others coarser and shorter.

Professor Tchernopiatov distinguished, besides the Romanov variety of Kostroma,
the Voldi, the Moshna, and the Zubstov sheep. The Kostroma sheep is heavily built,
but has a gray light fleece, a poor skin (unsuited to the manufacture of leather) and
while it is unaffected by extreme heat it does not easily succumb to disease. The
Voldi is not noted for its wool, but it makes good mutton and is easily fattened. The
Moshna resemble the Voldi sheep, but are generally white. The last-named sheep
was a fine animal, but it is nearly extinct.

Externally it is difficult to distinguish the Romanov from the Voloda sheep; for
instance, only an expert could tell the Romanov sheep from the higher quality of
its wool. The best description of this breed was given by the sheep breeder Gavrilov,
twenty-five years ago. The sheep are of medium height; the full-grown animal is
about 251 vershoks long and 16 verehoks in height. The head of the young ram and
of the adult ram and ewe, beginning with the middle of the forehead, has a (!urved
profile as far as the muzzle, and this constitutes a very good (character of this type of
animal. The eyes are full of expression and have a meek glance; the sheep are very
tame; the ears pointed and of medium size; the bonis of the ram are very like those
of the merino; in the ewe they are straight with a crook at the end, but there are
animals, both ewe and ram, which are totally destitute of horns. In temper these
last named are quieter and better than the others. The wool of the Romanov sheep
is of light gray color with light, grayish-brown down which consists of thin filers 2
vershoks in length. These fibers are straight on all the animal except the net;k,
where they are curled. The lower parts of the legs and the head of the animal are
covered with a different kind of wool, which is black; the fleece reminds one of that
of the merino in consisting in waves, as it were, and l)eing oily to the touch; these
waves consist of very thin fibers, straight or ('urved, which constitute the down (or
wool) proper; the latter, that is, the down, shows that the Romanov type has
either acquired or inherited noble blood. The black sheep are found in small num-
bers and they are generally kept with the white and gray ones. The gray sheep
gives a more valuable skin, but the wool of the black sheep is preferred by manu-
facturers of Russian boots. (The boots are made of felt.) The quality of the gray
sheepskin differs with the time of year, the age of the animal, the onler of the sheep,
and the coarseness of the wool. This difference is caused by the growth of the coarse
black hairs which are called the * * pesiga. " In the old animals the pesiga grows longer
than the white, soft wool, and for this rea.«>on the sheepskin has a dark color and does
not curl after it is manufactured. The sheepskin is better in summer than in winter or
spring. These are all the points of value to be offere<l with regard to the Romanov
breed of sheep, which is really only a variety of the short-tail sheep.

Origin of the Romanov sheej).

The celebrated breeder Gavrilov, who described the Romanov sheep, says they
came from crossing the common Russian sheep with the Silesian rams which were
brought from Germany in small numbers in the reign of Peter I. Although it can
not be proved, some circumstances favor the suggestion. The following characters
are similar to those of the Silesian sheep: The softness of the fleece and curliness of
the wave, peculiar chiefly to the first class of sheep of this variety; the gray color of
the wool was formed from the mixture of the white Silesian sheep with the local
black ones. The author of this book thinks that the Silesian animals had nothing
to do with the origin of this variety.

COL EXPO — 02 99

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1570 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

Even in the tinte of Peter tlie Great sheep of a valuable kind were grown in the
government of Yaraslov. Mr. Sokolov thinks that the Romanov sheep appeared in
the second half of the eighteenth century and was the product of crossing the Dutch
ram with the local sheep. There are many reasons to suppose, though, that the
Dutch sheep were introduce*! in the southern governments of Russia, .so that it seems
more likely that they ha*i nothing to do with the origin of the Romanov sheep.
There is another suggestion of Mr. Sokolov on the origin of the Romanov sheep, that
it descended from Kirgiz sheep, but this is not proved. The high value of the
Romanov sheep as compared with the other kinds of short-tail sheep is to be
referred to the following conditions: The high quality of the soil; better management
of the sheep and artificial selei^tion. All these conditions have concurred to pro-
duce the breed of sheep known as Romanov.

In this c-oniiection the following exti-act from the consular report
(4rl, May, 1884) of United States Con.sul Van Riper will be of interest:

The well-known Russian caqier w<x>l is a proiluct of the southeastern govern-
ments and not to \)e found equal in length and strength in any other jnart of tlie
world. The most valual>le are the "Savolga" — fleeces, of 4 to 6 inches in length,
and as the climate is a very trying one in these* i>rovinces the wool becomes soft and
downy. The next l)eHt (luality are the Donskoi fleeces, to l)e found in the steppes
on l)oth sides of the river Don. The production of the Savolga fleeces has dimin-
ishe*! considerably during the last decade, as the original breeders of this kind of
sheep, the Khirgese, are be<5oming poorer from year to year. The jiastures of
these nomads extend as far as the Volga, and the rich flat country bordering the
river had pla(«<i them in the iwsition for keeping large herds of steppe sheep.
Gradually the pastures of the Khirgese were cultivated by the Government, who
took possession of them, and they were therefore driven back to the uncultivat4?d
steppes, where, in conse(]uence of the had climate and scarcity of food, their live
stock diminished considerably. Peasants settled on the land formerly use<l for pas-
tures, and began to bree<l the 8tepi)e sheep. These i)ea8ants and those of the Don
diHtricts are the only ones who bree<l this kind of sheep, which do not require shel-
ter or much care. Wealthier pea.sants occupy their time with breeding the merino
sheep, which pays them Ixitter.

Consul George Scott writes the State Department, May 28, 1885:

'There are several denominations of wool, namely, Cherromari, coarse, long wool;
Belovadsk, coarse and very long wool; Don wool of the Cossack territory, short or
second clip; line, short wool of the Caucasus, soft texture staple; Manitch or Don
wool from the villages along the river Manitch, of good length, although clippeil in
the autumn, and brook washed wool, autumn shorn, also in the grease. All of the
alxjve are sold or shipped under the denomination of Donskoi wool. * * *

Russian washed wools are also brought to the ports for sale under the denomina-
tion Donskoi. These wools are, the greatest portion, in foot bales, and some in press
bales, wa.shed in the interior at Barssiliptz on the river Coiner, at Saritsine on the
Volga, in the Caucasus, near Stasoropol, and in villages on the river Manitch, also
near Cherson. In 1884 something over 5,000 bales were sold to exiwrters and
reljaied.

Merino fine wools grown on the line of the Caucasus, near and along the river
Kuban, and in the district of the Don Cossack territory, form a great portion of the
commerce in Rostow on the Don. There are many large sheep farms kept by settlers
from the Tauride, who took their sheep there during the Crimean war. The high
prices paid during some years have entice<l niany{)ea.Hants and small farmers to rear
this class of sheep, finding it more a(lvantagtH)us than rearing common sheep. * * *
A large portion ^of the wool) is exportetl in the grease to France, England, Belgium,

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world's COLCMBIAN exposition, 1893. 1571

and Prussia. The remainder is sent to the interior towns to be scoured for the
Moscow market and manufactories. The weight of fleece of merino" wool, is from
ewes 6 to 7 pounds, from rams 8 to 9 pounds Russian, but all depends upon the winter,
the pastures, the locality, and the spring weather.

It will be observed that the names attached to the samples we were
able to secure from the Russian exhibitors are not to be found in the
above ^descriptions, if we except the Donskoi and the Romanov breeds.
We can only conclude that the names we have are local and are applied
to varieties of these principal breeds grown in the different sections.

It was to be hoped that in view of the close relations of the Spanish
Government and people with the Exposition, and the traditions upon
which it was based, that that one of the Spanish products with which
our breeders are so closely identified and in which they are so deeply
interested, the merino wool, the fleeces from the great Escurial studs
and the Transhumante flocks, would be offered in abundance, and be
accompanied with such information as would make important additions
to our store of knowledge concerning the ancestry of the fine-wobled
breeds of this country, which, by careful selection and management,
have been brought to such a high state of perfection. The disappoint-
ment caused by the very limited exhibits in this class was, therefore,
most natural, and the nine fleeces shown attracted almost no attention
and were unworthy to represent so important a source of wealth to all
the nations into which this Spanish breed has been introduced.

Standing forth among the European countries in the importance of
the wool clip, and producing, in 1880, 66,138,000 pounds of wool, it was
natui-al to expect that a substantial exhibit would be made. The ofli-
cial catalogue of the Spanish section describes five sepamte contribu-
tions, but as a fact only two contributions were showfi — those of Oi'tega
Saenz Diente, of Cuenca, and of Charques de Perales, of Madrid. The
exhibit of the latter, the more important, consisting of seven fleeces of
white merino wool, was the most impoiiant. It is the product of a
Tmnshumante flock, which is pastured in Villanueva de la Serena
(province of Badajos) and in winter in the mountains of Leon. On
this account these fleeces are of peculiar interest. When it is considered
that these two localities are more than 200 miles apart in a direct line,
or as is sometimes said, " as the crow flies," and that much of the inter-
vening country is rugged and uneven, the. severe character of this
semiannual transfer will be appreciated. Yet this is a most extensive
practice in the management of the flocks in Spain, and much of the
wool from that country is produced under such conditions.

The fleeces of this exhibit were all light, though weighed in the nat-
ural greasy condition, the weights varying from 4 pounds 7 ounces to
8 pounds 7 ounces, while the length of the staple in crimp was 3 inches
and under, thus placing it strictly in the class of clothing wool.

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1572 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

The contribution of Sonor Saenz Diente consisted of two fleeces, one
of black and the other of white merino wool from his flock pastured in
the Sierra de Cuenca. The annual production of the flock is stated to
be SO metric (|uintals, but the number of sheep producing it is not
given, and the average is, therefore, not avaihible.

All the fleei'cs shown were clean and in excellent condition, and indi-
cate careful treatment of the flocks.

TURKEY.

The exhibits of animal fibers from the Ottoman Empire, consisting
of wool from the fat- tailed sheep and the hair and fur of goats, though
not extensive, were full of interest, and illustrate most plainly the
intense conservatism which prevails throughout that ancient domain.
In the kind of animals grown and in the management of the flocks no
progress seems to have l>een made in the methods and pittctices since
the country was subject to the influences of the early Hebrew com-
monwealth. The flocks are still cared for by the shepherds, who lead
the flocks from place to place as the judgment of the flock master or
the conditions of pasturage, water suppl}', or the climate dictate. The
main principle controlling such movements seems, however, to be the
avoidance of the extreme heat and drought of summer and consequent
short pastui-age by moving to the mountains, and of the inclemencies
of the higher altitudes in winter by moving to the valleys in winter.

The exhibits offered were collected from and represent the prov-
inces of Asiatic Turkey, or the peninsula of Asia Minor lying between
the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. The product of European
Turke}^ seems to have been entirely neglected by the Commission,
possibly because on the other side of the Dardanelles and Bosphorus
pastoral pursuits do not have the same prominence, or the flocks are
maintained more for the production of meat and milk than of wool.

Almost the sole breed of sheep grown in Asiatic Turkey consists of
the celebmtcd fat-tailed type,* which has become spread over the entire
Eiistern world, from the Mediterranean and the Red Sea to the Pacific.
In Turkey, as elsewhere, thev are bred alike for mutton, wool, and
the large deposit of fat formed about the tail. These animals, whose
pedigree extends to the most remote antiquity, and which are known
in their native country as the sheep of Mount Ararat, are kept in
flocks of about 200, each under the care of a shepherd. They are
said to be excellent travelers, and as they are led from the winter pas-
turage of the valleys to the summer pasturage of the mountains, they
gather food which they readily assimilate; and, in spite of the con-
stant motion in which they are kept, they increase in weight and lay
on enormous quantities of fat.

The sheep weigh about 200 pounds alive, and yield when slaughtered

*See Consul Sweeney's report, p. 1575.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1673

carcasses weighing about 150 pounds, the rams weighing genemlly
about 40 pounds more than the ewes. The mutton is (considered good,
but is prized less than that of the thm-tailed sheep of Roumelia, which
furnishes the mutton for the markets of Constantinople. The sheep
of these Asiatic provinces are particular]}' valuable to the natives
because of the enormous accretions of fat al:>out the tail, which fur-
nishes almost the onl}' animal fat used in the country. These accre-
tions grow to enormous size, reaching 40 and sometimes 00 pounds in
weight, and are said to be frequently so heav}" thjit the}' are torn away
and fall off because of their tenderness and consequent incapacity of
the limited connective tissue to supjx)!! them. F'or such reason they
must be supported, and such relief is furnished })y attaching, by suit-
able harness, a board, one end of which rests upon the ground the
other end held up under the tail by the supporting harness provided.
Sometimes for greater relief a small two-wheeled cait is provided,
which when harnessed to the animal is so held that the tail may rest
upon it and it may easily be drawn alK>ut as the flocks move from place
to placce. These deposits of fat are particularly attractive to the dogs
and wolves which often attack the flocks. Falling upon the sheep
they devour the fat and leave them without other injury.

This fatty tissue in the natural condition is said to contain sometimes
as high as 92 per cent of fat, the average yield being about 82 per
cent. The fat has about the same consistency as butter, and is used
in much the same way.

The bodies of these animals are fairly well covered with fleeces which
weigh from 10 to 18 pounds, the faces and legs being bare, or at least
covered only with short hair. The wool consists of two kinds of fiber,
the longer, which is more hairy in character, coai'se and free from
crimp, and the shorter or undergrowth of finer wool, having crimp
and other characteristics similar to the wool of the Down breeds. In
this particular these sheep are very similar to the native breeds of
sheep of our own and other countries. The flocks are sheared twice
a year, and the spring clip is considered to be the superior. This is
used in the manufacture of the finer rugs. The fall dip is short, and
is principally used for the coarsest carpets.

The greatest center of sheep and wool growing is the province of
Konieh, devoted alike to the breeding of the fat-tailed sheep and
Angora goats. Nearlj^ all the provinces of Asiatic Turkey seem,
however, to have been represented in the exhibits.

Of the goat hairs exhibited that of Angora or Mohair is by far the
most important and interesting. It seems to be grown in all the prov-
inces of the Empire, and samples were exhibited from Angora, Konieh,
Sinope, Bordor, Akshekir, Sparta, and the Dardanelles. Samples
from Angor» were considered by the judges to be '^excrellent, of good
quality, soft and silky." Some of the samples shown were, however,

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1574 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

coarser and harsher to the touch, and were considered to be of inferior
pedigree. The fleece is said to weigh about 5 or 6 pounds, and at
this weight is of the best quality. Fleeces which are heavier are said
to be coarse and less desirable, and to lack the fine luster comnion to
the lighter fleeces. The average weight of fleeces which have been
washed upon the animals and pulled will reach 6^ pounds.

The hair is used for manufacture of rugs and for export. It is
the only product of the animals that has any value, for the skins can
not l>e tanned because of their tendenc^^ to readily tear and split.

In the interest attaching to them and in the value of their products,
the Sivas goats are scarcely secondary in importance to the Angora.
These animals, which seem to belong specially to the province, are
peculiar in that they produce fleeces consisting of the mixture of vevy
coarse hair and an undergrowth of very fine fur. The origin of the
type does not seem to be accuiutely known, but it is believed to be the
result of a cross between the fine-haired goats of Russia with the com-
mon goat of Turkey. However, they may be an original species, or
they may be descended from importations from Russia, for they are
similar in many respects as regards the fleece to the goats of the dis-
trict about Orenburg.

The animals weigh about 60 pounds alive, and yield dressed carcasses
weighing about 40 pounds. They yield fleeces weighing from 8 to 9
pounds of the hair and fur mixture already described. The two kinds
of fiber are sepai-ated by combing, the fur being used for finer fabrics,
gloves, stockings, muflSers, etc., and the hair for making gi-ain sacks.
The latter is also used for making carpets, rugs, saddlebags, and fre-
quently also for the coats and underclothing of the shepherds.

The most valuable products of these animals are probably their
skins, which are shipped mostly to the French market for manufacture
into gloves. The skins of kids are worth from 75 cents to $1.50 each
in the country of their production.

The goats of Odana produce an exceedingly coarse hair, which
would seem to be of little value for textile purposes. The animals
yield from 12 to 15 pounds of this product, but it is the least valuable.
The flocks are reared principally for the milk of the ewes, each of
which is capable of yielding about 2 quarts daily. They are kept
in large flocks, frequently to the number of 3,000, and they are always,
on account of their hardiness and activity, kept in the mountains
where no other animals can graze. When they are grazed near the
villages or towns they are driven through the streets and their
milk, freshl}'^ drawn from them, is delivered to customers after the
practice followed in some of the towns of France. The milk is said
to be of excellent quality, and it is used in the province for making
matzoon, a fermented product similar to that made by the Tartars by
the fermentation of mares' milk.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1575

The growing of wool and hair in Asiatic Turkey would seem to be
in a fairly prosperous condition. Late statistics published from the
statistical bureau of the United States Treasury Department place the
production of wool in that countiy at 17,504,524 pounds, and the same
authorit}' shows that the movement of Turkish wools in the United
KingdoiAof Great Britain increased from 8,689,970 pounds in 1883 to
22,774,764 pounds in 1892.

In addition to the above facts contributed by the commissioners to
the Exposition from Turkey the foUowingv valuable paper contributed
to the Consular Reports of the Department of State by Consul Z. T.
Sweeney will be of the highest interest:

SHEBP DISTRICTS.

The whole of Asiatic Turkey may be considered as a woolgrowing country, because
every province of Asia Minor produces this article to a great extent. It is interest-
ing to note that the quality produced in every district seems to depend largely on
the habits, character, and civilization of the inhabitants of the respective provinces.
Thus the greatest exportation of wool in Turkey in Asia, according to the official
statistics, is made from Mesopotamia, where the inhabitants are all nomads and
have no other occupation than taking care of ver>' numerous flocks of sheep and
migrating during the whole year from one region to another, according to the cli-
mate and foraging conditions of the country.

Flocks. — Flocks of sheep are not at all as numerous in western and northern Asia
Minor as in the valleys of the Euphrates and Tigris. This is, of course, due to the
fact that in those parts of Anatolia the inhabitants are much more occupied in culti-
vating the country than traveling all the year round with their tents and flocks of
sheep. A relatively higher degree of civilization and less nomadic life doubtless pre-
vail among the people of Anatolia than those of the desert r^ions of Mesopotamia.

Wool classificaiion. — Another important point which is generally worth noticing in
Asia Minor is that the quality of the wool in each district seems to be influenced by
the climatic and topographical conditions of the country. Thus, the wool of the
flocks of sheep of the plains of Mesopotamia, and which belong to the Arabs (these
people inhabit the whole valley of the southern Tigris, and are divided into achirets,
or tribes, to whom l)elong the flocks of sheep), and which pass the winter outside,
owing to the mild climate of the country, is of much finer and cleaner quality than
the wool of the flocks to the north, viz, of the province of Koordistan, where the
severe winter obliges shepherds to keep their sheep under peculiar roofs, which are
called "aghel" in Turkish, and are always inadequate to cover the numerous animals,
which very often lie in dirt, and thus the wool is deteriorated to a great extent

Wool washing. — If we continue our examination by comparing different samples of
wool, we flnd that it is cleaner wherever there are several small rivers which the
animals could cross. Wool is free from dust when the flocks live in mountainous
regions. There is, for example, a far greater amount of dust in the wools coming
from the plains lying east of Konieh or Iconium than in that coming from Angora
and the other regions which are mountainous.

Breeds of sheep. — With regard to the different families of sheep in Asia Minor, it
must be pointed out that there are actually very few differences among the races of
the various districts, and these differences can be divided principally into two dis-
tinct classes: First, the flocks of Anatolia — excluding Mesopotamia — belong generally
to the family known in Asia Minor as '*Caraman." It is indeed difiicult to explain
why this name has been given to the principal family of sheep in this country.

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1576 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

Perhaps it is because the district of Caramania and the fields of Tchoukourova (low
land), which are extending to the south, are the places where a great many 8he|>-
henia meet, coming with their flot^ks from all jmrts of Anatolia every spring In order
to shear the wool. Second, the other principal family is that of Mesopotamia, but
the sheep belonging to the same differ essentially, a(X'onling to the different regions,
and no general name is given to it. "Kanwli" or "Karakash,'* **AwaaBi," **Mea-
delli," *'Kerkouk," and "Djaff" are the names given to the different qualities of
wool pnxluced in Mesopotamia. The fact is that the flocks of Mesoix>tamia have
l)een crossed with Persian sheep, of which they maintaiH the principal element in
their blood.

Rrjtorts. — It is reporte<l that 35,()00 l>ales are exported yearly from the whole dis-
trict of Mesopotamia and the greatest proportion of this quantity goes to the United
States.

Vilayet of Angtmi, annprmng the diMri(ii< of Angoray Kervhehh^ and Yoozgal.

Sheep and w<m)1. — Comparing the respective figures of the wool clip in the several
districts of the vilayet, or province, for the last two years we notice a marked
increase in the numl)ers of the last year. This increase should not be attributetl to
a gradual increase of the yearly wool production, but to the fact that many flockc
perisheil from cold and severe weather during the winter of 1889, there not being
sufficient shelter for them owing to the defective precautionary measures and mor-
tality having incrreased 20 yter cent more than the average.

Breeds. — All the floi^ks of the Angora vilayet, about 500 in number, belong to the
well-known Caraman breed, which in some respects resembles the cross breed.

Reports. — Out of the total production, 1,81^,547 okes' during 1890 only one-third
of the clip of the Kerehehir and Yoozgat have been forwarded to foreign countries,
while the remainder, together with the whole production of the district of Ceearea,
has been appropriated to lociil consumption. On the whole the exports from this
vilayet are decreasing, local consumption increasing every year, especially for the
manufacture of carpets.

Domestic use, — The quantity of the clip retained for local and domestic manufacture
is used in making curtains, canvases, carpets, rugs, covers, stockings, bags, and
coarse overcoats.

Washing and shearing. — In this vilayet the wool is never w*ashed on the backs of the
sheep, Imt only after being sheared for local use, so that it stands about 50 per cent
of the original weight. As regards exportation we must state that washing is prac-
ticed comiiaratively only on a small scale because it does not pay the exporters.
****»♦»

Clip. — Each male sheep of this vilayet is estimated to give annually If okes of
wool, while the feniales give only 1\ okes. It is estimated that both males and
females exist in equal numbers in the flocks. About 100,000 sheep are sent from
this vilayet to Constantinople, Smyrna, and Brusa for consumption and an equal
numl)er are killed for local demand annually.

Shearing. — The male sheep are sheared in the province from the 15th to the 30th
of April and the females toward the end of May. During the year 1890 besides the
1,835,547 okes, there were also 100,000 okes of wool sheared from the skins as well as
the autumn clip of 350,000 okes.

*1 oke=2.8 pounds.

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1577

Number of sheep and production of wool in Angora in 1889 and 1890:

AiiK^m

KiTi:liohir .

Yoozjfat

Cesftreu

District.

Number of sheep.
1889. ! 1890.

Production of wool.
1S89. 1890.

472, 74*2
18.^093
224,:r77
132.109

fi2n, MO
184. 781
273, 157
140, 421

Total , 1,014,381 I l,223,t)99

Okrs. I Okes.

709,113 , 938,010

277, 639 I 277, 171

336,565 I 409.735

198,253 I 210,631

1,521,570 I 1,835,547

Vilayets of Bassorah^ Bdgdady and Moftidy comprisinf/ the districts of Bassornh, Ainara,
Kerbelay Bagdad^ Suleipnaniej Kerok% and Mosul.

Sheep and wool. — The statistics of the above three vilayets or provinces give a total
of 3,600,628 sheep for 1888, and 4,204,851 slieep for 1889, respectively. It must be
observed that these figures, although drawn from official reports, can not be relied
upon because the official reports are based ui)on the taxes collected for every head
of sheep and, as there are many nomadic tribes which escape jmying tax by crossing the
frontier into Persia when the collectors of the tax arrive and returning as soon as the
officials have left, it is l)eiieved that the correct amount for 1889 is 6,000,000 sheep
for the three vilayets mentioneti. From the afore-mentioned vilayets 34,800 bales of
wool were exported in 1888 and 36,800 bales in 1889, the net weight of each bale
ranging from 115 to 120 okes.

Breeds. — The principal family of sheep living in the provinces of Bassorah and
Bagdad is that of "Chipal." The main feature of this particular breed is that the
wool is finer than the other kinds exported from Mesopotamia, the only drawback
being the great proportion of color existing in their wool. Only about 20 yier cent
of the flocks contain white sheep, the remainder being black, gray, fawn and brown.
The Chipal breed is very common in these two provinces. Roughly s[)eaking, 80
percent of the sheep of this region Injlong to this breed, the remainder to the Kara-
kash breed, the wool of which is used to manufacture carpets, while the Chipal
wool, known to the United States as ** genuine Bagdad," is used iri the manu-
facture of clothing. •

In the province of Mosul the predominant breed of sheep is that of the vilayet of
Diabekir, viz, the Arab bree<l, the wool of which is known in the United States as
"Awasi;" the other breed is the Karakash, already mentioned. The Arab or Awasi
sheep are met with in the desert of Mesopotamia, while the Karakash sheep gener-
ally live near the high, mountainous region of the frontier, because, their wool being
much heavier than the Awasi sheep, they can not bear the excessive heat of the
desert which they frequent during the winter season.

Variety of wool. — It is interesting to note that the climate influences to a great
extent the distribution of different herds of sheep in this region; for instance, the
more we get to the south the wool becomes finer and finer, changing from the Kara-
kash to the Awasi, an<l from this last to the finest of all, the Chi[)al or Bagdad wool
which grows in the warmest districts of Asia Minor. In the same way the nearer
we approach to the eastern and mountainous r^ions the wool grows (!oar8er and
coarser, so that the sheep found in the mountainous regions of Persia ])ear a wool
which is heavier than the usual Karakash, and is distinguished from this wool by
the name of * 'Persian Karakash. '*

Domestic use. — Some 30 or 40 years ago a very great percentage of the wool pro-
duction of these districts was appropriated lor the manufacture of the stuff which
the Arabs use in making their "Jelly baa" and "Hyacks" and which is called

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REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

"Mechlas/* Now the manufacture of these stuffs employs the largest proportion of
the wool that remains in the country. Besides the mechlas stuffs, many other
woolen articles are manufactured in this province, as in others.

Washing. — In the vilayets of Bagdad and Bassorah the sheep, before being sheared,
are washed to a certain extent in the rivers, while in the vilayet of Mosul the wool
is only washed after it is sheared, so that it shows about 75 to 80 per cent of the
original weight.

W(H)l chgRification.— The wool of the vilayet of Mosul is generally of the Karakash
breed, while the Bagdad and Bafisorah wool is of theChipal breed. The proportion
of these different qualities in the total exports of 36,800 bales for 1889 is as follows:

Chipal breed, 50 per cent, of which 80 i)er cent was colored and 20 per cent white;
A wa.si, 30 per cent, of which 80 per cent was white and 20 per cent colored; Karakash,
20 per cent, of which 80 per cent was white and 20 per cent colored.

Number of aheep in each vilayet for 1888 and 1889.

District.

1888.

1889.

Vilayet of Bagdad:

1,096,083
221,816
102,156
299,961
29,131

1,248,141

Hin?

276,233

Kerbela

104,957

Imperial farms, excluded from official liata

376, 100

MoN<]iie of Kadril, excluded from official lists ,

32,000

Total

1,749,087

2,037,431

Vilayet of Bassorah:

Bassorah

30,131
«)0,934
218,816

81,000

33.000

Muntefik

590.000

Amara

243,000

Imperial farms, excluded from official lists

90,000

Total

825.881

956,000

Vilayet of Mosul:

Mosul

462,660
329,576
170,484
63,000

511,200

Kerkook

401. l.W

Suleymanie

179,070

Imperial farms, excluded from official lists

120,000

Total

1,025,660

1,211,420

Vilayet of Diarbekiry comprising the districts of DiarheHr, MardiUy and JJjisire.

Sliearing and washing. — The Arab sheep before being sheared are always conducted
through rivers, which clean them to a certain extent, and the weight of the wool
diminishes 8 to 9 per cent. Karakash wool is never washed when on the back of the
sheep, but only after shearing, leasing in washing from 25 to 35 per cent Arab wool
is often washed a second time after being sheared.

Domestic iise, — About 150,000 okes are used for the same purposes as in the other
vilayet*.

Mohair goats and sheep. — According to the official reports there were in the vilayet
in 1889 1,084,000 sheep, 191,000 mohair goats, and 799,000 black-haired goats. For
the year 1890 there were about 1,053,000 sheep, 186,000 mohair goats, and 751,000
black-haired goats. About 2,000,000 black goats and sheep are killed in the vilayet
every year and sent away for consumption.

Qip. — The total clip of this vilayet is estimated to be about 1,200,000 okes, com-
posed of three different qualities, viz, 40 per cent is the well-known Karadi, or Kara-
kash, quality (the l)reed of sheep which produce this particular quality is known in
Asia Minor under the name of "Kurdestan" and the wool is called "Kurd" wool);
30 per cent is composed of particularly fine wool, called Arab, or Awasi, wool, the finest
production of the province; the remaining 30 per cent is the poorest of the whole pro-
duction, which comes from all parte of the province.

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WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1803. 1579

Breeds. — The Arab sheep are found to the south of Mardin, where they remain
winter and summer, while the Karakash sheep emigrate in summer to the higher
regions toward the north of Mardin, near Diarbekir, because they can not withstand
the excessive heat of the desert, their wool being much heavier than tliat of the Arab
sheep.

To the south of Diarbekir, in the desert region which lies betweed Aleppo and
Mosul, there are about 6,000 tents of nomad tribes, which are continually moving
about, and whose sheep are not included in any of the official lists. Some of the8e>
tribes do not pay any tax at all, and others pay only insignificant sums as compared
with the number of sheep they possess, which is estimated at more than 300,000
head, with a wool production of about 350,000 okes. This wool is sold by the tribes
as they go on their joumies through the different provinces.

Vilayet of Kastamoonie, comprising th^ districts of Kofiamoome, KanJcaree, Boli, and

Sinope.

Breeds and wool. — ^The flocks of sheep in this vilayet also belong to the Oaramania
breed, there being little difference between the respective clips of the various dis-
tricts. The wool exported from the district of Kankaree and Boli is the finest of all,
being full growth and fine in quality.

Clip. — The total clip may be estimated in round numbers at 600,000 okes for the
whole province, of which 100,000 okes only are exported, while the remainder is
appropriated for local (consumption, for the same purpose as in the province of Angora.

Shearing and VHwhing. — The above exports include 10,000 okes of wool exported
on sheep skins, forwarded without being sheared to foreign countries. The wool is
exported from this vilayet in its greasy state, and is only washed for local use so as
to lose about half the original weight of the sheared wool.

Molioir goats. — ^There are in this province about 544,840 mohair goats. The fol-
lowing statement shows the number of sheep in each district of Kastamoonie in 1890:

Kastamoonie 169, 704

Kankaree 122,406

Boli 149,601

Sinope 65, 265

Total 506,976

Vilayet of Konieh, or Iconinm^ comprising the disiric*'< of Konieh^ TeH, Hamid {or
Spfwla)^ Bordoury and Nigdeh.

NUMBER OF SHEEP AND EXPORTS OF WOOL IN EACH DISTRICT OF THE VILAYET OF

KONIEH IN 1890.

Districts.

Exports of
wool.

Number of
sheep.

Konieh

Okes.

318,945

150,570
70,950
66.375

178,600

495,800

Telco

171,800

Hani id ( or Sparta)

98,400

Bonionr

59.000

Nigdeh -- - --

195,000

Total

785, 440

1,020,000

Wool. — The total clip in this province is more than 1,500,000 okes, 785,440 okes of
which are exported.

Slieep. — Roughly speaking, the sheep are pretty nearly evenly divided, half being

males and half females. A male sheep yields yearly about 2 okes of wool, while the

females yield not more than 1.5 okes per head. The average yield is about 1.5 okes

per sheep \)er year.

»«»»«*♦

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1580 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

Wool cUiMificniion. — There is but little difference of quality between the wool of
the vilayet of Kouieh ami that of Anj^ora. The last name is given in Europe and
America to Konieh wool, and in the United States all wool coming from western
Apia Minor passes for Angora wool.

Washing and shearing. — No washing is practiced in this province except for local
uw» and on a very small scale for exjwrt. There is a custom in this province of shear-
ing the wool a second time, in August, when the sheep, before being sheared, are
ronducte<l through small rivers and are washed to a certain extent.

VarieUj of \rooL — The wool coming from the east of Konieh is rather dusty, because
the sheep live on the plains which extend over a vast region of the country.

The facts presented in Consul Sweeney's paper will give added inter-
est to the following transcript of the notes made by the judges during
their examination of the Turkish exhibits of wool. It must be remem-
l>ered that according to the statement of the commissioners forTurke}'
ail of the wools were from the fat-tail sheep, and that no other names
of breeds were given by them.

24:^51. A. 22. Provim^ of Bordour; lamb's wool; good carpet filling or blanket
wool.

24352. 528. Province of Bonlour; wool in the fleece; a soft, desirable wool; 7-inch
staple.

24353. Province of Sniope; wool in the fleece.
241354. Province of Bordour; mohair.

24355. 534. Province of Sniope; mohair; 2 samples.
24:356. Province of Konieh; mohair; 2 samples.

24357. Province of Snioj)e; mohair.

24358. Province of Beirut; wool; washed.

24359. A. 34. Province of Brouasa; wool; washed; a short., soft filling wool without
much character.

24360. A 29. Province of Konieh; wool; unw^ashe<l; small staple; too small to
report on.

34370. 532. Province of Sniope; wool; black. Fair sample of black wool; 5 inches
long. J

24371. 35. Province of Sivas; sheep's fleece; good quality; long, sound staple;
excellent fleece.

24372. 576. Province of Konieh; sheep's fleece

24373. 561. Province of Konieh; lamb's fleece; 3 samples; fairly long, soft staple;
washed carpet.

24374. 560. Province of Konieh; ewes' fleece; two samples; a fine, soft, useful
wool, suitable for purposes other than carpets; staple, 6 inches.

564. Province of Konieh; soft carpet wool; somewhat irregular in quality; very
cotted; 4i inches long.

24375. Province of Konieh; rams' fleece; 2 samples; fair character; one quite low-
in (luality.

24376. 562. Province of Konieh; fleece; rather tender; cotted; heavy in condition
and v€»ry irrc^gular in quality.

24377. Province of Aksher; mohair.

24378. A 43. Province of Smyrna; fleece; soft wool with a good deal of kemp;
tender and somewhat cotted.

24389. A 20. Sivas; wool; white, coarse, strong haired, tender bottom; 9 inches
long.
24389. A 21. Wool; black.

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iV^ORLd'b COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1581

24390. 616. Province of Sniope; white wool; soft carpet or blanket wool; too vxyt-
ted to be combed to advantage; 5 inches lon^.

24392. 563. Province of Konieh; sheep wool; ram, 3 years; rough wool, running
down low on skirts and very kempy.

24393. A 30. Province of Kastamoong; wool; a goo<i soft worsted carpet wo<3l, of
uniform quality, 7 inches long.

24394. Province of Adana; goat hair.

24395. Province of Dezadj; goat hair.
24399. Province of Aksher; sheep wool.

B 22. Province of Angora; mohair, an excellent sample; good (luality; very soft
and silky.

B 23. Province of Angora; mohair; coarser than B 22, and inferior in color and
staple; apparently not full blooded.

B 24. Province of Ang6ra; mohair; very fine quality; short staple and wft to the
touch.

B 25. Province of Angora; mohair; similar to B 22, but very short staple.

The exhibits illustrated the irregularities to be found in the quality
of the product from Turkey, and consequent to the management of
the flocks and the climate in which they are reared. It is believed
that they were fairly representative of the clip of the provinces named.

EXHIBIT OF MR. CARL GRCBNAU, OF PHILADELPHIA.

It is but fair to say that no part of the exhibits of class 60 was more
unique in character or more interesting than this collection; due to the
public spirit, intelligence, and enterprise of Mr. Carl Grubnau, of
Philadelphia. Bringing before the wool producers and consumers of
this country for their inspection and instruction large specimens, not
merely hand samples, of the animal fibers produced in nearly every
foreign country and devoted to the uses of man, he has done a work of
the greatest value, and for which most hearty thanks are due. We can
not undertake here to offer a catalogue of these specimens. Such a
catalogue will be found in our table of results of the tests of samples of
these products. It is sufficient to say that almost no country seems to
have been neglected and that every variety of commercial product is
represented. It is at least true that Mr. Grubnau has brought together
all the products coming to the markets of the United States, and there-
fore of any value in the eyes of our producers and consumers. The
collection will speak for itself, and the results we have to offer will serve
to illustrate the wide variations in the animal fibers, not only in dift'erent
but in the same breeds, and even in the same breeds in the same local-
ities. The figures presented will be worthy of close study, and in a
very important measure will serve as a comparative standard of quality
of the products from the different sources of supply.

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1582 REFORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

THE UNITED STATES.

It was a matter of common and frequent observation and remark in
the World's Fair that the exhibits of wool from the different States of
the Union were by no means representative of the industry which
manages annually 45,048,017 sheep, worth $891,186,110, and produces
each year 348,538,138 pounds of wool. It is true that many of the
best breeders of the country sent examples of their work, and that it
was possible in what was shown to find wools as good as any produced
in the country, and, indeed, in any part of the world, but the quantity
offered was not sufficiently massive to be really impressive and amplj^
illustrative of the progress that has been made here in this great
industry. It is true that most of the States which constitute particu-
larly the breeding centers of the country, and from whose stud flocks
stock for improving the flocks of the Far West are sent out, fur-
nished fleeces. These were, in some cases, unaccompanied by such
information concerning them as was required by the authorities, and
so were excluded from competition, and therefore of official examina-
tion by the judges. But the large flocks of the great ranches of Texas
and the highlands of the Far West were conspicuously absent from the
Fair, and the sections which produce the larger portion of the wools
sent to market from the United States were not represented at all, or
were inadequately represented by a few fleeces of indifferent or infe-
rior quality.

It would be difficult to undertake anything like sectional classifica-
tion of the wool production of the United States as represented in the
exhibits offered with the expectation of showing marked differences in
the quality of the product. Thus far the sources of supply for breed-
ing material have been so uniform and the rules and methods of
breeding have had so much in common that like results must of
necessity be expected in fairly widely separated sections of the coun-
try. Thus, from external appearances, it would be practically impos-
sible to detect appreciable differences in the merino wools of different
strains produced in Vermont, Michigan, Minnesota, or Missouri, yet,
for convenience of description and consultation, and in a measure
offering like qualities of fleeces, we may consider together the exhibits
of the North and East, including Vermont, New York, Penns3'lvania,
and West Virginia; those of the eastern portion of the north central
section, including Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Michigan; those of the
western portion of the north central section, including Wisconsin,
Minnesota, Iowa, and Missouri; those of the highlands, including
South Dakota, Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, and Arizona; and, finally,
those of the Southern States, Kentucky and North Carolina being
practically the only States of this section represented.

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1583

To begin with the States of the North and East, these States —
Vermont, New York, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia — have been
justly noted for the high grade of the flocks of fine-wooled sheep
developed for breeding purposes, and it was entirely natural that the
fleeces sent from them should consist largely and even principally of
that type of wool. In Vemiont the Merinos of distinctly Spanish
origin have always been the favorite, and from them many of the
strains celebrated under different names throughout the country have
had their origin. The same integrity in breeding that has always
chaiucterized the flock owners is still maintained and is manifest in
the wools they offer for exhibition. A dense fleece of long staple,
covering completely a large symmetrical body, with fibers of good
though not of maximum fineness and of high strength and elasticity,
is the end aimed at and is the result generally secured. It was satis-
factory to find among the fleeces exhibited those from the veteran
breeder Albert Chapman, whose untimely death leaves a serious void
in the circle of fine-wool breeders, and whose stud flock has had such
an' important influence upon the fine wools of the country. The
fleeces constituting the c<)llection from Vermont are from animals of
medium or light weight, but producing heavy, dense fleeces. The
weights of animals we find to range from 82 to 132 pounds, and the
weights of the fleeces from 12 to 27 pounds. Such relations must
preserve the reputation of the Vermont flocks.

Of the other Northeastern States Pennsylvania and West Virginia
are, at least so far as the exhibits of wool indicated, devoted to the
Merino breed. The sheep breeders of these two States, their aims, and
their interests are so closely interdependent that their exhibits may
properly be considered together. It is greatly to be regretted, how-
ever, that these breeders should have been so lax in the preparation
and presentation of their exhibits that they should not have had them
in place for exhibition until so late in the progress of the Exposition
that they could not be properly examined by the judges, and that the
information furnished with the fleeces should have been so scanty as
to make examination and report unsatisfactory and almost impossible.
That the wool exhibited was of high quality need scarcely be stated.
Both States furnished fleeces of the highest order and in numbers
suflBciently large to be representative of the fine-wooled breeds, and
some of the best htud flocks were represented, too. From such data as
were furnished it appears that the tendency of the breeders in Penn-
sylvania is to the production of larger animals with propoilionall}^
lighter fleeces. Thus the weights of the animals range from 85 pounds
to 166 pounds, and the weights of the fleeces from about 8 pounds to
16 pounds.

Of the fleeces from West Virginia we secured only a few samples

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1584 REPORT OF COMKITTEE ON AWARDS.

from the more than 50 fleeces exhibited, and of the latter we have no
information whatever concerning the weights of the animals and but
little a})out their fleeces. The fleeces of Saxony Merinos, the produc-
tion of which is confined almost entirely to West Virginia, are natu-
rally ver}' light, but their fineness leaves nothing to be desired. It is
}K»lieved, and without doubt justly, that as fine wools as can be found
anywhere in the world are produced from these sheep. Neither of
these States offered sfx^cimen fleeces from the stud flocks of long or mid-
dle wools which are particularly to }je found in such perfection in the
eastern portions of Pennsylvania. These flocks are bred, howev^er, so
almost exclusively with a view to mutton production that it is scarcely
surprising that they should have been ignored on this occasion.

The exhibits from New York State were prepared with the highest
care and intelligence. It is believed that all the pure breeds of sheep
found in the State were represented in the Exposition. The number
of fleeces, though not 'large, included at least 4 from each breed.
This latter is true of the coarse wools, 2 rams' fleeces and 2 ewes'
fleeces being offered in each case. Naturally here also the Merino
fleeces predominate, and among them we find excellent illustration
of the possibilities of the production of long, fine wool upon large,
strong bodies. Thus we find here animals yielding fleeces weigh-
ing from 7 pounds to 27 pounds, of quality as regards length, fineness,
evenness, softness, and strength leaving nothing to be desired.
Among the the fleeces we find some from the flocks of Mr. W. G.
Markham, of Avon, N. Y., the progen}- of whose flocks are to l>e
found in almost every part of the world. The efforts of Mr. Mark-
ham and other breeders to produce animals capable of producing good
yields of fine, strong wool upon large carcasses, and so making posi-
sible combined production of mutton and wool, bids fair to be realized,
and the Rambouillet sheep, weighing 300 pounds and giving 15 pounds
of fine wool, belonging to his flocks are convincing examples of this
fact.

Of the (hoarse wools represented little need lie said. The records of
our examinations will ^show them to be reasonably fine for their respec-
tive classes, and both strong and elastic. It is interesting to note that
the collection contiiined examples of the C^hevoit and the Dorset Honi
fleeces from breeds thus far but little known in our country and of
probable value and usefulness for some sections of our country. It is
true that both these breeds have been received with scant favor in
those countries other than that to which they are native, but in this
country the interests are so varied and the conditions so different that
places will doubtless be found wliere they will serve a good purpose,
either for propagation of the breed itself for meat production, or for
transmission of the blood to other and less hardy breeds for the pro-
duction uf the more vigorous and precocious crosses.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1585

It is possible that Ohio, which is classed with the Central Northern
States, should be classed with the Eastern States also. The interests
of the breeders of this State have been so closely allied with those of
Pennsylvania and West Virginia, iind the families of Merinos in all
three so closely related, that in any extended consideration of the
Merino races in this country it is almost impracticable to consider
them separately. Nevertheless, in many respects in the sheep-breeding
and wool growing interests Ohio stands alone and independent. Her
reputation for the production of fine wool is undisputed, and the
expectation that the commission from that State would offer a large
and varied collection was fully realized. Ohio furnished the largest
exhibit of fleeces offered from the United States. Not only was the
collection a large one, but it was handsomely exhibited and contained
an extended variety of wools. It is by no means surprising that the
Merino fleeces should predominate, for the State is so greatly devoted
to the production of fine wools. So, in addition to the Merino wools,
we find also those of the Cotswold and Leicester, Shropshire Down,
and Oxford Down.

In this collection all the strains of the Merino blood seem to })e rep-
resented, and here, as in the exhibits from other States, we find fleeces
of from 15 to 25 pounds weight from animals weighing from 100 to
175 pounds. Such live weights illustrate the tendencies and aims of
the American breeders to produce large, hardy, well-covered frames
mther than to produce exceedingly fine wool; to secure animals which
may serve to infuse their qualities of good frame and vigor and large
wool production into flocks in which small frames and light fleeces
predominate, or may serve for crossing with the coarse-wool breeds for
production of animals giving simultaneously good yield of mutton and
wool.

The collection further illustrates the progress being made by the
breeders of the State in the effort to produce new and better strains
of Merino blood. Thus we find frequent crossing of the large frame
and long staple of the Delaine type with the small frame and short,
exceedingh' fine staple of the Saxon or Silesian type descended from
the early and celebrated importations of Welles and Dickinson. Such
a cross producing live weight of 115 pounds with a fleece of nearly 10
pounds is a good result, and experiments of this kind, com})ining the
principles of crossing with judicious selection, ctirried on with the skill
and intelligence common to the American breeder, can not fail to bring
al)out a substantial elevation of the standard of our flocks.

In strong conti'ast with the wools of Ohio, consisting principally of

the fine wools, are those of the immediately adjoining State of Indiana.

In a collection of about 50 fleeces scarcely half a dozen were of the

merino type. If we ma}^ judge from these exhibits, the sheep breeders

COL EXPO — 02 100

Digitized by

Google

1586 BEPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWABDB.

of Indiana are devoting their energies more especially to the produc-
tion of mutton than of fine wool. The Cots wold and the Down breeds
seem to be the favorites, and in addition to the few merino fleeces
already mentioned the collection was made up of fleeces of Cotswold,
Southdown, Oxford Down, and Shropshire Down. The records which
accompany these are full of interest and well worth careful study.
Cotswolds are represented in rams weighing from 175 to 300 pounds,
having fleeces of 13 pounds. Ewes of the same breed weighing 130 to
180 pounds gave fleeces of 8 to 10 pounds. Southdowns weighing
from 100 to 160 pounds gave fleeces of 3 to 12 pounds of wool, which,
it must be confessed, was not of exceedingly high quality. Oxford
Downs and Shropshire Downs show the best record among the Downs,
both for live weight and weight of fleece, the former weighing up to
200 pounds and the latter to 185, with fleeces of from 4 to 14 pounds
of wool of medium quality.

The sheep breedei-s and woolgrowers of Illinois failed to offer to the
judges for their inspection a collection of fleeces in any degree ade-
quate to represent the extensive flocks of the State. The latest statis-
tics show that the animals in these flocks number , and yet the

records of the judges cover only 7 fleeces from two exhibitors. One
fleece seems to have been the only representative of the fine-wool
flocks, and the splendid studs of long-wooled sheep, so widely known
throughout the country for excellent stock, were represented by only
one exhibitor.

Similar apathy concerning the Exposition seems to have prevailed
among the woolgrowers of Michigan, though to not the same degree.
The few fleeces offered to the committee of judges for their inspection
were of excellent quality, and, it is believed, fairly representative of
the product of the State. The exhibit consisted principally of merino
and Shropshire Down fleeces, the latter coming from animals ^^elding
12 to 15 pounds of good wool, while the merino fleeces contained from
12 to 36 pounds of wool of good length, fineness, and strength.

The collection of fleeces from Iowa was likewise limited as to num-
ber, but it was probably representative. It consisted of about equal
numbers of fleeces of fine and coarse wools. Among the latter the
indications to be derived from the exhibits show that the Downs are
preferred by the breeders, Shropshire, Hampshire, and Southdowns
and Dorset Horn being represented. The Shropshire and South-
downs weighing from 80 to 148 pounds gave fleeces weighing from
7 to 15 pounds of fairly good wool. A Dorset Horn ram 3 years old
gave 8 pounds 9 ounces of wool of good quality, and seems to justify
the favor this breed seems to be receiving in different parts of the
United States.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 18ft3. 1587

The Merino wool from Iowa, like that from Michigan, is mostly of
the Delaine type, from animals of medium weight and giving fairly
good fleeces as regards both weight and quality.

In the exhibits of wool in the Exposition, therefore, the States of
Michigan, Illinois, and Iowa were about on the same plane and were
very inadequately represented. The same may also be said of Min-
nesota, whose breeders have heretofore furnished such excellent mate-
rial for exhibition and who are constantly sending good wools to the
market. It is, therefore, remarkable that our collection of samples
and the fleeces examined and reported upon by the judges of awards
should consist entirely of Shropshire Down wool.- Even if we take
into account the serious decline in the number of sheep in the coun-
try during the past few years it can scarcely be possible that the
Merino and grade flocks have entirely disappeared.

From Missouri a very excellent collection of wools, principally
Merino of the Delaine type was exhibited. Grown upon animals
whose live weights are reported to be from 110 to 200 pounds, it is
not surprising that the fleece weights should range from 1^ to over
36 pounds. But little information was furnished with the fleeces con-
cerning the history of the animals which produced them, but it would
seem that if they were bred to the capacity to lay on fat like the
Down breeds the matter of com])ined wool and mutton production
would be solved. Among the coarse wools the Shropshire and South-
downs seem to be preferred, and if the other coarse-wool breeds are
grown in Missouri these collections do not show it. In this case the
Downs seem to have smaller live weights than the Merinos, which is
interesting, at leasl, if not surprising.

For much, if not most, of the fine wools of the home market we
depend upon the States lying west of the Mississippi and more lately
admitted to the Union. Situated as they are at the higher elevations,
having a climate more or less well suited to grazing, and areas avail-
able for the development of large flocks, the production of wool in
many of these new States has far surpassed that of an}^ of the oldei
States. Yet the woolgrowers have manifested the same sort of apa-
thy with regard to the Exposition shown by their Eastern colleagues.
South Dakota, Montana, and Utah furnished samples of the product,
the only collection of importance being that from South Dakota.
This collection offered a great deal of interest for the woolgrowers
on account of the different kinds of wool it contained and the facts
furnished with the fleeces. Many of them, indeed most of them,
were cross-bred wools, but they were all of known origin and served
well to illustrate the progress taking place in systematic crossing.
The tendency seems to be to give prominence to the Down types in
these crosses, and in this the Shropshire Down seems here, as else-

Digitized by VjOOQIC

1588 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

whore in the country, to have the preference. At the same time rep-
resentative fleeces of other crosses were shown, and we find spe<?iinens
from the first, second, and third crosses of the Merino with the
Shropshire Down, Southdown, Cotswold, and Lincoln offering oppor-
tunities for study and comparisons by those interested in the general
improvement of the flocks for general use not frequently found. So
also the collection contained specimen fleeces from crosses of the
coarse- wool breeds; the Downs and long wools, and both these with
the native sheep. Altogether it must be admitted that this was one
of the most interesting and instructive exhibits in this department of
the Exposition. Much pleasure and profit must be found in the care-
ful study of the results of the detailed examination of these wools
presented in tables further on. Wyoming, Montana, and Utaii fur-
nished a number of fleeces consisting mostly of grade Merino wools
of really excellent qualit}'^ as regards fineness and strength.' From
Wyoming we had the ordinary grade Merino wool in fleeces weighing
from 1) to nearly 25 pounds. From Montana the fleeces were some-
what lighter but of much the same quality. Those weighing from 8
pounds to nearly 22 pounds were shown, produced upon animals
weighing from lOO to 135 pounds. The wool is of the Delaine t3"pe,
generally ranging above 2.5 inches in length in crimp.

Utah furnished practically nothing to illastrate the extension of wool
production within her l)orders. The few fleeces of Merino wool shown
were of good quality and weight, and are a mild indication of what
might have been possible in the matter of an exhibit.

Wools from the Pacific coast were confined to » few fleeces and
small samples from Oregon, concerning which almost no information
could be obtained. With the favorable climatic conditions which pre-
vail in the great States of Oregon and Washington, the wool produc-
tion should be large and of high quality. The latter is indicated in
the few samples from Oregon.

The so-called Southern States were almost without represention in
the wool cases. Save a few fleeces from Kentucky and North Carolina,
and one from Virginia, that section failed to furnish anything to the
collection. The great State of Texjis, with her enormous flocks and
large product, failed to appear. Kentucky was naturally represented
in the Down wools, and this is true of North Carolina. In both these
States the Southdown seems to be favored as of old, though the Oxford
Down is also to be found. The fleeces from the two States are from
both these breeds. In Kentucky, animals weighing from 150 to 200
pounds yielded from 5 to 8 pounds of wool of not very uniform qual-
ity, and yet in many cases of good strength. Of the fleeces from North
Carolina w^e have no information beyond what was brought out in our
examinations, as will be seen farther on.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 18^3. 1589

As we have already stated, it is to be regretted that the exhibits from
the United States were so meager, and that they were in many cases
SO badly prepared for exhibition. Our exhibitors have yet, in our
opinion, much to learn from their foreign competitors, yet what was
offered has contained a great deal of valuable material for the exami-
nation we have prosecuted, and careful study of the results thereof
will be found of value for future work.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

1590

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWABI>S.

Details of history and average rmili»

DOMESTIC.

Name and addresn.

Record
No.

Ex-
hibit
No.

Breed.

Bex.

Age.

1

1 Cor-

fleece.

reeled

r^

fiber

in
crimp.

ARIZONA.

Navajo Indians

la

la
2

lb

2a
2a
3
4

5

1
2
1A

3
4

r»

Navajo black

wool.

do

Navajo white

wool.
Shropshire

Menno.
Grade Merino.

do

do

Shropshire

Merino.
do

Native

Shrm)shire ...

Pounds

, Zlut.az.

Inektr,

4

Do

Do

1 io 1

2.ao

Apache County

1

Wether.

....do...
....do...

Ewe

....do...

Ram....

Wether.

Ewe . . . .

do

3yrs....

2yrs....
2yr8....
2 yrs

lyr

lyr

1 vr. .

107

i.»

Do

1 I
111 1 4 12 1

111 1 4 i*> ;

Do

Do

97
118

1S7

4 1 i 1

Do

6 2 ( 1.7h

Do

•

8 15 3.10

COLORADO.

W.Lamont

2ti80G
26807
26807
26808
26809
26810
26811
26812

7 S 4

9 10 3

9 10 j 8

11 0 1 4

Do

Do

* ^*

1 vr .

Agricultural College

do

.. .do...

' '*

1 vr

Do

do

do

2 vrs

12 1 1 9

Do

do

do

f»'*°

1 vr . . -

13 4 5

Do

6
7

7

8

Merino

....do...

2 yrs

19 14

Do

Shropshire

range.
do

Wether,
do

1 yr. ...1

1
lyr. 1

11 8 LaO

Do

1

Do

26813
26814

26815

.5704

5705
5706
5709

5708
5707

VArinn

Ewe....
Wether.

do

1 vr '

ie ii t 2.50

Do

9 Shronshiro

1 vr. 1

10 7 1 4

Do

10

range.
do

1 vr. .

7 12 S.25

2 7 3L34

3 0 o iS 1

ILLINOIS.

Wm. A. Young

Do

*

Shropshire

Menno.
Cotswold

Ewe...
do

4yr8....
4 yrs

102

98
120
100

96
94

Do

.do

14 7

3 9

4 6
16 9

6 8

5 4

10 14

11 15
4 U

8.74
2.05

2.91
2

2

Do

Oxfordshire

1 Merino.

1 OxfriTdHhipo

Ewe

....do...

...do...

Ram

Ewe....

...do...

do

4yr8....
4yrB....

Syrs....
2vrs..

Do

E. Peck & Son

0
0
1
2
3
5

Cotswold
Merino.
Pure Merino..

Shropshire ...
Grade Merino.
Shropshire ...

INDIANA.

Peter Shock

Campbell

2 vrs

Eli Helser, Warsaw

Do ....

.5.'>11
5.^12

lyr

2yrs....
2 yrs

i35
165

5

5.14
2.75
3.50

B. McLeaa.

.','. '.do'.'.'.'.'.'. .

!!!.do!"

RobtH. Mitchell , Prince-

5495
5607

do

....do...

2yr8....

lyr

2yrs....
2yrs....
2yre....

2yrB....

lyr

2yr8....
1>T

2yr8....
2yr8

lyr

14mos..

iso"

8 12

ton.
Ryse & McLean, Shelby

7

9 !

10 ;

11 1

Oxfordshire

Down.
do

Ram....
do

130

200
200
180

7 16

U 11
9 4
10 0

vine.
Do

5.25

6

5.75

9.42
8.63

4.50
8.75

5.26
5

Q

Sid Conger, Flatrock ....

do

do

Ewe....
....do...

Ryse 4& McLean, Shclby-

5510

5506
5509

5508
5505

5502
5501

5498
5499
5620

ville.
Do

CntsvrctlA ,

Ram....
Ewe....

....do...

1

300 12 0
130 6 2

130 7 11
150 10 2

160 11 3
190 9 8

Do

12 1 OTrfnTdshlpp

Do

1
13
14

15 '

Down.
Cotswold

8. B. Morrison, Shelby-
vllle.
Do

do

do

....do...

Ram....
Ewe....

....do...

Do

16 OxfordshtrP

Do

17

Down.
Cotswold

130
110
123

7 12

C. Huston

18 ,

19 ,

Southdown .

do.

5 0 5
7 0 4.71 1

Do

.... do

....do...

Digitized by VjOOQIC

WOBLD's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1591

of tests of iTidividual samples of wools.

DOMESTIC.

Fineness of fiber.

strength of fiber.

Total stretch
of fiber.

D'SxS

S'.

18109^=
R.

41,600

Centi-

mlUl-

meters.

2.6695

Thou-
sandths
of
inch.

1.012

Frac-
tion of
inch.

Qrams.

Grains.
93.226

Milli-
meters
in20-
milU-
meter
length.

Per

cent

of

length.

39.83

Remarks.

^

6.041

7.966

14.fr4

16,569

Fine.

26.783

413. 3244

8.682

43.41

64.90

73,461

169,226

Coarse.

'2.*25i6*

".'886"

T^

1.994

.785

rir^

4.833

74.68454

5.558

27.79

19.448

22,062

79,208

1.867
6.0246
2.396
2.357

1.849

.731

1.978

.943

.928

.728

9.160
34.683
6.375

161.20599

535.2800

98.38122

7.324
7.532
4.632

36.62
37.66
23.16

28.88
21.98
17.78

32.685
24,878
20,125

89,259
66,060
86,900

Fine.
Coarse.

Too fine to

6.183

79.98585

4.232

21.16

24.266

27,463

129,840

mention.

2.5695

2.116

3.938

3.711

3.490

3.274

2.4186

3.361

1.012
.833
1.564
1.461
1.374
1.288
.952
1.323

7 K

15.233
6.516
26.67
24.858
12.975
18.975
11.166
22.300

286.0807

100.56718

411.580

383.6172

201.2326

293.8287

172.3174

344. 1414

8.774
6.416
6.432
7.550
6.940
8.390
7.104
8.824

43.87
32.08
32.16
37.75
84.70
41.95
35.52
44.12

36.91

23.284

27.516

28.878

19.4577

28.31

26.267

31.585

41,782
26,368
31,143
32,684
22,020
32,019
29,730
35,747

95,241
82,149
96,840
86,580
63,460
76,399
83,068
81,023

Unwashed.

3.1145

2.266

2.291

1.226
.892
.902

i£

20.86
6.866
10.916

312.2

106.05

169.459

7.364
6.266

8.124

36.82
26.33
40.62

33.598
21.394
33.24

88,021
24,215
37,628

103,200
91,966
92,637

Washed.

2.893

1.139

•fr

10.991

170.716

5.750

28.75

21.01

23,984

S2,728

2.482

.977

tA«

11.041

170.3884

6.808

31. M

28.67

32,457

109,714

3.257
3.315
2.611

1.282
1.305
1.028

22.50
28.116
10.691

347.22

433.8858
165.087

4.774
8.716
5.916

23.87
43.58

29.58

21.412
40.935
25.081

88,409
46,330
28,391

160,910
106,315
95,992

2.438

.%"2

tAi

14.683

242.0253

7.268

36.34

39.516

44,725

120,260

2.658

1.007

«fts

7.891

121.87667

5.200

26

19.295

21,838

66,700

3.4086

l.!»915

4. 148

3.711

3.2795

3.419

1.342
.784
1.633
1.460
1.291
1.346

10.608
5.925
12.126
15.55
10.958
47.83

162.163
92.436
187.117
239.972
170. 107
737.63

5.408
5.532
6.474
3.800
6.016
8.316

27.04

27.66

82.37

19

30.08

41.58

•14.60

23.914

11.27

18.108

16.29

65.467

16,622
27,067
12,750
20,447
18,445
74,096

61,125
97,856
39,405

107,610
61,312

178,200

3.9625

1.660

•in

16.66

159.431

5.800

29

16.98

19,218

66,275

4.3915

4.087

3.444

1.729
1.609
1.356

V T

22.341
17.683
21.995

344.774
272 890
340.5345

9 140
8.516
13.432

45.70
42.58
67.16

18.58
16 93
29.67

20,982
19,160
33,680

45,915
45,015
66,496

3.258
3.452

1.2826
1.359

14.20
16.84

219. 12
248.76

81.74
3.890

40.87
19.45

21.404
22.611

24,226
25,591

59,261
131.560

3.963
5.169

1..560
2.035

t

20.116
21.508

310.437
331.918

9.074

8.392

45.37
41.96

20.48
12.87

28,180
14,570

51,105
34.720

2.8665
•3.505

1.285
1.380

t

19.333
23.26

308.353
368.96

7.940
7.866

39.70
39.33

37.64
30.293

42,607
34,286

107,820
87,984

3.800
3.325
3.526

1.496
1.309
1.388

r 5

710

17.316
12.250
14.768

167.2264
189. 0462
232.0993

9.274
7.750
8.390

46.37
38.75
41.96

19.178
17.72

18.^1

21,703
20,065
21,484

46,804
51,780
51,204

Digitized by VjOOQIC

151)2

REPORT OF COMMITTEE OX AWARDS.

Mails nf InMorif and arerfu^e rr^ilH
DOMESTIC— Continued.

Niimo anti address.

INDIANA— rontlniic<l.

<).?:. Reploglo

Do

Do

Do

\Vm. Whipple

Do

Do

Bell Carpenter, Shelhv-

ville.
C. Collwell.Wnbash

Do

Do

Brolbins Bently

Toby WillianiH

VV. M. Coleman, Winter-
roud.

r. Huston

No name

C. Huston

W. M. Coleman

A.W. Dolph, Teegarden.

Do

W. M. Coleman, Wlnter-
w(X)d.

Do

Do

Do

Peter Shufe

Bell Cari>enter, Shelby-

ville.
C.Huaton

IOWA.

B. L. Bates, Naxsau.

J. J. Ed Ken ton, Nassau.

Do

Do

Do

Dc.

Do

Do

N. H. Edgenton, Nassau.

Do

Do

Do

J. H. MeKibbon, Albicm.

Keeord
No.

Do.
Do.

C. L. Gabrilson, New
Hampton.

5515ft

5515

5515b

5516

5516

M90

5517
5517
5517

5528
5500
*552i'

5523
55".>4
5526

Ex-
hibit ,
No.

Bree«l.

5527 I

5492

5518

R. J. Blakely. Grinnell..

Agrirultuml College, 1
Ames.

Do

Do

Do

Do i

Do I

Do I

Do

5406 ,
5407

54as I

5409

5410a

5-llOb,

5411 I

5412a

5-11 2b 1

5412c

5412e

5413

5411
.>415

5416
5417
541 S
M19 I
5-120 I
5421a|

5-121 b!
5421 e

5422

20 I Shropshire . . .

do
21 Southdown...

21 , Shropshire ...

22 , Southdown...

do

do

2;}
'26

26 Grade Merino.

27 Shropshire .

28 Grade Merino.
•28 do

29 Shropshire .

30 cfo

31 Cotswold . . .

32 , Southdown..
:» do

34 do

35 Cotswold

36 I Shropshire . .

37 ■ do

38 I Cotswold . . . .

39 do.

39 do.

40 I Shropshire .
42

rm)sh

44 j Grade Merino,

45 ! Southdown...

I

Ewe . .
....do.

Ram..

Ewe . .
....do.
....do.
....do.

Ram..

Ewe..

Ram..
....do.

Ewe . .
....do.

Ram..

Ewe..

Ram..
....do.

Ewe..
....do.
....do.
....do.

Age.

t 2 yrs . . . .

I 2yrs....

2yr8....

' IjVyrs..

I 11 mos..

! lyr

I 14 mos..
I 14 mos..

Uve
weight.

C5or-
r<?etecl

weight

fleere.

Cor- •

recifl

length

of

filK-r

in

erimp. '•

I PuuntUt. Um. trz. Inches.

- lyr-.
-lyr..
■ lyr..
. 3 yrs.
.1 lyr..

■liyr-

lyr '

2 yrs

3 yrs — I

lyr

lyr

2 yrs '.

2 yrs

....do.
....do.
....do.
....do.
....do.

....do.

1 vr..,
lyr...
lyr..
lyr...

2 yrs.

lyr..

I

National De-
laine and
Spanish Me-
rino.

National De-
laine Merino.

do

do

do

do

do

do

Shropshire ...

''.'''Ao'.\\''.\\'.

do

American Me-
rino.

do

Di(tkinson De-
laine.

Hampshire . . .

Shropshire ...

Soutndown...

do

Dorset

Southdown...

Dickinson De-
laine.

Southdown...

Hampshire
Down.

Shropshire . . .

Ewe . .

R»im...

...do.
Ewe..
Ram..
Ewe . .
...do.
Ram..
Ewe . .
...do.
...do.
...do.
...do.

Ram..
Ewe . .

...do.
Ram..
Ewe . .
...do.
Ram . .
Ewe . .
...do.

...do.
...do.

2 yrs

2yrs

lA.vr8..
2 yrs —

1 yr

2 yrs

2yrs.—

3 yrs

lyr...-

lyr

lyr

1 vr

3 yrs....

IHyrs..
l^yrs.-

a56dvH..
2 yrs

2 "vrs

lyr

3yr}i

3xVyrs..

3 vrs

Ram..

3 yrs I

' 3yrs....i

11 mos..

180
150
165
974
110
130
150

14

15
O

148 , V*
145 11

13
5
5

12

U
C

185 I 11
135 I 11
175 I 13

100 12
160 8
140 7

6
O
0

0
6
12
14
9
3

112

14

12

3

8 7
12 5 .

11 11 '
11 8

8 12

132 I 13 5

90 15 11 I

101
82
82
84i

92i
83

115
185
97
98
220
142
100

1;)8
100

4

5.25
2. 25

3.iS/

4 i

4

5. -A
5- 2i
9. .50 ,

3.50 '

5.50

4.51J

6.50

4.5IJ

6.36

9.50

8.50

5
4.50

2

3.43

.76,

3.34

4
4

2.31
3.78

7

12 '

3

18

0

2. -25

21
12

13
10

2.08
2.70

6
10
6

8
8
8
14

12

11 .
15 .
10

9

0 .

2

3.61
4. -25

8
7

0
13

3.50
2

11

13 1

1

4

Digitized by VjOOQIC

WORLD 8 COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 189:5.

1593

of truh of individtial sampler of^vooh — Continued.

DOMESTIC— Continued.

Fine

Conti-
milli-
motera.

Qess of fiber.

Thon- p
inch. ""'h.

strength of fiber.

Total stretch
of fiber.

D'2xS

1)2 -

S'.
18.(V14

18109-jjo=
R.

20,423

62,937

(irnms.

(TraiiKs.

Milli-
meters
in 20-
milli-
meter
length.

Per

cent

of

length.

38.68

Remarks.

3.840

1.512

B I

16.633

256.686

7.616

Washed.

•2.855

1.234

D 9

15.016

233.9543

6.632

28.16

29.475

:«,3eo

118,468

Unwashefl.

3.6425

1.431

b4t

V r

20.975

469. 1123

7.866

39.33

25.294

28, 628

?2,790

Do.

3.190

1.256

15.16

1233.95

4.140

20.70

23.836

26,916

13,020

Washed.

2.745

1.081

8.083

124.74

6.760

28.25

17.163

19,425

68,764

3.276

1.290

7.716

218.076

6.468

32. 29

11.503

13,019

40,320

3.558

1.401

7 5

13.200

103.706

6.642

3:i.2i

16.308

18, 452

57,664

2.497

.983

TS'tT

7.450

14.97

6.174

25.87

19.11

21,638

83.frl0

1.796

.707

tA*

4.933

76.12777

5.316

26.58

24.469

27,6.1

104, 193

2. 240

.882

lAa

4.650

717. 6(M

6.940

34.70

14.827

16, 782

48,364

Unwa.«?hed.

2.403

.946

T^«

4.600

69. 44667

5.550

27. 75

12.468

14,112

50,805

Washed.

3.967

1.558

B I

14.358

221.575

6.658

33 29

14.66

16, .591

49,850

3.439

1.354

7 H

14.800

228.497

6.958

31.79

20.02

22.660

66,138

3.772

1.485

bIs

24.816

382.296

8.674

42.87

27.90

31,578

73,660

3.010

1.185

H' 3

14.20

219. 13

7.332

36,66

25.077

28,252

77, 420

3.1865

1.2546

T 8

26.89

399.62

7.828

39.14

40.81

46.188

118,000

3.048

1.198

W T

15.363

257.0870

6.358

31.79

26.54

30,038

94,490

4.049

1.594

B r

17.583

271. 3467

7.690

37.95

17. 15

19,418

61, 1(V8

3.163

1.246

B V

12.941

200.6899

7.590

37.95

20.f94

23,422

61,718

3.727

1.467

B T

14.875

229.666

^7.566

37.83

17.13

19,395

61,202

2.9655

1.1676

bIb

24.40

377,46

9.340

46.70

44.516

50,383

107,850

2.279

.897.

tA*

14.425

222.611

6.524

32.62

44.42

50,277

154,480

rnwashed.

2.977

1.172

B^S

13.075

201.977

6.2760

31.375

23.604

26, 716

86,492

Washed.

2.616

1.030

B B

11.350

175.167

6.758

33.79

26.53

30,035

88,888

3.792

1.498

B B

15.908

246.497

6. 132

30.66

17.692

20,024

65,310

2.212

.871

tAb

6.025

92.979

7.708

38.51

19.79

22,401

57,858

2.631

1.037

.i<

13.166

203.082

8.074

40.37

30.34

34,348

8.5,085

2,002

.788

TIASB

4.325

06.7449

6.190

30.95

17.26

19,515

63,137

2.500

.984

tAb

5.666

87.439

6.066

30.33

14.50

16,410

65,668

2.100

.829

tbW

5.758

88.84945

8.450

42.25

20.77

23,510

65,650

1.753
2.881

.690
1.134

±

' "s.'o-is"

123.' 844"

"7.'i24"

'35.' 62"

15.469

"'17,7)08'

"49,' {54'

1.626

.640

X^l

3.991

63.690

7.682

38.41

24.783

28, aw

73,039

1.961

.7?2

TlAlB

6.975

108.64

7.740

38.70

29.02

32, M5

W,483

2.439

.960

tAi

5.766

88.98292

6.858

31.29

15.50

17,558

51,189

3.259

1.283

rh

11.35

175.17

8.008

40.04

17.098

19,351

48,:«1

"z'/m '

'i.'ioe"

'"^hV

'ii."758"

"i8i.'4.'V34'"

■7.144"

'35.'62"

23.82

'"26.'965'

" '^Kiio

Unwashed.

3.216

1.266

tU

12.541

193.5369

6.732

:J3.66

19.40

21,956

J5,236

Washetl.

2.855

1.124

BiB

6.425

73. 72019

7.174

3'j.87

10.64

12,055

33,605

2.332

.918

tAb

6.950

108.24482

6.300

SI. 50

20.447

23,143

73,470

2.073

.816

tAb

6.133

94.frl659

5.816

29.08

22.834

26, W3

88,870

3.215

1.265

TiiB

13.033

205. 7121

7.974

39.87

20.17

22,8.34

57,270

2.830

1.114

hSt

13.07

•201.39

7.416

37.08

26.11

28.880

77,885

' 3.272

1.288

Tfa

19.475

310.5448

7.950

39.75

25.69

28.415

71,488

1 3.523

1.387

tIb

19.475

310.54^18

7.950

39.75

25.69

28,415

71,488

1 3.437

1.353

tJb

19.918

318. 3814

8.751

43.77

26.363

29,820

08,144

2.073

.816

tAb

7.2.'>8

112.007

7.800

39

27. 147

80,585

78,423

2.853

.926

IB'tB

11.350

176. 1561

6,724

33.62

32.875

37,123

110,420

2.873

1.131

Bis

13.700

211.4231

8.266

41.33

33,534

37,954

91,833

2.160

.850

tiVb

6.825

105.7826

7.310

36.56

23.405

26,490

?2.477

3.127

1.231

bU

16.991

263.2966

7.724

38.62

34.991

39,603

102,640

Digitized by VjOOQIC

1594

REPORT OF COMMITTEE OV AWARDfi.

Details of history and atterage remdU
DOMESTIC-Continued.

Name and address.

KENTUCKY.

CaniUB M. Clay. White-
hall.

F. L. Vermont, Millers-
barg.

D. E. Lowell, Rabbit
Hash.
Do

Do

Do

R M. Fisher, Danville .
Cassius M. Clay, White-
hall.

Do

Do

Do

Eugene McGoodwin,

Danville.
Cassiup M. Clay, White-
hall.

MICHIGAN.

Ft

Rt?.?'^;hibit

No.

! No.

A. A. Wood, Saline.

26789
26790

26791
26792
26783

26784
26785 ,
2li786
20796

26782

26766

Do.

Do

26767 '

Do

26768 1

Do

26769

Do

26770
26771
267T2
26773
26775
26776
26777

Do

Do

Do

Theo. Willo\v.s, Saline. . . .
Do

Do

Do

Do

26778
267/9
26780

5743

5745
5746
5748
5749
5750
5751
5752

5389
5390
5391
5392

6393
5394
6395

6396
6397
6398

6399
5400

Davis Olney, Ludiiigton .
H.S. McMaster, Dowagiac

MINNESOTA.

A. R. Spaulding

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

MISSOURI.

L. E. 8hattu6k, Stonburj- .
Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Breed.

26787 I 1

26788 ' 2

26789 i 3

245

264
266
267

Southdown...

do

do

Oxfordshire
Down.

Oxfordshire
and South-
down.

....do

Southdown...

do

Sex.

Ram..
Ewe . .
Ram..
Ewe . .
...do.

.do.
.do.
.do .

15
28
44
50
57
207

...do.
...do.
...do.
...do.

.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.

.do.

. ....do..

Spanish Me-
rino.

do

Pure Merino .

Merino

Pure Merino ,
do

Ewe..

...do.

...do.

...do.

...do.

Ram..

Merino , Ewe..

Pure Merino . ...do.

do do.

Shropshire ..., Ram..

do ' — do.

do Ewe..

Shropshire ...

Merino ,

National De-
laine Merino.

Ewe..
Ram..
....do.

Shropshire Ewe..
Down.

do do.

do do.

do — do.

do do,

do — do.

do do.

do do.

Merino Ram..

do ' do .

do do.

SiNinish Me- — do .

rino. 1

do • Ewe..

do do.

Delaine Mc- Ram . .

rino.

Merino do.

do do.

Delaine Me- Ewe..

rino.

do do .

do tit).

Age.

2Jyre...

4 yrs

2 yre . . . ,

lyr

144 mos.

Uyra..

6 yre

Uyrs..

2 J yre..
Uyrs..
2iyrB..
lyr....

2{yr8.

2 yrs.
2 yrs.

Uve
weight.

Coi^
rected
weight

fleece.

Pounds.
210

158
156

154
180
200

200

200
123

IbB.oz.
7 6

7 8

7 9

7 10

7 14

Cor-
rected
length

fiber

In
crimp.

Incke9.
2.50

4.63

2.99

3.73

3.28

8!
15
0

14
1 .

6 '.

10

2 yrs.
2 yrs.
6 yrs.
2 yre.
2 yre.
2 yre.
863 dys .
2yra....

1 16 10 I

3yre.... 12 15 !

6 yre.... 139 86 4
2 vre 12 8

lyr..

8 yre.
2 vre.
lyr..
2 yre.
2 yre.
4 yre.
4 yre.

3 yre..

2 yre..
lyr...

3 yre . .

2 yre .

1 yr. .

2 yre.

3 yre . .
lyr...
lyr...

2 yre.

3 yre.

6 12 I

7 5
6 2

6 18

8 2 :

7 18 1
4 12 '

86 12

40 11

20 2

12 0

16 13

14 9

19 15

19 6

13 1
16 2

235
195

142
145

155
123
180

200
135
110

140 16 1
155 20 2

Digitized by VjOOQIC

4.38

4
3

3.25

2.55

3.25
3

5.14

3.06
4.11
3.08

2.25

2.25
3

2

2.43

8

2.25
2.23
3. '25

2
3

.rOBLD's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1595

0/ tesis of individual mrhples of wools — Continued.

DOMESTIC-Continued.

Fineness of fiber.

strength of fiber.

Total stretch
of fiber.

D'«xS
S'.

18109^ =
R.

-?•

Cenii-
milll-
metere.

Thou-
sandths
of
inch.

Frac-
tion of
inch.

Oram.*!.

Grains.

Milli-
meters
in 20-
milli-
meter

Per

cent

of

length.

Remarks.

length.

3.858

1.822

7I.

9.683

159.48

4.858

24.29

13.785

15,650

64,020

2.860

1.126

Am

10.30

158.96

8.850

19.25

20.147

22,808

118,460

2.972

1.170

«h

12.00

185.18

4.474

22.87

21.73

24,600

109,950

3.016

1.187

Hi.

16.37

251.07

5.758

28.79

28.81

32,610

118,250

3.046

1.199

n&s

10.10

165.88

3.882

19.41

17.417

19,713

108,250

3.1195

1.228

11U

20.00

308.64

7.408

37.01

82.79

37,230

100.600

2.665

1.049

A,

11.36

176.81

3.608

18.04

25.592

28,965

160,560

2.7955

1.105

n«

8.475

13a 7891

4.446

22.83

17.35

19.639

87,950

2.812

1.107

As

7.866

121.388

5.966

29.83

15.916

18,010

60,390

'y.hlb"

".'996"

VaV'

*i6."56"

"ie2.68**'*

"4.' 368"

"2i.'79'

'26.' 56"

' "so.'oeo"

■i37,'966*

2.9096

1.145

.H

11.008

169.879

6.866

84.33

20.79

23,589

68,668

2.6215

1.082

.h

10.066

156.33

5.682

27.91

23.43

20,510

95,010

2.428

.964

T««l

7.966

128.93409

6.190

30.95

21.709

24,671

79,390

Unwashed.

2.011

.7918

±

6.041

93.226

6.816

29.08

28.90

27,113

92,968

Washed.

2.088

.822

5.766

5.332

26.66

21.160

23,950

89,836

1.890

.744

lAa

6.050

93.365

6.642

82.71

27.09

81,385

93,769'

Unwashed.

2.510

.988

n^r

8.200

126.645

7.532

87.66

20.826

23,570

62»298

1.872

.737

,aI

6.483

100.947

5.250

26.25

29.599

33,501

127,620

1.8415

.725

1^1

4.833

78. 16795

5.482

27.41

22.81

26,820

92.060

Washed.

2.281

.898

iSJ

6.825

106.325

8.068

40.29

20.988

28,754

59.641

2.162

.861

tSJ

6.126

94.424

9.616

47.68

20.966

28,729

49,873

3.419

1.346

T »

21.45

88.102

7.580

87.90

29.359

83,229

87,676

3.3095

1.303

T T

20.716

819.696

9.108

46.64

30.26

34,251

75,211

3.2(J05

1.260

T S

13.166

203.1821

6.976

29.88

20.56

23,276

77,896

Unwashed.

2.977

1.172

V s

14.48

222.68

8.668

48.29

22.54

25,620

58,950

Washed.

3.668

1.444

V y

21.866

337.4435

7.668

38.29

26.00

29,431

76,867

2.8315

.918

x^nrv

13.060

201.392

6.790

88.95

38.41

43,474

128,054

Do.

2.1845

.860

X

5.108

80.989

6.416

82.08

28.897

26,896

80,721

2.906

1.144

.»>

7.668

118.220

4.958

24.79

14.51

16,426

66,242

8.8786

1.527

V K

16.588

256.9144

7.150

85.76

17.68

19,966

65,845

2.695

1.061

0 V

9.708

159.817

6.308

31.54

21.38

24,205

76,748

3.1526

1.241

■ s

17.975

279.3963

7.800

39.00

28.93

82,753

88,969

8.678

1.448

■ V

16.375

252.687

7.558

37.79

19.361

21,914

67,987

3.145

1.238

W T

10.700

166.12

4.950

24.75

17.807

19,590

79,160

2.2376

.881

H3»

8.325

128.4723

6.316

81.58

26.64

80,161

95,609 1

3.0505

1.201

viv

12.826

197.9197

6.982

34.66

22.05

24,968

72,009 Do.

2.121

.835

tAt

6.866

105.95

6.966

34.88

24.41

27,638

79,352 I

2.218

.873

tAi

7.738

119.338

7.482

87.16

26.16

28,465

76,602

2.012

.792

tSI

5.716

88.211

6.850

81.75

22.69

25,570

80,535

2.398

.942

ToSlJ

5.691

87.925

6.732

38.66

16.90

17,992

53,465

2.210

.870

tA»

6.726

103. 781

6.924

84.62

17.496

19.803

60,201

1.748

.686

tAb

6.683

85.887

6.790

38.96

29.189

32,980

»7,145

2.212

.871

tAb

6.725

103.781

7.416

87.08

21.99

24,889

67,123

2.253

.887

itVt

5.108

79.828

7.682

38.41

16.10

18,225

47,443

1.791

.706

JaJ

5.956

92.916

7.800

86.50

29.709

33,624

92,122

2.206

.868

tSJ

5.808

81.914

7.466

37.33

17.46

19,770

52,960

2.149

.846

ttVi

6.616

100.667

7.766

38,83

22.67

25,550

65,801

2.149

.846

ISr

6.600

86,421

.'>.700

28.50

19.40

21,958

77,048

Digitized by

Google

1596

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

Ih'UiiU of histonf and avenu/f rrxuU*
DOM ESTIO-Con tiiiued .

Name and address.

M IR80U Ri— continued .
John Kugler, Stanbury . .

Do.
Do.

Do.

Record
No.

Ex-
hibit
No.

Frank O'Donnell, Cove

Sheep Ranch.
Wm. H. Clanton.Billings

Do

Robt. F.Martin, Billings.

Do

Do.
Do.

Do.
Do.

Smith Bros., Martinsdale

Tho8. McGirl, Billings...
£. M. Zenizon & Bros.,

Shawmut.
Thos. McGirl, Billings...
S. D. Church, Billings. . . .

A. Laney

Clark Bros., Chateau

Renn Bros., Terr>'

A. M. Cress, Miles City ..

NEW YORK.

J. Horatio Earll, Skane-
ateles.

Do

Do

Do.

C. O. Partridge, I*eoria. . .

Do.

Markham & Ray, Hem
lock Lake.

Do

Do

Do

David Cossett, Onondaga

Do

Do

B. J. Wylie, Marcellus ....

Do

Do

Do

John P. Rjiy, Hemlock

I-Jike.
T. J. Wvman, Lakeville. .

5694 I 13

5695
5696 I

Do

6698

Mrs. N.H. Gentry, Sedalia
Do

569:
5692

Do...:

5693

Henry Gllmere

5699

G.B Bothwell

5401

Do

5402 ,

Do

Do

I

6377
'5374'

6378 I
5380

6381 ,
5382

5876 I

5379 '
5375

5385

5386 I

5384 !

5:^88 '

4659 I

4(558 '

4611 ,

4612 I

4662 I

4615

4663 I

4616 I

4664 I
4617

4665 1
4657 I
4610 I

4660 '

4661 !

4613 I

4614 I

4G07 '
4651

la

Breed.

Delaine Me- |
rino.

Merino '

Delaine Me- I
rino.

Spanish Me-
rino.

do

Shrophire ..

Southdown..

Southdown
and Merino.

Merino

.....do

do

Southdown..

Shropshire ..

i I Cor- I

I Cor- I reeled ,
ji i rected length
, weight. "^JSfh. of^^

j fleece. • in

I I I crimp.

Ewe.

..-do...| 2yra....l 19 1

...do...' 3yr8 ■ 21 10

liam ;«2dy8.

...do...
...do...
...do...
Ewe ....

325 dys
2yr8...
2yr8...
2 yrs...

Ram 2yr8..

Ewe ' 2 yrs..

Ram — I 6 yrs..

do..., 2 yrs..

do... 2 yrs..

I
Pure Merino . . , Wether .1 3 y rs . . .

8
9
4

6a
10

11

12

13
14
15
16
17

— do... I 4yrs
— do... 4yr8..

Ewe....'

Ram 8 yrs

do

do

do

Delaine Me-
rino.

Oxfordshire.. Wether.; 3 yrs

Spanish and • Ram i 4 yrs..

Delaine. i

do Wether.l 4 yr«..

Pure Delaine . ' do...' 4 yrs..

Shropshire 1 do... 2 yrs..

grade. \ '

Merino ' do

do do. ..I 400dvs

do Ewe . .

Grade Cots- do .

wold.

Pure Merino do .

do do .

Merino Wether . | 3 yrs,

Southdown . . . Ram 2 yrs.

1 I Pure Merino.. Ram.

do do

American Me- Ewe .

rino.

I*ure Merino dt»

American Me- do

rino.

Rambouillet do

do 1 Ram

Rambouillet do

do Ewe.

10

Pure Merino..

....do

11

do

Ram.

12

do

....do

13

do

Ewe .

14

do

....do

15

do

Ram.

16

do

do

17

do

Ewe .

18

do

....do

19

American Me-
rino.

Ram.

20

do

....do

Digitized by VjOOQIC

world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1597

of tests of indimdtuil samples of tvools — Continued.

DOMESTIC-Ctondnued.

FinenefCT of fiber.

Strength of fiber.

Total stretch
of fiber.

D'SxS
S'.

18109|,^
R.

66,051

Centi-
rnllli-
metere.

Thou-

.sandths

of

inch.

Frac-
tion of
inch.

GramH.

Grains.
74. 970

Milli-
meters
in 20-
milli-
meter
length.

6.666

Per

cent

of

length.

33.83

Remarks.

1.999 .

.787

4.858

19.45

22,012

1.920
2.040

.756
.803

±

5.108
5.958

78.827
92.946

4.608
6.400

23.04
32.00

22.17
22.90

25,092
25,922

108,900
113, 180

2,233

.879

iAt

5.150

79,476

6.216

31.08

16.52

18.703

60,181

2. 423
3. 529
2.7.50
2. 515

.954
1.389
1.082«>

.990

6.825
9.441
7.616
5.400

105.324
155.695
117.581
83.334

7.276
6.466
4.074
6.T74

36.38
32.33
20.37
83.87

18.60
12.127
20.286
13.65

2l,a51
13,724
18,237
16,460

57,867
42,462
89,527
45,646

1.814
2. 162
2. 4-23

.7-26
.8.512
.9r>4

t,Vr

5.083
4.908
5.416

78, 442
76.741
83.681

6.608
7.800
5.576

3:5.04
39.00

27.88

23.917
16.80
14.76

27,070

19.011

16,705

82,120
48,755
69,920

1.8045

.710

iAt

5.491

8-1.83903

6.&58

33.29

26.996

30, .554

91, 782

2. 327
1.920
2.522
2. 210

.916
.756
.993
.870

5.233

6.866
7.883
4.750

80.75748
105.95841
121. 6532

73.303

5.958
4.324
7.316
6.832

29.79
21.62
36.58
29.16

16.462
29.80
19.8:5
15.56

17,500
33,728
22,443
17,611

58,746
156,000
61,388
60,:597

2. 4015
2.2125

.945
.8710

]t

7.258
8.583

112.00798
132.45584

6.224

7.674

31.12
38.37

20.144
28.082

22,799
81, 7W

73,263
82.835

1.816

2.1145

1.943

.715
.832
.765

IJC7

5.391

5.258
4.475

83.2957

81.14328

69.059

5.500
7.040
5.524

27.50
a5.20
27.62

26.155

39.78

18.96

29,602
45,030
21,465

107,640
127,920
77,745

2. 1145
1. 9645

.832
.773

±

7.725

8.525

119.2048
131.56107

6.692
7.150

32.96
35.76

25.24
36.34

28,675
40,002

86,708
111,890

1.U07
2.2(51

.7508
.890

±

5.758
6.608

88.85945
101.876

6.482
7.074

32.41
35.37

25.33
•20.68

28. 672
23, 407

88,467
66,180

2,065
1.921
1.527
2. 315

.813
.756
.601
.923

±

5. 1.^3
2.708
3.466
7.150

79.2142
41.790
53.4885
110.3-112

5.574
5.324
5.982
6.090

27.87
26.62
29.91
30.45

19.25
11.74

23.78
20.80

21,800
13,288
26,918
23,542

78,215
49,920
89,997
77,325

2. 134

.840

,A.

5.756

88.828

5.332

26.66

20.22

22,888

85,857

2.544
2. 124

l.OOU
.836

f

5.925
5.200

92.436
80.248

5. 782
5.882

28.91
29.41

14.64
18.44

16,576
20,872

57,349
70,970

2. WH\
1.847

.825
.727

±

5.525
7.23;^

85.264
111.6222

5. 316
7.416

26.58
37.08

20. 12
33.89

22,772
38,395

85,681
103,547

2. 0535
1.923

.8084
.757

4.950
5.725

77.aS9
88.35019

7.832
4. 824

39.16
24. 12

18.79
24. 770

21,267
28,035

53.073
116,234

l.:?82
2.059
2. 189
2. 474
1.958
1.870
1.921
2.728
2.071
2.007
1.956
2.4395

.M4
.8106
.862
.974
.771
.736
.756
1.074
.8154
.790
.770
.960

i^

iAb
iAt

i

4.691
6.875
6.708
4.616
3.583
6.110
4.758
6.750
5.756
4.841
5.133
7.200

72. 493
90.664

103. 52
71.235
55.294
W.291
73.427

104.168
88.828
74.708
79. 114

111.112

4.600
6.674
6.&10
4.540
5.824
6.250
6.350
6.800
6.332
4.950
6.070
5.940

28.00
33.37
32.70
22.70
29.12
31.26
31.75
34.00
26.66
24. 75
30.85
29.70

39.29

22. 17

22.37

12.066

14.93

27.95

20.677

14.61

21.47

16.41

21.61

19.861

44,475
26,095
25,325
13,345
16,898
81,640
23,348
16,425
24,305
18,582
24.355
21,917

193.385
7.5,203
77.455
68.793
68,031

101,250
73,539
48,309
91,155
75.081
80,235
73,798

1.540

.610

Trfw

4.466

68.930

7.116

35.58

30.129

84,101

96,844

T

Digitized by VjOOQIC

1598

BEPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWABDB.

Details of history arid average re^iU*
DOMESTIC— Continued.

Name and addiem.

Record
No.

4670

4665
4654
4669
4656

4671

Ex-
hibit
No.

21

22
23
24
26

26
27
28
29

30
31
32
38

34

a5

36
87

38
39
40
41
42
43

Breed.

Shropshire

Merino.
do

Sex.

Age.

Live
weight.

Pmmds.

Cor-
rected

fleece.

Cor-
rected

fiber

in
crimp.

NEW YORK— continued.

Osborn&Ladd, Victor..

Do

Ewe

....do...

1 yr

Lbg.<a.
8 5

6 12

4

3.75

2 yrs

Do

do

do

Ram....
....do...

1 yr

7 10
7 5

3-76

Do

3 yrs

1 JT

4

5

5.25
5.75
4.50
4

4

3
5
2.75

4.50
3.75
4.50
7.50

7.50

A. Boardwell, Fargo

Do . ...

Oxfordshire

Merino.
do

Ewe

....do...

9 8

11 12
9 7

U 12
6 13

9 12
6 12
9 1
6 0

ft n

6 yrs ....1

Do

do

do

Ram....
..do...

1 vr

Do

46?2
4609

2 vrs

Jas. Wood, Mount Kisco .
Do

Hampshire

Down.
do

....do...
....do...

3 yrs '

1 yr

Do

4666
46f)0
4652

4667
466«
4653
4639

4642
4649

4648

do

do

Ewe....
....do...

3 yrs

Do

1 vr

J Hobart Warren Hoo-

Southdown...
do

Ram....
....do. .

2 yrs -

sic Fall8.
Do . .

ly

2yrB —
lyr

Do

Do

do

. ...do

Ewe ....
do.

7 4

Van Duser Bros., Co-

Cheviot

do

do

Ram

17 0

6 3

7 9

bleslcill.
Wm. Curry, Hartwicli.. .
Do

Ewe ....
....do.

1 yr

2yr8....
2 yrs....

2 yrs....
Umofl..

3 yrs....

lyr

2 yrs

2 yrs

6.50

Do

Do

do

do

Ram....
....do...

, 8 9

1 8 6

9 13

i 15 11

14 8

' 18 8

4.50
5.50 ,

John Clucks, Attica

Do

4644
4643
4645
641
4640

4608
4646
4647

246a5
24606
24607
24608
24609
24610

24611
24612
24614
24615
24616
21617

Cotswold

do

Ewe

....do...

10.50
8.50

Do

44
45
46

47

48
49

do

do

Ram....
....do...

8.50

Do

10.25
4

4
8
5

4

5.50

5

4.50

2,50

5.50

5

5.50

6.50

5

3.75

5.75

2. 45
2.25

2.25
2.43
2

2.25
2.60

2.25
2.75

2.75
2.26
9

J. M. Ham, Washington
Hollow.
Do

Dorset Horn..
do

....do...
....do...

7 2

6 5
6 6
6 15

lyr

3 vrs....

Do

do

do

Ewe.-..
....do...

Do

lyr

NORTH CAROLINA.

Holt & Homcwood

Southdown...

1

Do

do

1

Do

do

Do

do

Do

...do

•

Do

Oxfordshire

Down.
do

Do

1 1

Do

:;:::i::::.do:::: ..■::::: ::::

!!!;];.!!; "!!"*!!l!--'""-

Do

Worcester

Do

do

Do

' do

Do

do

OHIO.

R C. Moulton

0

1

21
2
31

3
4

5
6

7
8
9

Rambouillet..

American Me-
rino.
do

Black-top ....

American Me-
rino.

Delaine

American Me-
rino.

Merino

Ram

....do...

Ewe....
....do...
....do...

Ram ....
....do...

....do...

2 vrs

15 4
22 7

16 3
6 7

18 8

18 0
20 2

17 2
•20 10

15 0
14 8
13 12

Do

4 yrs

4 yrs

3 yrs....
3yrs....

'iyrs....

4 yrs....

2yr8....
3 yrs....

3 yrs....
2yr8....
2yrs....

137

100
100
90

150
120

109
124

93
81
80

J. D. Irwin, Ada

S. M.Brocaw, New Athens
S. D. Irwin, Ada

Do

Do

Do

American Me-
rino.

do

Merino

....do...

Ewe....
....do...

A. D. Dunn, Ada

Do

Do

American Me-
rino.

....do...

Digitized by VjOOQIC

WOELD's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1599

of tests of individtml samples of wools — Continued

DOMESTIC—Contlnued.

Fineness of fiber.

Strength of fiber.

Total stretch
of fiber.

D'^xS

,o,«« S

1

Milli-

IT R !

Centl-

Thou- 1 pv«^.

meterH

Per

"D« ~

18109 jyi =

*•" P- Remarks.

milli-
meters.

sandths

of

Inch.

tlon of
inch.

Gram.M.

Grains.

in 20-
milli-
meter
length.

cent

of

length.

S'.

R.

2.697

1.062

«ir

12.875

198.69

5.400

27.00

28.246

32,041

118,690

3.006

1.183

vkr

11. 191

172.803

4. aw

21.79

19.81

22,420

102,900

2.624

1.083

10. 125

156.25

4.850

24.25

23.61

26,609

109,728

3.843

1.316

7 H

14.450

178.471

5. .532

27.66

20.68

23,418

84,652

3.1»1

1.257

t4»

17. Wl

2r2.24

5.682

28.41

27.66

81,316

110,250

■

3.987

1.555

sis

20.008

308.770

8.000

40.00

20.64

23,365

58.420

2.987

1.176

• o

21.283

328.44

7.974

39.87

38.06

43,197

108,345

3.781

1.488

«fl

14.95

231. 71

7.682

38.41

16.732

18,937

49,:i03

2.708

1.065

si?

9.400

155.06

8.524

42.62

20.65

23,264

64,585

3.0035

1.182

H^T

14.85

236.10

6.440

32. -20

26.26

29,710

80,360

2.771.^

1.091

V fl

14.05

216.82

6.350

31.75

29.28

33,130

104,400

2.863

1.127

H r

11.983

185.92

7.700

88.50

'23.39

26,476

68,763

3.047

1.199 a»

6.791

104.89

8.432

42.16

11.702

13,242

31,417

2.5885

1.019 «i,

7.166

110.58

8.774

33.87

17.11

19,368

57, 184

3.090

1.216 , .4,

8.766

135.277

8.732

43.66

14.687

16,625

38, '256

3.182

1.-253

An

8.100

125.00

5.890

29.45

12. 79

14,486

49, 191

3.786

1.490

nh

21.316

328.95

8.608

43.04

23.80

26,934

62,603

2.9M

1.163

19.816

315.80

8.266

41.33

36.33

41,129

99,513

3.523

1.387

20.200

311. IS

7.582

37.91

26.04

•29,472

77,743

3. 157

1.242

17.208

266. .56

7.916

39.58

27.612

31,251

78,958

3.598

1.416

jhl

18.158

280.220

7.274

36.37

'22.43

25,388

69,808

4.125

1.624

19.608

312.59

7.758

38.79

18.43

20,859

53.774

5.2(M

2.W9

33.550

517. 75

8. .574

42.87

19.81

22,4'20

52,310

3.566

1.4(M

Ul

18.91

292.82

6.616

33.08

'23.79

26,928

81,403

4.055

1.595

.i.

28.525

440.20

8.474

42.37

27.75

31,410

74,132

3.275

1.289 r4»

16.283

251. '28

6.840

34.20

19.29

21,880

63,840

2.972

1. 170 „i.

10.525

162.42

7.040

a5.20

19.05

21,558

61,270

2.756

1.085

oil

14.458

228.12

6.:«4

31.62

30.438

34,451

166,260

3.178

1.259

rin

14.991

232.44

6.582

32.91

23.75

26,870

81,670

2.769

1.090

S T

14.21

219.29

7.582

37.91

29.652

83,562

88, .-^O

2. 822

1.111

1 V

13.20

203.706

6.342

31.71

26.581

30,016

94,658

2.861

1.126

» T

13.44

207.40

6.316

31.58

26.271

29,734

W,15^

2.965

1.167

nitn

26. a5

402.01

7.558

37.79

47.301

53,536

141,660

2.269

.893 xtV»

10.633

164.19

6.590

32.95

33.035

37,390

113.420

3.805

1.498

vir

18.566

286.51

6.232

31.16

20.511

28,214

74,477

2.452

.9a5

Ttftre

12.558

193.79

6.000

30.00

33.424

37,830

126,100

3.023

1.190

:l;

16.358

252.44

6.740

33.70

28.625

32,399

96,141

2.937

1.156

17.891

276.20

5.782

28.91

83.183

37,557

129,910

2.477

.975

T<l^>

11.375

175.54

7.674

38.37

37.327

42,247

110,100

2.782

1.095

t

14.675

226.46

6.782

33.91

30.286

34,278

101, 110

3.389

1.334

17.250

270.06

7.2J»3

36.41

16.361

18,526

84,067

2.461

.970

iAb

5.5fi0

85.649

6.024

30. 12

14. 62

16, .W

.'V4.960

2.243

.883-

X^,

6.456

99.631

4.750

23.75

•20.^5

'23, '260

97,931

1.969

.771

tA,

5.250

81.036

6.590

32.95

21.888

24,773

75, 184

1.91M

.785

ITn

5.850

90.279

6.882

34.41

23.54

26,640

77,430

2.487

.979 T?,.

6.300

97.223

6.032

30.16

16.292

18, 442

61,160

1.997

.786 ,aV»

5.000

77.161

6.500

32.50

20.06

22,704

70,004

2.129

.838 ,A,

6.375

98.381

5.974

29.87

22.503

25,469

85,268

1.816

.715

I9*ftR

5.066

78.180

6.090

30. 4.5

24.57

27,815

91,355

2.258

.889

Tl^l

7.926

123.91

6.000

30.00

24.87

28, 147

93.830

2.327

.916

fin I

4.916

76.865

6.060

30.50

14.528

16,440

54,348

2.700

1.063

t

6.316

97.470

5.750

28.75

13.86

15.689

54,572

2.5855

1.018

6.358

98.118

6.308

31.54

16.22

17,229

M,609

Digitized by VjOOQIC

1600

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

Details of history and average: rrmdts
bOM ESTIC— Continued.

Name and addn»sss.

Record

No.

OHIO— continued,

S. I). Irwin, Ada

A. H. Dean

J. N. Carpenlcr, Bates- '

ville.
Do.
Do.

I

Brown <& Osclaby , Sprinjf-

fleld.
H. D. D(xige,D(xlgcville .

8. Dodge. I)<Hlucville

H. D.D«)dKe,I)«Hlgeville

Do

Do

Thos. Love, Fuirport

N. C. & T. Gllle!<pie, Shep
herdsttjwn.

M.C.Long

M. ('. Long, Champaign . ,

M. C. Long, Urbana

A. H. Jones, Delaware . .

Do

C. Hill & Son, Delaware

Do

Do

Do

\V. P. Ferrv, Radnor

Chas. E. Davis, Radnor . .
H. P. Miller, Sunbury....

8. N. Wartl. Delaware . . . .

W. Richardson. Wauseoii

Do

H.P.Miller, Sunbury....

W. Riehftrclson.Wausi'on .
E. J. Th wing, Chardon . . .

Do

Do

R. B. Williamson, Xenia .

Do.
Do.
Do.

J. C. Williamson, Xeiiia . .

Do '

Do I

Do I

D.H. Cherry (kSon.XeniUi

Do

Do

D. B. & B. C. Watt, Xenia .
Do

A. Trumbull, Cedarville .

Do.
Do.
Do.

James Wilkins, Lfmdon-
derrv.

Do

Do

2302

2:J3()
290(>

503<5
5037
5089
fSOI2

5on
riofio

Ex- I

hiblt I Breed.
No.

I

10 American Me- Ewe ..

rino.

11 Merino Ram.,

128

' Delaine Me- Ram.,

I rino.

Merino Lamb,

Black-top and Ewe .

National ,

Delaine. I
do do

< 'otswold do

50f>3 do

50.>4 do

.t0.t6 do

50.^7 do

51 2fia Southdo w n .

5126b do

5127 Shropshire...

5128 do

5129 do

5130 I do

5131 I Black-top Me-
rino.

5132 , do

5133 1 Delaine Me-

rino.

513.') I Oxfordshire

5137
51 S8

5139 1 Delaine Me-

I rino.

5139 Cots wold

r)l40 , I O.Kiord ..

.1 (!ot«wold
I -do

5142
5112
5145

51 16
5147
51 IS

5149
5150
5151
5152
5153
5151
f>VM\
5157
.515.S
5159

51 W
5161
5162
5163

5164
5165
5168

('otswold Ewe .

<lo do

do Ram.

do ' do

Merino do

National De- | do

laine Merino.
do Ewe.

., do.

.1 Merino

. American Me-

I rino.

.' Merino ; Ewe ...

.1 do I. ...do..

. American Me- , do . .

I rino.

. Oxfordshire do . .

.1 do Ram...

do do..

., do Ewe ...

. Cots wold do..

do ' do..

do do..

do I do ,.

.' do ■ do ..

. Delaiue Me- Ram...

I rino. I

do Ewe ...

do do..

.do I Ram...

Ewe . . .

.1 Spanish Me-
I rino.

.1 do..

J do..

.1 Merino.

2yrs...

2 yrs...

3yrs...

I 2 yrs...

2 yrs . . .
i 3 yrs . . .

llmos.

3 yrs...
I 23 mas.

2 yrs...

2 yrs...

I 2 yrs...

I 4VTS...

I 2 yr.s . . .

....do...
....do...
Ram....

« yrs . . .
2 yrs...
2 yrs . . .

240

10

4

5

285

9

0

7.50

300

11

7

3.50

250

9

2

3.50

167

15

9

10

180

12

8

/

110

5

»

2.57

16

H 1

10

175

12

/

8.41

140

17

4

3.50

101
"i75

13 13

3. "26

13 12

3.26

17 6

2.75

10 13

1.84

12 8

2.11

17 4

2.11

13 11

2.11

Digitized by VjOOQIC

WOELd's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1601

of tests of individual samples of vxjols — Continued.

DOMESTIC— Continued.

Fineness of fiber.

Strength of fiber.

Total stretch
of fiber.

D'«x8
Da

S'.

18109|5=
R.

B=|-

Centl-

milli-

meters.

Thou-
sandths
of
inch.

Frac-
tion of
inch.

Grams.

Gralns.

Milli-
meters
in20-
mllll-
metei

Per

cent

of

length.

Remarks.

length.

2.568

1.011

.in

6.858

106.835

6.674

27.87

16.63

18,838

67,671

2.3575

.928

n^r

4.633

71.497

6.700

28.50

13.843

16,102

62,989

3.»475

1.318

tIr

15.600

240.74

6.040

30.20

22.28

26,218

88,605

1.6-16

.648

Ti>«ir

4.768

73.427

6.290

31.45

17.729

20,066

63.802

2.2635

.891

tA,

4.633

69.966

6.774

33.87

14.16

16,025

47,325

2.099

.826

T^.

6.350

97.995

7.300

36.60

23.06

26,100

71,508

3.866

1.520

iri«

20.850

321.76

8.650

42.76

22.32

26,260

59,090

'4.092"

"i.'eii"

V V

"24.' 908"

'385*38 ■

"9* 658"

"48'29'

'"23." 79*

""*26,'936"

"66,762'

3.8865

1.530

B 3

36.916

555.26

10.416

62.06

38.04

43,060

82,660

3.780

1.488

8 r

30.100

464.51

9.682

48.41

13.16

38,150

78,806

4.379

1.724

B V

24.626

380.02

9.092

45.46

26.89

28,280

61,210

2.370

.933

Ton

6.966

93.069

6.582

27.91

16.994

19,284

68,916

2.009

.791

lA,

6.926

92.436

6.600

38.00

23.488

26,684

80,668

2.2045

.868

Ti^m

6.241

96.313

6.560

27.76

20.657

23,266

88,842

3.35a5

1.319

±

6.900

107.48

6.440

32.20

17. 178

19,398

60,242

2.4845

.978

6.860

90.279

4.974

24.87

15.166

17,169

69,035

2.324

.915

T099

6.038

93.008

6.940

84.70

17.831

20,228

58,294

2.088

.822

tA.

5.616

86.668

7.368

86.79

20.61

23,828

63.407

2.970

1.169

r T

11. 116

172.25

6.160

80.76

20.15

22,800

74,170

2.662

1.048

0 1

10.825

167.06

6.450

27.25

24.43

27,655

10, 146

3.505

1.380

T J

17.125

264.37

7.774

88.87

22.29

25,288

65,075

3.6715

1.406

T T

19.241

806.92

8.624

42.62

24.14

27,325

64,110

3.218

1.267

T »

17.025

262.71

9.040

45.20

26.29

29,762

66,850

2.9315

1.154

V H

21.616

334.38

8.200

41.00

40.24

45,562

111,102

2.202

.8669

1^3

6.041

77.794

7.168

35.79

16.68

18,820

62,600

2.619

1.081

±

6.191

80.193

6.650

83.25

12.10

18,704

41,217

2.098

.826

4.618

69.728

6.724

28.62

16.488

18,687

64,947

3.917

1.542

Q n

32.300

498.46

6.366

81.88

83.680

38,120

119,750

5. 162

2.032

T T

26.725

412.42

9.600

48.00

16.04

18,160

87,833

3.295

1.297

7 0

24.150

372.79

9.908

49.54

35.69

40,281

81,310

2.286

.900

lAv

6.350

97.99

6.932

29.66

19.442

22,005

74,191

3.478

1.396

7 D

29.700

468.34

8.900

44.50

39.28

44,461

99,918

3.546

1.396

T B

25.675

394.68

9.532

47.66

82.536

36,820

77,267

3.480

1.370

7 V

24.350

376.77

9.316

46.58

82.17

86,412

78,168

2.39&5

.943

Tofeff

7.083

109.307

7.000

35.00

19. 767

22,361

68,890

2.0965

.825

xa^

6.466

99.788

6.924

34.62

28.571

26,672

77,061

2.230

.878

tAs

6.447

99.602

7.024

85.12

20.74

23,476

66,846

1.808

.712

tA*

6.208

95.804

3.808

19.04

30.88

34,292

18,027

2.3525

.926

xrfb

6.068

93.489

7.808

89.04

17.50

19,816

50,768

4.2675

1.680

T T

26.608

400.62

8.208

41.04

23.42

26,607

64,690

3.749

1.4769

W 7

26.29

406.816

7.750

88.75

29.92

83,871

87,410

3.630

1.429

V V

25.375

381.59

8.640

42.70

30.81

84,875

81.669

3.2565

1.282

7 5

8.366

128.107

8.000

40.00

12.62

14,285

35,715

3.957

1.5578

B T

24.90

386.26

6.484

27.42

25.44

28,790

106,000

3. 955

1.557

V 7

32.316

498.71

9.308

46.54

33.06

37,415

80,383

3.8i«

1.511

B T

21.166

326.40

7.966

89.83

28.93

32,748

82,223

4.(M6

1.593

V 7

47.966

741.22

9.500

47.50

46.87

63,056

111,695

3.912

1.640

B »

29.266

461.64

8.900

44.50

80.69

34,622

77,800

2.065

.809

6.186

80.032

6.632

28.16

19.648

22,238

78,971

2.050

.807

T!i3B

6.975

108.64

6.800

29.00

26.666

30,066

103,640

1.9736

.777

1A7

6.808

ia5.06

6.050

30.26

27.982

31,670

104,690

1.996

.786

JTft

5.966

93.06

6.316

26.68

28.954

27,111

102,000

2. 197

.866

7.450

114.97

5.700

28.50

24.74

28,001

98,250

2. 121

.835

tA7

6.958

108.37

7.932

39.66

24.74

28,009

70,622

2.0065

.790

iAb

6.441

93.399

6.432

32.16

26.61

28,985

90,109

2.431

.957

tA.

6.683

103.134

13.350

66.76

18.093

20,478

80,679 1

COL '

EXPO

-02-

— 101

^.git

zed by V^

jOoqIc

1602

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

Details of history and average results
DOMESTIC— Continued .

Name and address.

o H lo— continued.
R. L. Spencer, Salesville.
Do

Record
No.

Ex-

, hibit
I No.

Do

Clifford Hohnf8. (^adiz. . .

B. Baxter & Sou, Hoi)e-

dale.
Henrj' McKeen, Cadiz.. .

Samuel M. Dunlnp, ('adiz

Simeon Smith, Tappan..

Do

Israel Thomas, Cadiz

Breed.

Sex.

Age.

6170

51?2
5185

51 HK
6189

. At wood and
Dickinson.

. Delaine Me-

' rino.

.1 do

.1 Black-top Me-
rino.

do

.1 National De-
I laine.

5192 Wells and

I Dickinsim.

5198 I Merino

5199

5200

S. B. Jameson, Cadiz. .
(?ha8. McHogg, Cadiz .

Do.

\V. C. Long, ITrbana I

Do I

J. N. Silver, Urbana ,

A. Howard, Fountain '

Park. ,

A. Howanl, Champaign .

R. C. Moulton, Woodstock;

Do

S. R. Baltin, Selma.

5201
5'202

5202
5058

5050
5060
5061

5062
5063

.| do I

. Spanish Me- '

I rino. I

.' do '

. Blaek-t<ip Me-

' rino.

. Grade Merino.
. National De-
laine Merino.

do

do

. Rambouillct .

Ewe . . .

...do..

Ram...
Ewe...

Ram...

Ewe . . .

...do..

Ewe . . .
...do..
...do..

...do..
...do..

...do..
...do..

...do..
...do..
...do..

lyr..

lyr..
Syrs.

2 yrs

lyr

1 yr

6 yrs . .
10 yrs .
lyr...

Cor-

weight. ^P
fleece.

PouTids. IJb8.
1 12

11
7

I3mos.
12 mo« .

do Ram .

Do.
Do.

Mary L. Deal,
Charleston.
Do

South

Thos. Thorp,
Charleston.
Do

South

Do ---

F. R. Murray,
Charleston.
Do

South

Do

Do

French Me-
rino.

5066 ' Rambouillet.

6068 1 Spanish Me-

I rino.

5069 ! i do

5070 1 Merino

6071 I American Me-
rino, j
..do I

John M. Murray, South i
Charleston. I

Do.

5072
5078
6074

5075 '

5076 '

5077 !
6078

5079 '

5080 1

5asi

Ewe

Ram I

Wether. I

Ewe !

...do. ..I
...do

5 yrs

1 3 yrs....

2 yrs

2 yrs

2 yrs

I

2 yrs

5 yrs

23 mos . .
22 mos . .

I 6

110 I 12

1

6

1
15

1

3

12

9
9
4

10 I
10

1
5

Cor-
rected
length

fiber

in
crimp.

100

9

1 1

no

10

8 1

130

8

11

160

13

4

122

9

4

157 14
88 , 14

llmos..' ' 9

Delaine Me-
rino.
Merino

Delaine Me-
rino.

(/Otswold and
Leicester.

do

Dickinson Me-
rino.

Cotswold and
Leicester.

Shropshire
and Leices-
ter.

do

Darwin Price, South 1

Charleston.
Brown «fc Osetabv,Spring-

iield. I

Do I

Do.

Do

Robt. Pow, Salem .

Do.
Do.
Do.

5082 1 American Me-
rino.

5083 Black-top De-

I I hiine.

508-1 Blaek-topand

i Merino.

5085 Black -top and

Spanish Me-
rino.

5087 do

5as8 I American Me-
rino.
..do

5089
5090
5091

.do.

...do...

Ram

Ewe

Ram....

....do...

....do...
....do...

Ewe ....

Ram

....do...

Ewe . .
Ram..
Ewe . .
...do.

...do.
...do.

...do.
Ram.-
Ewe . .

8 vrs . . . .
2 yrs. ...I

4 yrs

lyr I

4yrs...,|
4 yrs
lyr.

lyr..
2 yrs.

77
70 I

lyr

lljjmos

lli^Smos

3 yrs

lyr

3 yrs

3 yrs

125

120
130

118

100

100

75

80

2 vrs.
1 yr--

11 mos.. .
1 yr I.

8 5 I

14 9 !
1
13 7

8 10 I

13 15

12 1
16 12

8 0
13 8

80 10 1

JnrAr*.

3.06

2.57

2.57
2.5(0

2.65

2

3

3
3
3.50

2.76
1.70

3.16
3. 53

3.08
2.50
2.50

3.04
2,72

3.26
2.72

2.17
2.45
2.45

2.(»

3.75

3.08

3.84

6.16

6.25
2.17

4.63

7

3.17

3.95

3.08

3.59

3.85
3.73

3.26
1.90

3.26

Digitized by VjOOQIC

world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1603

of t€9ts of individual samples of wooU — Continued.

DOMESTIC— Continued.

Fineness of fiber.

Strength of fiber.

Total stretch
of fiber.

D'«xS

18109-^=
R.

82,350

Centi-
milll-
meten.

1.M6

Thou-
sandths
of
inch.

Frac-
tion of
inch.

Grams.

Grains.

Milli-
meters
in 20-
milli-
meter
lengrth.

Per

cent

of

length.

S'.

Remarks.

.766

i^

5.106

78.72

5.932

29.66

21.581

24,426

2.588

1.019

dii

6.741

104.02

7.268

36.29

16.100

18,220

39,890

2.205
2.283

.868
.899

■Sj

6.225
4.241

96.06
65.44

6.824
7.924

34.12
39.62

20.485
13.018

28,186
14,736

67,958
37,191

1.8596

.732

T^

5.525

84.26

7.132

35.66

20.679

28,951

81,182

2.220

.874

tAt

6.408

98.89

7.2*2

86.41

20.803

28,646

64,668

1.823

.718

x^

4.626

71.37

6.708

38.64

22.267

26,202

76,189

2.088
2.121
1.956

.822
.835
.770

!

5.908
6.616
6.776

92.17
92.10
89.121

6.382

8.182
7.874

31.66
40.91
39.37

21.682
23.530
24.160

24,539
26,632
27,384

77,510
65,099
69,429

2.827
1.615

.916
.636

5.250
5.026

81.019
77.547

6.708

7.808

33.64
39.04

16.512
30.82

17,665
84.882

52,847
89,860

2.4685
2.017

.968
.794

±

6.083
5.241

93.874
80.680

6.266
7.374

31.33

36.87

16.10
20.61

18,286
23,826

58,190
68,275

2.215

2.1565

2.187

.872
.849
.861

ii

4.116
6.641
4.683

63.519
87.063
69.726

6.532
7.816
6.932

82.66
39.08
29.66

13.42
19.40
16.83

15,196
21,968
17,366

46,531
66,205
68,500

2.1106
1.8446

.831
.726

±

4.800
4.416

66.369
68.148

5.524
6.960

27.62
34.76

16.46
20.76

18,788
23,608

64,795
67,645

2.078
2.0S7

.818
.802

±

4.600
6.900

70.988
10.748

5.840
6.140

29.20
30.70

17.01
26.606

19,290
30,113

66,064
98,089

2.0445

2.047

2.3215

.805
.806
.914

x^«

4.960
6.341
6.791

77.890
97.866
104.901

7.024
6.932
6.650

36.12
29.66
33.25

18.956
26.868
20.17

21,466
28,696
22,820

61,098
96,748
68,650

2.2656

.892

tAi

5.541

85.510

6.308

26.54

17.281

19,668

73,696

1.9405

.764

tA.

4.450

68.673

6.190

80.96

18.918

21,411

69,181

2.494

.982

irfn,

6.676

103.010

6.924

34.62

17.17

19,433

56,134

2.2465

.884

tAt

6.508

100.433

6.690

33.45

20.66

23,383

69,906

3. sea's

1.323

tK

17.933

277.74

8.658

43.29

25.41

28,760

66,485

2.891
2.2045

1.138

.868

±

13.266
5.775

204.72
89.121

7.974
6,782

39.87
33.91

25.97
19.02

28,732
21,628

72,058
63,485

3.150

1.240

l.b

17.816

274.94

9.050

45.25

34.09

38,588

85,280

3.017

1.209

Ki.

16.216

250.280

7.982

39.66

2H.49

82,260

81,310

3.363

1.324

riir

19.125

306.148

7.832

39.16

27.03

30,610

78,172

2.5126

.989

tAt

10.883

167.950

7.840

39.20

27.58

31,225

79,652

1.890

.744

lAii

5.633

86.980

8.216

41.08

25.23

28,508

69,615

1.790

.707

lA.

5.591

86.462

7.924

39.62

27.78

81,890

79,225

2.0805

..819

lAt

6.816

97.470

7.808

39.04

28.358

26,437

67,727

1.7225
2.253

.678
.887

tAt

6.541
7.483

100.94
115.47

7.532
6.286

37.66
31.43

35.29
18.369

39,945
20,790

106,000
66,149

2.220
2.368
1.943

.874
.932
.765

4.783
6.783
6.766

73.812
101.67
104.41

6.840
5.458
6.440

34.20
27.29
32.20

15.171
19.352
28.675

17,174
21,906
32,464

60,218
80,269
108,000.

.__ jyV

^oosle

1604

BEPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWABD8.

Details of history and average results
DOMESTIC-ConUnued.

Name and addrcst.

Record
No.

EX-

hibit
No.

Breed.

1
Sex.

Age.

1

Live
weight.

Cor-
rected

fleece.

CJor-
rected
len^

fiber

in
crimp.

OHIO— continued.

Robt. Pow, 8alem

Do

5092
5093
5094
6095

5097
5098
5099
5100
5101
5102
5104

51Q5

5113
5116
5117
5120

5121

5122
5123
5125
5124
5203

6205

5206

5207

Merino

do

Ram

Lamb...
Ewe..-.
....do...

....do...

2 yrs....
11 mofl..
8 vrs

2 >T8

Pounds.
160
90
90

IJb9.
18

9
13

9

1'>

OS.

10

1
10

6

5

8
13

7

3

4
13

15

8
15

9
12

12

7

4
2
1
10

8

Inchcff.
3.26
2.17
1.90
2.99

i.eo

2.89
2.94
2.89
3.96

2.89
2.11

2.72

2.89
2.60
3.96
2.60

2.64

2.38
1.86
3.36
2,33
2.91

2.43

Do

do

Do

American Me-

Do

rino.
do

85

M. H. (^ranford, Roscoe . .
Do

Merino

do.-

Wether .
....do...

3 yrs

9
q

3 yrs

2 yrs....

2 yrs....

3 yra

3 yrs

5 yrs

2 vre

2 yra....
2 yra...
11 mos..

5 yra. . . .

6 yra —

1 yr

321 dys .

4 yra....
1 yr

90

Do

do

Ewe....
Wether.
....do...
Ewe

Ram....

Wether.
Ewe....
Wether.
Ewe....

....do...

Ram

Ewe ....

Ram

Ewe ....
....do...

....do...

Ewe

....do...

86 11

95 9

90 9

9

90 16

Do

Pure Merino. .
do

Do

Rdt. B. Crouch, Tyrone . .
Do

Dickinson De-
laine.

Delaine Me-
rino.

Merino

do

Wm. Martin, Mound ....

Davis Martin, Mound. . . .

Do

95
90
95
70

111

148
98

12
9
9

8

13

16
12
10
16
5

do

James Atkinson, Galion .

Wesley Bishop, Dela-
ware.
Do

■

Delaine Me-
rino.
Merino

Do

• do

Do

1 do

Do

do

110

John Martin, Sr., George-
town.
Same McHagden

John AdamH, Jaceyvllle .

Grade Merino

Black-top Me-
rino.

Merino Black-
top grade.

375 dj-s .

3yra....

12mo8..
3 yra

7

ia5

John Blair

71

5
7

7

8

8
8
13

16

15

15

7

7

13

4
6

7

13

1
2
5
14
12
8

3.50
3

2.50

2.60

4.76
4.50
3. -25

4

2.64

2.64

2.60

1.60

3.S4

2

2.82

2.76

1.90

Walter Craig, George-

5208

National De-
laine.

Delaine Me-
rino.

Shropshire ...

....do...
....do...
....do...

town.
Do

S. H.Todd & Son, Wake-
man.
James Atkinson, Galion .

5208

5218

2 yra....

2 yra....

lU mofl.

lyr

8 yra....

3 yra....

2yra....

4 yra

5 yrs —

4 yra

4 yra —

2 yra

3 yra....

4 yra

3 yra

95

140

-

5219
5220

do

Ram....
Ewe....
....do...

Ram

Ewe

....do...

Do

do

105
125

173

87
85

Alvin Crittenden, New
London.
Do

5221

5222

5223
5224

Merino Stand-
ard Delaine.

Delaine Me-
rino.

Merino

do

G. S. Thomas, Greenwich
Do

D. 0. Frayer, Greenwich .
Do

5226
5227
5228
5229
5230
52:il
5232

5233

do

....do...

90 ' 13
83 10
80 ' 1(1

do

....do...
..do.

Do

. ..do

Do

do

....do...

9Si
89
91

84

n

Do

do

....do...

Do

do

....do...

4
12

14
10

M. H. Hawkins, Grun-
nock.
Do

do

Black-top Me-
rino.

Merino

Shropshire ...

....do...

Do

5234 '

5219 1

Ewe ....

4 vra

3

10

1 70

James Atkinson, Galion.

ThoB. McElroy, Bloom-

5326 '

1 Blank -ton

Ram....
Ewe ....
Ram....

13 mo8..

6
12
17

12
12

1

"iao*!

dale.

Uriah Cook, West Mans-
field.
Do

5238

5239

5239
5240
5241

Delaine Me-
rino.
L Merino

2 yra

376 dys..

125
110

1

8.26
2.67

Do

E. J. Thwing, Chardon. . .
B. F. Harris, Chardon. . . .

Do

B.F.Harris, Liberty

::::::

1 Merino

' Shropshire . . .

Ewe

....do...

lyr

2 yra....

2 yra

2 yra....
2 yre....

110
130
220
128

11
7
10
15
7

3

7
3
8
7

2.96

3.25

4

3.50

3.50

5245

5240 1

5247 1

do

1 do

1 do

Ram....
Ewe ....
....do...

Digitized by VjOOQIC

WOELD's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1605

of tests of individual samples of wools — Continued.

DOMESTIC-Contlnued.

Fineness of fiber.

Strength of fiber.

Total stretch
of fiber.

D'«xS
S'.

18109^=
R.

.4-

Centi-
milli-
meters.

Thou-
sandths
of
inch.

Frac-
tion of
inch.

Grams.

Grains.

Mim-

meters
in 20-
miUi-
meter
length.

Per

cent

of

length.

Remarks.

2.0426

.804

6.608

86.644

6.060

80.25

21.518

24,355

80,612

2.106

.829

T^lrv

5.078

78.29

6.800

34.

18.80

20,725

60,944

2.205

.868

Tni

6.650

102.62

6.408

32.04

21.984

24,774

77,304

2.2635

.891

lAi

7.383

113.16

6.266

81.33

22.91

25,930

82,762

2.014

.793

iAt

8.116

125.24

6.282

81.41

82.01

36,236

115,850

2.233

.879

iVirv

6.575

86.035

7.290

86.45

17.888

20,246

69,929

2.168

.851

I^

5.725

88.350

7.208

36.04

19.69

22,178

61,543

2.276

.896

6.068

78.056

6.974

34.87

17.52

17,685

50,709

1.925

.758

J^J

6.750

88.735

7.616

39.68

24.82

28,100

70,990

2.068

.814

6.666

86.896

7.140

35.70

20.82

28,568

66,020

2.271

.894

Tt^

6.225

80.634

6.690

33.45

16.21

18,845

54,848

2.347

.924

tA,

5.791

89.468

6.816

81.68

16.82

19,040

60,288

1.456

.967

tA*

5.791

89.468

6.584

32.92

15.36

17,885

62,815

2.220

.874

tAi

7.058

108.02

7.992

39.96

22.91

26,982

&4,900

2.027

.798

ini

5.700

87.96

7.760

38.75

22.19

26,120

64,832

1.918

.756

5.741

88.134

8.024

40.12

24.97

28,261

70,440

2.200

.866

T^

5.808

81.914

6.424

32.12

17.543

19.860

61,830

1.819

.716

tAb

5.450

84.006

6.732

28.66

28.864

29,828

77,324

1.9105

.752

tAs

5.708

88.087

6.836

29.18

25.084

28,334

97,101

1.961

.772

4.458

68.796

4.840

24.20

18.126

20,515

84,774

2.195

.864

9.166

151.46

5.840

29.20

80.438

84,451

117,980

2.243

.883

tA»

6.200

80.248

6.840

34.20

16.587

18,717

54,728

1.7275

.680

iAt

4.775

73.689

6.574

32.87

25.615

28,992

88,202

2.186

.841

tAw

5.091

78.666

6.782

88.91

17.853

20,206

69,589

1.727

.680

rtV7»

6.063

78.44

7.388

86.94

27.268

30.862

83,547

2.299

.906

iiVi

7.233

111. 622

8.374

41.87

21.895

24,781

59,287

2.431

.957

tA<

6.708

108.520

7.600

37.50

18.161

20,555

64,813

8.193

1.267

ri.

19.84

316.17

7.216

. 36.08

31.135

35,240

99,030

3.218

1.267

tIv

12.42

191.66

7.574

37.87

15.24

17,250

45.550

Unwashed.

2.835

l.llG

« T

14.90

230.94

7.490

87.45

29.66

38,571

89,644

2.1135

.832

TWI

6.325

97.609

6.400

32

22. 15

25,070

78,34:5

1.999

.787

Z^Z

5.833

90.016

7.599

87.95

23.855

26,433

69,654

1.9485

.767

tAs

5.283

81.529

7.008

35.04

22.27

25,210

71,950

2. 1615

.851

7.560

116.61

8.332

41.66

26.86

29,275

70,275

2.360

.925

tAv

6.775

106.56

7.774

38.87

19.62

21,710

57,150

2.1695

.8M

TtVff

6.450

99.63

7.982

39.91

21.93

24,829

62,210

1.844

.726

l^fj

6.608

86.650

8.350

41.75

26.88

29,868

71,638

2.2635

.891

\'in

6.408

98.890

7.716

38.58

20.02

22,659

58,733

2.4815

.977

rvts

6.708

103.52

6.940

34.70

17.48

19,733

56,870

2.939

1.157

vkx

10.116

155.013

7.042

36.21

18.727

21,195

60,197

1.646

.648

A.

5.607

84.97

7.966

39.83

32.622

36,808

92,414

1.6685

.653

tWt

8.483

68.750

6.516

32.58

20.272

22,908

70.299

3.2995

1.299

X

16.22

234.88

7.858

36.79

22.37

25,325

68,835

Washed.

2.248

.885

X

5.600

86.30

6.408 32.04

17.730

20,067

62,629

2.1385

.842

zhi

7.716

119.07

6.792 33.96

27.008

80.568

90,012

2.055

.809

tA>

5.441

83.96

5.282 26.41

20.709

23,439

88,548

'2.'243"

"*.*883'

*Vai'

"4.*975*

""ti'.T!"

* "6.'946'

84.70

' i5.'82i*

'"n.'gOT*

' "b\]m

2.271

0.894

iS

11.400

175.82

6.690

82.96

35.366

40,028

121,480

4.4856

1.766

1 ■

18.960

292.44

6.924

84.62

15.073

17,060

49,277

4.028

1.686

1 V

26.206

408.45

6.666

82.88

26.837

29,242

89,078

8.607

1.420

rii

16.91

246.62

6.260

81.26

19.66

22,140

70,860

Digitized by VjOOQIC

1606

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

DetaiU of higtori/ and arerage rendu
DOMESTIC-OonUnued.

Name and addrcm.

OHIO— continued.

E. W. Burgham, Ells-
worth.

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

M. H. Rhoads, Cochian-
ton.

Do

Do

G. W. Walters, Marion ..

Do

E. B. Brewer, Marion . . .

Do

Amos Taylor, Morral . . .

Taylor & Nashbum,
Morral.

E. Brown, Morral

J. C. Mooris, Larue

W. R. MooriM, Larue

Q. 8. Everett, Cochranton

B. Ctislck, Marion

G. Rabo, Edison

Q. T. Masters

John W.Carpenter, Bates-
vllle.

Do

Do

Do...*.

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Scott Holtz, Watson..

Do

John Holtz, Watson . .

Do

Grattan <& Baker, Mel

more
Chas. Rinebolt, Tlffln . . .
H. G. McDowell, Tiffin .

Do

Do.....'.

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Record
No. '

I

Ex- I
hibit ;
No. '

Breed.

Age.

' Cor-
iJvP ■ reeled

w^JiSt. wo*!"

I fleece.

Cor-
rected
length

fiber
in I
crimp.

.'V248

Merino ' Ewe ! 1 yr.

Pounds. Lb$. OS. : Inches.

5249 do

625'2 do

fi'i.'W do

hZM do

52i)(> do '

5257 do

5258 Delaine Me-

rino.

5259 Spanish Me-

rino.

5260 Merino

5261 Spanish Me-

rino.

5262 , do

5263 i Shropshire ...

5264 1 do

5265 1 French Me-

rino.
2266 ' do

...do

do...- Syrs...

Ram j 6yr8...

Ewe.... 2yrB...

Ram I 2yri...

Ewe ' 2yn...

...do...' 2yr8...

6 12

I--- 9 12

65 11 8
140 15 3

Ram.
Ewe.

...do...' 2yrB

..' 23rTs...

..| 4yrB...

Wether. Syrs...

Ewe I 12mos.

...do... r2moB.
Ram 5yr8...

Wether. Syrs...

140
70

6267
5269
5270 '

5271

5278
5284

5285

5286 '

5288 ;
5292 I

5298
5-294
5295
5296
5297

5298
6299
5300

6301
5302
5303
5304

5306

5307

53as

5309
5311
5312
6313

5314
5315
6317
5818

5319
5320

do Ewe..

Merino Ram..

Spanish Me- Ewe..

rino.

Merino do.

Shropshire do.

American Me- Ram. .

rino-
Spanish Me- Ewe . .

rino.
National De- ' do.

lalne. i

Delaine Me- I Ewe...
rino.

do '....do..

do I do..

do I do..

Delaine I Ewe...

...do..

Ram..
...do.
...do.

Delaine Me-
rino.

Delaine

do

Delaine Me-
rino.

do do

do I do

Delaine | do

Dickinson ' do

do I Ewe.

Black-top Me- '....do
rino. I

Black-top I
Spanish Me-
rino.

Delaine Me-
rino.

Shropshire .

Dickinson .

do.

Delaine Me-
rino.

....do.

Dickinson .

Merino Ram.

Delaine Me- ' Ewe.,
rino. {

do Ram..

Dickinson i Ewe..

Syrs...
2yr8...
6yr»...

2yT8...
390 dys.
22mos.

2yT8...
13mo8.

3yr8...

2 yrs . . .

3 vrs . . .
lyr....
lyr....
2yrs...

2 yrs...
lyr....
Syrs...

160
98

136
95

210

160

120
148
129

9 13 ;
12 13 I

16 5

16 10 '

19 18 I

12 12 '

10 7
90 5 10
14 6

12 15
4 12

102 11 3
90 ' 8 8

98

11

10

78

9

9

80

10

6

98

10

6

100

3

8

85

9

4

155

OR.

17

to

4

A

2.25

1.75'

I i

2.50

3.00

2.75

3.26

3.58

3.30
2.80

10 3 , 3.98

8 11 4

13 4 3.M

13 3 : 3.04

4.35

3.04
2. GO
2.72

2.50
2.07
1.00

2

2.25

3.75

3.17
2.50
2.83
2.30
3

2.50
1.35
•2.75

4.60
3.76
2.50
3.60

3.50
3.60

Digitized by VjOOQIC

world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1607

of teats of individual namjyks of wools — Continued.

DOMESTIC— Continued.

Fineness of fiber.

Strength of fiber.

Total stretch
of fiber.

D'«xS
S.

18109^2 =
R.

e4.

Centi-
railli-
meterR.

1.994

Thou-
sandths
of
inch.

Frac-
tion of
Inch.

Grams.

Grains.

Milli-
meters
ln20-
milU-
meter
length.

Per

cent

of

length.

Remarks.

.785

T^S

6.150

79.476

6.790

33.96

20.523

28,228

68,428

2.0955
2. 126
2. 2:^75
2.215
2. 428.1
2.2325
2.1W

.825
.837
.881
.872
.956
.879
.852

6.641
6.583
6.476
6.133
8.625
6.116
6.283

87.053
101.69
99.924
»1.64
131.56
94.384
96.961

6.008
4.028
4.200
7.982
7.716
6.816
6.666

30.04

20.14

21

39.66

88.68

34.08

28.33

43.081

23.30

20.702

20

23.137

19.642

21.472

48,760
26,370
23,431
22,689
26,181
22,283
24,296

162.310
130,900
111,580
57,077
67,877
65,233
86,763

2. imo

.860

lAi

6.258

96.57

7.074

36.37

20.992

23,758

67,1?2

3. 1675
2.266

1.247
.892

±

9.208
6.641

152.101
102.48

5.682
6.424

27.91
32.12

15.381
20.74

17,408
23,421

62.373
72,917

1.925
2.637
2.563
2.210

.758
1.033
1.009

.870

1

6.760
15.766
16.850

5.508

104.16

248.28

259.033

84.97

7.624
6.108
7.144
7.016

38.12
30.64
35.72
35.08

29.144
87.971
41.04
18. M

32,966
42,976
46,451
20,428

86,533
140,720
130,012

68,202

1.864

.734

tAt

6.083

78.276

7.300

36.60

23.40

26,492

75,582

2.550
2.4185
2.316

1.004
.952
.912

urn

6.933
6.583
4.825

106.08
85.991
74.460

7.674
6.566
6.432

38.37
32.83
27.16

17.05
15.27
14.392

19,308

17,295
16,289

50.320
52.671
59,977

2.1185

3.332

2.180

.834
1.312

.868

i-

6.816
13.216
6.400

89.740

203.95

97.76

8.400
7.740
6.116

42

38.70

30.58

20.747
19.037
17.115

23,478
21, W7
19,371

55,900
66,938
66,346

2.147

.845

rhv

5.666

87.316

6.250

31.25

19.666

22,259

69,607

1.966

.774

T^T

6.133

93.644

7.232

36.16

25.387

28,7*4

79,4fr4

i'sie"

"".'9i2'

"VaV*

*"7."99i'

■"i25."4i"

■*7.'274*

"36.' 37'

' 23.' 83' "

"26,' 975'

"74,' no'

1.973
2. 1615
2.263
2.1235
1.9635

.777
.851
.891
.836
.769

6.141
5.508
5.883
6.200
5.016

79.337
85.001
90.788
95.680
77.408

8.658
8.232
6.732
7.790
7.140

43.29
41.16
28.66
38.95
36.70

21.13
18.871
18.38
21.99
21.03

23,910
21,358

20,802
24,895
23,808

55,248
51.892
72, 58.5
(«, 925
66,675

1.966
2.177
2.0375

.774
.8.'i7
.802

tAx

4.808
5.375
6.191

73.198

82.948
80.096

6.616
7.482
6.142

33.08
37.41
80.71

19.90
18.14
20.062

22,526
20,538
22,654

68,096
.U900
73,770

2.1796
2.0445
2.0115
2.1695
2.2025
1.99^1

.H54 A§
.867 ,A,

. r85 y^5

5.183
5.050
4.^13
6.766
5.275
5.916

79.973
77.921
74.738
88.959
81.413
91.283

6.008
6.816
6.600
6.508
6.192
6.882

30. (M

34.08

33

32.54

30.96

34.41

17.465
19.339
19.160
19.655
17.406
23.806

19,764
21,999
21.686
22. 194
19,700
26,»44

65,805
64. -227
6.>, 715
68,207
&3,632
78,304

2.256

.888

TlV.

6.733

102.903

7.024

35.12

21.166

2:^,956

68,213

1.819

.716

tA>

4.»ll

76.260

6.124

30.62

23.892

27,042

88,315

4.539
1.9175
1.961
1.9535

.787
.755
.772
,769

ITbS

16.875
5.533
4.950
4.991

259.41
85. 374
76.389
77.021

6.924
7.700
6.416
6.492

34.62
38.50
32.08
32.46

13. 101
23.219
20.595
20.459

14,828
26,279
23,309
23,156

42,831
68,259
72,662
71,339

2.0775
1.9105
1.839
2.1185

.818
.752
.724
.8^

it

4.658
4.958
4. 575
5.550

71.783
76.612
70.612
85.149

6.624
5. 8.58
6.532
7.200

33.12
29.29
32.66
36.00

17.276
21. 745
21.644
19.795

19..'S53
24,628
24, 497
22,404

59,038
84,026
75,007
62,234

1.9965
2.1W

.786
.860

It

5.125
5.708

78.090
88.087

7.116
6.924

35.58
34.62

20.57
19.14

23.283
21,670

65.439
62,596

Digitized by VjOOQIC

1608

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

Details of history and average reftdt*
DOMESTIC— Continued.

Name and address.

Record
No.

Ex-
hibit
No.

Breed.

Sex.
Kam ....

Age.

Live
weight.

Cor-
rected

fleece.

Cor-
rected
le^

fiber

in
crimp.

OHIO— continued.

H.G.McDowell.Tiflin...
Do

6821
6821

5822
6328

5824
6825
6828
6829
6329
6330

MSI

6882

5838
5834

6335

6336

6250

Delaine

National De-
laine.
do

Pou,nd9.

16
16

.oz.
13
13

4
13

7
4

3
6
16

1

3

15

1
8

13

8

1

Inches.

■T75*

3.50
3

2.50

t

3.50
4

3.06

2.31
2.72

"ios*

2.54
1.45
2.83

2.50
10

8

13.50
10.50

7
12

8

....do...
....do...

3 yrs

3 yrs

160

Do

18
18

21

Do

Delaine Me-
rino.
Native Dick..
do

....do...

....do...
....do...

2yr8....

4yrs....
4 yrs

150

Do

Do

10
7
10
10
15

12

11

Asa Bates, Irwin

L. C. Dowell

Shrrashlre . . .

Ewe....
....do...

8 yrs

2 yrs ....

125

C. Hill & Son. Delaware.
Do

Wm. Staley, Marysville. .

Do

do

....do...

2yrs....
2yrs....

8yrs....

3 yrs

200
150

104

Delaine Me-
rino.

Spanish Me-
rino.

Delaine Me-
rino.

Shropshire. ..

Delaine

Spanish Me-
rino.

Delaine Me-
rino.

Ram

Ewe....

-...do...

....do...
Rajn

Ewe ....

....do...

H.P.MUler.Sunbury....
C. S. Chapman & Co.,
Marysvifie.
Do

lyr

2yrs....
11 mos . .

150

leo

10
16

7

9

16

Do

2yrs....
6yr8

102
110

Do

OBBOON.

ChA8. Cnnninghain

2

8

4a

4b

4c

4

4

4

4b

1

2
3

4
6
6

8

8
9

10
11

12

13

\l
16

17
18
19

20

Merino

Cotswold

Ram

R. Scott

M Wilkins

Oxfordshire

11 mos..

Do

do

12 mos..

Do

do.

14 mos..

Do

Cotswold

12 mos. .

R. Scott

AnKora

1 yr

Do

Oxford

11 mos..

Do.

do.. .

11 mos

PENNSYLVANIA.

James St. lams, Swartz..

James MoCuUam

James McCullam, Can-
nouHburg.
Do

62JW

6285
6286

Delaine Me-
rino.

do

do

do

do

Ewe

Ram....
....do...

Ewe....
....do...

2 yrs

2 yrs....
2 yrs....

2 yrs....
2 yrs....
2 yrs....

2 yrs....

3 yrs....

3 yrs....

4 yrs....

270 dys .
2 yrs....

2 yrs....

lyr

85 6

160 12
166 12

110 1 16
110 1 11
110 1 11
145 18

160 1 12

160 ' 12
165 j 18

60 13
160 9

1

14
14

0
12
6
9

*4

14
14

12
4

9

2

7

14
8

12
12
8

141

2.50

•> 50
3.25

3.25
2.50
3.50
3

.ao

2 50

Do

6286
6286
6287

6288

6288
6289

6290
6291

6292

6293

6293
6294
6294

6296
6296
6297

6298

Do

do

....do...

James S. McNary, Can-
nonsburg.
Do

Pure Merino..

National De-
laine Merino.
do....

Ram

....do...
....do ..

Do

Do

Delaine Me-
rino.

Pure Merino. .

Native Me-
rino.

Delaine Me-
rino.
do

do

....do...

Ewe....
Ram....

Ewe ....

Ram....

....do...

3.25

W. A. Herriot, Federal . . .
Do

3.32
3.84

3.50

8,50

8.25
3.75
2.26

"4"*'

3.25

Do

110

8

12

15
10
9

7

12
12

7

C. H. Beall, Independ-

ence.
Do

1 yr

Do

do

....do...

5 y^rs....

Lee R. Scott, Burgetts-
town.
Do

Grade Merino.

do

Pure Merino..
do

Ewe ....
Ram

406 dys .

60

96
136
85

80

Do

....do...
....do...

2yra....
85 dys ..

James Glass, Burgetts-
town.
Do

do

Ewe

Digitized by VjOOQIC

WOELd's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1609

oj tests of individual samples of wools — Continued.

DOMESTIC— Continued.

Fineness of fiber.

Strength of fiber.

Total stretch
of fiber.

D'«xS_

18109S_=
R.

-1-

Centi-
milli-
metera.

Thou-
sandths
of
inch.

Frac-
tion of
inch.

Grams.

Grains.

Milli-
meters
in 20-
milli-
meter
length.

Per

cent

of

length.

D«

S'.

Remarks.

2.286
1.654

.880
.651

±

4.675
5.425

72.146
83.720

6.800
6.932

31.50
34.66

14.965
81.73

16,980
86,912

83,910
103.650

Washed.
Unwashed.

1.977
1.860

.778
.732

±

5.758
6.516

88.859
100.56

10.482
6.960

52.16
34.76

23.626
30.18

26,616
34,108

61,146
98,161

1.862
1.737
3.145
4.557
3.661
2.215

.783

.684

1.238

1.794

1.441

.872

• 7
K 7
V 3

4.991
6.491
20.58
18.31
17.68
4.791

78.122
&1.839
817.69
282.67
262.84
74.036

6.782
5.232
7.008
6.240
6.566
8.858

32.91
26.16
86.04
31.20
32.83
41.79

23.246

29.12

32.622

14.10

21.106

16.624

26,068
82,965
87,678
87,600
23,887
17,683

79,212
126,960
107,580
120,500
72,762
42.815

2.362

.930

Tl/Vv

6.408

98.890

7.724

38.62

18.877

20,799

52,631

2.332

.918

tA.

6.250

96.452

7.400

87.00

18.386

20,812

56,248

3.462
2.281

1.368

.898

±

18.676
6.791

288.19
101.90

5.250
7.824

26.25
86.62

24.930
38.78

28,216
88,239

107.490
104,420

2.172

.855

itW

4.091

63.23

5.974

29.87

13.87

15,708

52,573

2.208

.869

Tl^O

5.338

82.37

7.816

39.08

17.518

19,827

60,786

2.196

.864

tAt

9.166

161.45

5.840

29.20

30.488

34,451

117,980

2.205
3.901
3.181
4.019
3.800
4.222
2.820
3.135
3.445

.868
1.537
1.252
1.582
1.496
1.662
1.110
1.234

i.:y)6

tAt

T B
« »

« V

ail

B 0
• 0

T§7

5.668
21.38
16.291
23.67
22.86
24.77
22.96
14.77
21.97

87.816
329. W
251.50
866.28
352.78
382.25
356.32
227.93
340.04

4.724
6.924
8.850
8.082
8.116
7.616
8.732
6.700
8.608

28.62
39.62
44.25
40.41
40.58
88.68
48.66
88.50
48.04

18.619

22.444

25.75

23.44

25.92

22.283

46.1»1

24.60

29.61

21,073
25,402
29,163
26,635
28,665
25,164
62,283
27,848
33,523

89,219
80,717
65,888
65,670
70,645
65,226
151, 100
88,129
77,886

Do.
Washed.

2.261

.890

iA>

7.560

116.51

8.716

43.58

20.58

23,293

53,450

2.439
2.1245

.960
.836

iAb

7
5.566

108.026
85.894

6.916
6.436

29.58
32.18

18.827
19.74

21 309
22,341

72,089
69,428

2.3525
2.177
2.0631
2.403

.926

.857
.812
.946

'4'

6.326
6.260
6.475
6.025

82.177
96.451
99.924
92.979

8.650
7.174
8.140
6.716

42.76
85.87
40.70
83.58

16.401
21.10
24.341
16.694

17,431

28,880
27,560
18,894

40.775
66,678
58,618
56,267

2.063

.812

tAt

5.066

78.180

7.916

89.58

19.045

21,665

M,460

Unwashed.

1.809
2.4006

.712
.945

±

6.368
5.383

82.786
83.072

8.174
5.924

40.87
29.62

26.189
14.952

29,649
16,923

72,646
57,136

Washed.

1.900
2.3675

.748
.932

±

5.483
7.700

&3.072
118.82

7.6582
7.916

88.291
34.58

24.300
21.98

27.505

24,877

71,667
71,943

2.103

.828

iAt

4.933

77.126

4.140

20.70

17.846

20,198

97,579

2.032

.800

lA.

6.616

86.668

6.066

80.38

21.760

24,630

82,210

2.172

1.8605

2.161

.855
.732
.851

±

6.616
4.076
5.258

102.100
62.885
81.143

7.100
7.290
6.616

35.50
36.45
33.08

46.611
18.846
18.01

18,800
21,330
20,388

62,960
58,619
61,636

Missing.

2.271

■'.■8028'
.894

"\t

"s.m

4.116

■•*"63."e96'

63.51

'ii.'766*
6.632

'68."83"
83.16

'is.'ste"

12.77

"i7,'379'
14,455

" '29,'64i'
48,680

Do.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

1610

RKPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

Iktnih of history and average regiUU
DOMESTIC— Continued.

Name and address.

OREGON— continued.

James Qlaas, Burgetts-
town.

Do

Do

SOUTH DAKOTA.

£. L. Williams, Aurora.

T. £. Bushnell, Bushnell.

Agricultural College,
Brookings.
Do

Do.

Do.,
Do..

Do.

Record;
No.

6299

fi299
6300 '

24238

24239
24240 I
24242

24243 !

!ex.

hibit
No.

Breed.

PUTP Merino.

Age.

I

Live
weight.

Cor-
rected
weight

of
fleece.

Oor- 1
rected,
length!

fiber

in I
crimp. '

Pure Merino.

I

Three-fourths
Shropshire,
one - fourth
Merino.

Shropshire
Menno.

Shropshire ...

Ewe...

.do.
.do.

\ yrs

.' 3 yrs....
.; 2 yrs

.do... 2 yrs.

Pound*. JJ». oz. I InchnJ'
90 ' IS 4 2.75 I

90 I 10 0 I.

I

Kreger Bros., Clear Lake.

O. O. England, Temple-
ton.

Do

J. B. Geddis, Virgil

Do.

H. B. Lathrop. Redfleld .
M F.Greely,Garj'

Agricultural College,

Brookings.
Robt. Scanan, Aurora

N. B. Gallup, Aurora .
Do

D. Roberts & Son, Faulk-
ton.

24244
24246

24246
24247

24248

24249

242r)0

24262
24253
24254
24256

24257
24258

24259

Grant Ranch.Clear Lake. 212G0

I
Jan^Flynn.ClearLakc. 24261

i

Grain. Ranch, Clear Lake . 24262

One-hal f
Shropshire,
one-half
Merino.

Three-fourths
Shropshire,
one -fourth
Merino.

Dorset Horn..

Shropshire
Merino.

....do

Spanish Me-
rino.

Shropshire
Menno.

...do

One-hal f
Shropshire,
one-half
Merino.

Three- fourths
Shropshire,
one - fourth
Merino.
I Dick. Delaine I
Merino. '
I Shropshire

. Merino.
1 do

...do.
...do.
...do.

., 2 yrs.,
. 3 yrs.

2 yrs.

....do...' 2 yrs.

Ram..

Uyra.

Ewe . .
...di).

-do.

One - hal f
Merino, one-
half South-
down. -

One-hal f
Shropshire.

Three-fourths
Cotswold,
one -fourth
Shropshire.

One- hal f
Cotswold.
o n e - h a 1 f
Shropshire.

One-hal f
Shropshire,
o n e - h a 1 f
Merino.

Three-fourths
I Shropshire,
one- fourth
1 native.

Seven-eighths
' Shrrjpshlre,
one-eighth
Merino.

.do.
.do.

...do...

Ram

Lamb ..
Ram

Ewe . .

....do.
....do.

....do

....do.

....do.

3 yrs.
3 yrs.

3 yrs.

2 yrs.
2 yrs.

2 yrs.

2 yrs.

2 yrs.
2 yrs.

2 yrs.,
6 yrs..

..., 2 yrs.,

I

...I 1 yr .

I

2 yrs.

-do..., 2 >TS.

13

0

3.60

23

4

5

22

16

7

0

2

8

7

2.05

4

14

4

5

7

6
14

" "3.08*

6

8

8
3

8.50

8

15

2.31

7
6

11
4

5.14

5

>

20

2

2.57

9

14

7.71

7

13

8.08

19

13

1.98

3

0

3.60

3

5

3.60

4

0

4.11

8

7

8

7

3.25

5

9

3.60

Digitized by VjOOQIC

world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1611

of tests of individual samples of uk>oIs — Continued.

DOMESTIO-ConUnued.

Fineness of fiber.

Strength of fiber.

Total stretch
of fiber.

iy«x8

8'.

8
1810955^=

R.

R

Centi-

milli-

meters.

Thou-
sandths
of
inch.

Frac-
tion of
inch.

Grains.

Mini-

meters

In20-

milli-

meter

length.

Per

cent

of

length.

Remarks.

1.778

.698

i^

5.125

79.09

6.566

32.83 26.061

29,596

89,921

Unwashed.

2.106
2.347

.880
.924

±

6.258
7.058

81.143
106.920

6.516
6.658

32.58 18.93
28.29 , 20.501

21,420
23,208

66,765 Washed.
82,000

I.M4

.746

T^

7.741

119.461

6.140

25.70

32.773

87,093

144,380

2.856

1.124

dl«

11.83

174.84

4.774

23.87

22.24

25,171

106,450

4.026

1.585

«»IT

12.926

199.46

6.482

32.41

12.76

14,435

44,539

2.383

.938

T(Ani

11.775

181.654

6.774

28.87

33.162

37,583

130,000

3.848

1.818

rh

14.416

222.47

6.008

30.04

20.17

23,266

76,629

2.546
2.840

1.002
1.118

t

10.091
12.666

165.82
195.35

7.332
6.966

36.66
29.83

74.907
25.11

28,191
28,425

76,898
95,289

3.621
1.887

1.386
.7429

±

18.200
7.241

280.86
111.74

5.692
6.700

27.96
28.50

23.489
32.536

26,684
86,825

96,061
129,210

2.257

.886

Tfw,

7.400

114.19

6.968

29.79

23.86

26,447

88,780

2.614
2.868

1.029
1.129

13.750

8.975

207.95
139.50

6.666
6.516

32.83

27.58

32.19
17.458

36.441
19,759

111,000
71,643

2.866

1.128

nii.

17.675

261.223

6.132

30.66

34.22

38,721

126.330

2.141

.843

r^M

6.175

95.294

7.508

37.54

21.5535

24,394

64,985

2.853

1.238

niir

21.676

334.49

6.508

32.64

48.236

48,211

148, 160

2.363

.930

iOW

15.616

230.99

5.508

27. M

44.73

50,626

183,700

2.124

.836

nW

9.976

164.93

6.674

33.37

35.377

40,040

119.990

2.934

1.165

^h

12.641

194.981

6.906

34.54

23.493

26,590

76,806

2.682

1.036

«h

13.475

207.96

4.182

20.91

31. 12

35,222

168,460

2.167

.853

TtVl

14.000

21.605

6.490

37.46

47.702

53,996

144,160

3.054

1.202

lil

10.125

156.24

5.800

29

17.36

19,659

67,789

2.403

.946

tA.

14.63

225.77

5.806

29.04

40.637

45.880

157,990

2.317

.912

r^

9.900

1

163.78

6.208

1

31.04

29.50

33.395

107,550

Digitized by VjOOQIC

1612

REPORT OF OOMXITTEE ON AWARDS.

Details of hittory and average remiU*
DOMESTIC-Continued.

Name and addretB.

SOUTH DAKOTA— cont'd.

Qrant Ranch, Clear Lake .

N. B. Gallup, Aurora

Edmund Cook, Wilmot. .
Jamee McHough, Ar-
lington.

D.B. Gallup, Wilmot....

Edmund Cook, Wilmot . .
M. T. Llghtner, Roscoe . .

Edmund' Cook, Wilmot..
M. T. Lightner, Rowoe..

G. B. Milkamp, Roscoe. .

F. M. Hopkins, Rosooe ..
L. F. Gomson, Bushnell.

UTAH.

Chas. Crane, Kanosh

Do.

Agricultural College,

Logan.
J. B. Hunter, Mount

Pleasant.
Do

John I. Stickney, Whit-
ney.
C. L. Payne, Bridport . . ,

Do

Do

Ira L. Hamblin, Middle-
burg.

Do

Do

Albert Chapman, Mid-
dleburg.

Do

C. A. Chapman, Ferris-
burg.

Do

Do

Lewis S. Burwell, Brid-
port.
Do

Geo. N. Smith, Addison..

Do

Edgar Sanford, West
ComweU.

Record
No.

Ex-
hibit
No.

24264

24265
242f)5

24266

24267

24268
24270

24271

24272
24273

5700

5540
5540
5534

5536
5536
5538

5538
5530

5530
5530

56S7

5687

5538
5588
6582

Cor- '
Cor- I reeled

Breed. Sex. Age. J^l^^ ^M ^^^\

fleece. in I
crimp.

7

«i

8
9

10

11

12
18
14

I Shropshire

Merino.

i French Me- ,

rino. I

, Oxford dam..!

I Three-fourths

I Merino, one-

I fourth Cots-

' wold. I

I Three-fourths '

I Cotflwold,

I one-fourth

Merino.

Oxfordshire

dam.
Three-fourths
Merino and
Lincoln.
Oxfordshire

dam.

One-half Me-

rino and

one-half

Cotswold.

One-half Me-

rino and

one-half

Shropshire.

Three-fourths

Cotswold.

One-half

Shropshire.

French Me-
rino.

do

Shropshire ...

Ewe..
...do.

..do.
..do.

27rB.

5yrs.

27rB.
2yrB.

...do...

Ram....

Ewe....

...do...
...do...

...do...

Ram....
Ewe...,

Ewe....

...do.
Ram..

Ewe . . .

French Me-
rino.

French Me- do.

rino and I
Cotswold.

Vermont Me-
rino.
....do.
....do.

do.

....do.

I

.do.
.do.
.do.

.do.
.do.

do.^

American Me-
rino.
do

Vermont Me-
rino.

do

do

.....do ,

Ram...

Ewe...
....do..,
...do..,
Ram

...do.
Ewe..
...do.

.do.
.do.

....do.
....do.

Ram..

Ewe..

Ram..
Ewe..
....do.

lyr.

2yrB.
2yr8.

Syrs.
dyrs.

2yr8.

Syrs.
2yr8.

2Hyr8..

lOmos..
lyr

4 yrs . . .
lOmofl.

Live
weight.

Pounds,

Ayn,

2yr8

2 yrs

3 yrs

5yr8

5 yra . . .
Syrs...
Syrs....

7 yrs.
4 yrs.

4 yrs.

2 yrs ... ,
5 yrs . . .
2 yrs...,
Syni!!!,

6 1

12 15
12 15

3 11

3

L5 10

6

6 9

1.28

12 4 ,.

i
6 9 !.

5 4

198 , 7 8
143 14 7

16 7

lOOi 19
97i

92i
107

1151

182

m

90

7
15 0
20 10

16 12
14 14

17 0

27 3

16 5

25 2

IS 6

18 7

8 5 4.90.
5 13 2.75

Digitized by VjOOQIC

WOELD's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1613

of tests of individiuil samples of wools — Continued.

DOMESTIC— Continued.

Fineness of fiber.

Strength of fiber.

Total stretch
of fiber.

Da

S'.

23.709

18109A=
D«
R.

E=«-.
P

Centi-
milll-
meters.

2.999

Thou-
sandths
of
inch.

Frac-
tion of
inch.

Granus.

Grains.

Milli-
meters
in 20-
milli-
meter
length.

Per

cent

of

length.

28.66

Remarks.

1.157

.h

12.80

197.53

5.rd2

26,885

98,632

1.898

.747

19^11

11.23

173.306

6.342

81.71

48.742

55,167

173,950

3.267
2.307

1.286
.908

±

14.53
6.758

224.28
104.29

7.022
6.782

35.11
28.91

21.781
20.316

24.652
22,994

70,215
79,538

2.614

1.029

nil

11.618

179.21

6.542

27.71

27.18

30,769

111,039

3.897

1.684

.ir

16.625

256.51

7.108

85.54

17.51

19,816

56,763

2.185

.860

ri»«

8.108

125.12

6.074

25.37

27.17

30,756

121,225

3.010

1.185 1 ,h

14.666

226.33

5.182

25.91

25.88

29,302

113,098

2.261

.890

n^5

7.758

119.72

6.158

30.79

24.327

27,482

89,255

3.440

1.354

Tin

9.141

140.06

5.192

26.96

12.359

13,965

58,884

3.028

1.192

nk%

13.060

201.39

6.708

83.54

22.773

25,774

76,847

2.474

.974

11^

11.300

174.38

6.466

82.83

29.639

33,438

127,220

2.3196

,913

TI^I

6.116

94.384

4.576

22.88

18.18

20,588

89,975

2.116
3.798

i:^!±

5.291
20.483

81.768
316.090

5.416
6.382

27.58
31.91

18.903
22.71

21,894
26,711

77,675
80,580

2.125

.793 „^,

10.733

165.63

6.408

27.04

42.29

47,870

177,060

2.665

1.049

.».

13.266

204.72

6.916

34.68

37.62

42,683

123,144

2.088

.822

iA<

4.416

68.149

4.816

24.08

16.20

18,842

76,174

2.583
2.292
1.991
2.635

1.017
.902

.784
.998

±

5.241
5.716
6.341
6.216

80.880
79.882
97.856
95.927

4.700
7.900
7.100
4.632

23.50
39.50
85.60
22.66

12.668
17.41
25.68
16.476

14,224
19,700
30,306
17,616

60,532
49,880
85,460
77,301

Washed.
Unwashed.

Do.

2.347
1.918
1.880

.740 1 xi^

5.108
6.525
4.841

78.828
100.69
74.708

4.358
6.440
7.882

21.79
32.20
89.16

12.716

28.88

41.20

14,394
82,121
46,630

66,068
99,762
94,690

Washed.

2.052
2. 146

.808
.845

lAa

5.666
5.941

87.439
92.683

6.500
6.368

32.50
26.79

44.18
20.64

60,002
23,361

153,860
87,201

Unwashed.

2.3875
2.566

.940
1.010

1'

6.710
18.775

88.118
21.258

6.668
7.208

27.79
36.04

16.02
33.47

18,140
37,885

66,276
105,120

Washed.

2.454

.966

i<^<

19.016

303.462

6.860

34.26

50.60

57,164

166,900

2.779

1.09^1

.h

7.608

118.62

6.258

31.29

15.76

17,840

58,842

3.023

1.190

Bi(r

8.774

135.40

6.408

32.04

15.361

17.386

64,266

i'sie"

"".kill

VaV

" '7." 425*

'"iii'ss*"

"5.924"

**29.'e2'

'*22.*i5 ■

"25,' 668*

'^,'686'

Digitized by VjOOQIC

1614

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

DeiaUs of history and average remits
DOMESTIC-Gontinaed.

Name and addreMi.

VERMONT— continued.

C. P. Crano, Bridport —

E.N.BiBsell, East Shore-
ham.
Do

WEST VIRGINIA.

W. P. & J. P. Whithani,
West Alexander, Pa.

A. Wllaon, Short Creek . .

Thofl. H. Strain, Colliew. .
P. A. Pugh, Falrview . . . .

Record
No.

Ex-
hibit
No.

6&35 '
5531 I

Do.

S. A. Cocliyane, Mound»-

ville.
A. A. Jacobti, Clinton.

WISCONSIN.

A. O. Fox, Oregon..

I

5427

542H
5429

M29
M30

5425

3764

Do

8763

Do

8765

Do

8766

Do

, 3766

Do

8767

Do

8768

Do

Do

3769

Do

3770

Do

3771

Do.
Do.
Do.

Arthur Broughton, Al-
bany.

Do

Do

J. C. Payne, Prairie du
Sac.

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Geo. MfKenow, Sussex.

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

J. W. Gaines, Ix»well

Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.

Geo. Hardlngs & Son,
Waukesha.

Do

Do

Do

375^1
3755

'3820

;W21
3822
3823

3824

3808

3810
3811

3825

3827
3828
8829
3831

3832

38^

Breed.

Sex.

15 I Vermont Me-
i rino.

16 do

25

Ewe..
....do.

Age.

2yrB

2yrB

Ram.

5 Black-top

Spanish Me-
rino.

6 Delaine Me-
I rino. I

Ewe . .

....do.

Pure Merino.
9 I Pure Spanish
I Merino.

9 , do

10 Pure Merino.

11 Saxony Me-
rino.

.do.
.do.

.do..,

2 yis.

2 yra.,

2 yrs.
5 yrs.,

5 yrs. ,
2 yrs..

2 yrs..

Live
weight.

Pounds.
82

106

Ooi^
rected
weight

fleece.

Lh9. oz.

5 12

7 12

.'10

- 8

1 Pure-bred I Ewe

Shropshire,
lb do ' do...

2 do do...

8 Shropshire do...

Down.

3 Pure-bred — do...

Shropshire.

4 Shropshire ' do...

Down.

5 do do...

6 do do...

7 ' do I do...

8 do I Ram....

9 Pure-bred do...

Shropshire, i i

10 do do...

11 do I. ...do...

12 do I — do..."

1 yr..

lyr....

I yr

II mos.,

10 mos.

If yrs..

2 yrs...
I 11 mos.
! 10 mos..

11 mos..

lyr....
10 mos.
12 mos.. I

160

165
160

Cor-
rected
length

fiber

in

crimp.

Inches.
2

2.50

10 9

11 12

150 11 12

170

.do.

Ram.

....do

....do

Ewe.
....do

do

....do

do

do

....do

....do

.do

Ram.
Ewe.
....do

....do

S<mthdown...
....do

Ram.
....do
....do

.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.

.do..
.1 Ewe...
.i....do..

.1 do..

Ram...

Pure-br c d
Lincoln.

do Ewe..

do do.

do Ram.

do Ewe.

.do ! do.

Cotswold .

Ram..

.do do.

.do do .

.do I Ewe ..

. 3 yrs

. 2 yrs

.1 1 yr

.1 10 mos..

.! 11 mos..
. 11 mos..
. myvH..
. 2:) raos..
.1 2yr8....

. 2yrs

.' lyr

- lyr

.< 4 yrs

- lyr

. 1 yr

. 2 yrs

. 2 yrs —

., 2 vrs

. 393d vs..
. :«)6dyH..
. 364 dys..
. 2 yrs

lyr....,
11 mos.,
3 yrs...

12 14
14 12 !

13 9 ,

12 14

14 10

3.50
2.50

2.75
2.60

2 9 I 1.25

4.25

6
5.65

5.98

3.60

8.87
8.17
2.99

6.68

Digitized by VjOOQIC

WORLD 8 COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1615

oj tests of individudl samples of uhmIs — Continued.

DOMESTIC— continued.

Fineness of fiber.

strength of fiber.

Total stretch
of fiber.

D'«XS

S

R

Milli-

Centl-
milli-
meters.

Thou-
sandths
of
inch.

Frac-
tion of
inch.

Grains.

metero
ln20-
mllli-
meter
length.

Per

cent

of

length.

S'.

18109]58 =
R.

E=p-

Remarks.

2.»295

.917

Tl^

6.750

104.16

7.116

35.58

19.910

22,535

63,836

2.045

.806

xAx

5.583

86.158

8.300

41.60

21.360

24,176

68,254

2.360
2.182

.925
.859

5.925

92.43

6.732

33.66

19.91

22,535

66,951

2.065

.809

t^

4.933

77.12

5.832

29.16

18.70

21,151

72,540

2.027

.798

^i*^

5. 158

79.600

5.866

29.33

20.09

22,733

77,509

2.2025

.867

i^.

7.066

109.04

6.608

33. M

22.30

26,377

79,846

Washed.

2.1565

.819

i/tt

6.115

»1.966

7.224

36.12

21.080

23,820

&'>,920

Unwashed.

1.847

.727

T^<

6.233

95.189

7.458

37.29

29.23

33,086

88,728

1.3755

.541

n^T

3.308

61.050

5.232

26.16

27.995

31,700

121, 100

3.488

1.373

7^H

14.466

223.24

6.824

34.12

18.59

21,042

61,671

Do.

3.1635

1.245

nhv

11.183

172.579

6.340

31.70

17.87

20,239

63,834 ! Washed.

3.817

1.502

4,

2.0791

32.095

6.890

29.45

22.83

25.H40

87.748

3.0976

1.219

nU

15.500

239.20

7.032

35.16

26.01

28,314

80,523

Do.

3.564

1.408

rh

18. 175

208.48

7.850

39.25

22.893

25,911

66,016

Unwashed.

3.602

1.418

rh

16.083

232.76

6.666

82.83

19.82

22,445

68,363

2.622

.992

T« 17

16.591

256.13

6

30

41.72

47,233

157,450

2.894

1.1392

■ 7

11.450

176. 700

6.400

32

21.88

24,755

76,830

3.856

1.518

s n

14.608

222.89

6.132

25.66

15.60

17,<>59

68,822

3.201

1.260

T 3

18.108

279.44

6.100

30.50

28.26

81,985

104,850

3.419

1.346

rkv

14.083

216.56

6.108

30.54

19.20

21,735

71,169

3.993

1.572

« B

24.48

377.78

6.908

29.54

24.56

27,805

94,120

3.841

1.512

Bi T

15.750

243.06

6.440

32.20

17.08

19,335

60,038

4.151

1.634

• ^

23.10

356.48

8.082

40.41

22.62

25,490

63,080

'3.*485"

i.'SM"

"riV

26.75 ""

"'319.02'*

' '6.'9i6*

**S4.*58'

"28.'i3'*

"si," 840"

' '92,"i66'

3.661

1.398

r K

24.21

373.61

8.422

42.11

30.72

34,760

84,490

3.409

1.342

T «

15. 975

247.53

6.940

34.70

21.98

24,885

71,718

3.490

1.350

tJc

16.03

247.38

7.060

36.25

21.80

24,670

70,000

3.897

1.534

Bit

16.28

263.23

6.860

34.25

17. 15

19,412

56,680

3.440

1.354

T B

18.966

293.701

7. .WO

37.50

25.63

29,016

77.390

4.239

1.688

TiniB

16.69

257.66

5.924

29.62

14.86

16,820

56.780

4.2855

1.686

B fl

21.29

328.66

13.216

66.08

18.55

20,996

31,770

3.145

1.238

H T

•25.891

399.635

7.828

39.14

41.88

47,400

121,100

2.751

1.083

V 1

7.616

117.532

6.474

27.37

16.10

18,223

66,583

2.932

1.154

B B

10.208

157. 533

6.674

27.87

18.999

21,608

77,166

3.236

1.274

T Z

13.216

203.95

6.524

S2.62

20.19

22. a%

70,066

3.0M

1.218

n a

16.166

249.47

7.100

85.60

26.394

29.874

w,o:m

2.469

.972

xifn

9.758

170.59

6.460

32.25

25.611

28,987

89.883

2.510

.988

tAi

6.825

ia').325

6.450

27.26

17.33

19,618

71.990

3.879

1.5272

.h

26.368

406.743

7.882

39.41

28.018

81,716

80,469

3.5845

1.4112

7 W

20.366

314.272

11.074

65.37

26.31

28,640

51,730

3.595

1.415

7 B

36.10

567. 10

8.890

44.45

44.69

60,580

113,800

Washed

3.676

1.447

V T

18.65

287.81

7.982

39.91

22.08

24,990

62,620

3.436

1.352

7 ■»

22.04

340.12

7.390

36.95

29.88

83,8'23

91,640

3.282

1.292

7 3

11.450

176.70

6.400

32

17

19,249

60, 165

3.709

1.460

fl X

22.083

340.01

8.308

41.54

18.20

20,609

49,612

4.69:}5

1.8116

R 9

37.01

.571.51

7.8.58

39.29

28.070

31,770

80.861

3.200

1.260

;1:

32.64

51W.71

8.090

40.45

51

57, 722

142, 700

3.650

1.439

32.38

499.69

3.208

16.04

38. 781

43,893

217,360

T

oogle

1616

REP<)BT OF COMMITTEE ON AWAKD8.

Details of history and average results
DOMESTIC-ConUnued.

Name and address.

WISCONSIN— continued.

Geo. Harding^ & 8on,
Wauke.<iha.

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

D. B. Jones, Werner

Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.

Record
No.

3835

3837
3H42

Andrew Kull, Geneva
Lake.

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

J.H. Pitcher, Eagle

Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.

C. K. Phelps, Springfield

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

R. H. Mill. Palmyra

Do ,

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

J. W. Gaines, Lowell

Do

Englishshire and Hack-
ney Horse Co., Neils-
virte.

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

J. H. Pitcher, Eagle

3K44

3843

3802

3803
3804
38a'S
8806

3785

3786
3787
8788
3789
3790
3774
3775
3776
3777
3778

3815

3790

3818
:^19
3830

3761
3762

Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.

Chas. McCumber, Bur-
lington.

D. W. Cunningham, Bur-
lington.

Geo. McKerrow, Sussex . .

Do.

3763

'3779"

3780
3781
3782
3783
378-1
3817

5759

3812

;«13

155

17

0 .

140

24

9

110

15

14

96

19

4

125

27

0

105

20

12

133

12

0

110

12

13

320

16

1

193

13

15

Digitized by VjOOQIC

world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1617

of tests of individual samples of wool — Continued.

DOMESTIC— Continued.

Fineness of fiber.

strength of fiber.

Total stretch
of fiber.

D'SxS

18109|j=

Centi-

Tlion-

Frac-

Milli-
meters

Per

Remarks.

milli-
metere.

sandth.s

of

inch.

tion of
inch.

Grams.

Grains.

in 20-
milli-
meter

cent

of

length.

S'.

R.

length.

4.887

1.727

zU

41.32

637.64

8.668

43.34

34.361

38,879

89,707

3.902

1.536

siff

37.43

577.682

8.008

40.04

39.33

44,620

111,160

3.409

1.342

7 J

26.475

408.57

7.708

88.64

36.448

41,247

134,730

3.6135

1.4226

7 9

34.06

525.62

7.366

36.88

41.747

47,250

128,290

4.329
3.208

1.704
1.026

S «

7 T

'32.'2i6'

**497.'i68'

"7.'7i6"

**38'58*

*'62.*267'

"*6i,"9ii'

'i96,"856*

3.765

1.482

V <

19.61

812.62

7.632

38.16

22.13

25,050

64,164

4.451

1.752

S 0

30.43

469.60

6.916

34.58

24.67

27,810

80,435

1.9926

.784

XTf«

10.90

169.21

5.732

28.66

43.85

49,630

173,160

2.080

.799

tAt

5.983

923.317

8.366

41.83

23.23

26,295

62,851

Washed.

2.220

.874

Tt^«

6.275

81.405

7.516

37.68

17.066

19,384

61,679

Unwashed.

2.993

1.178

b|b

7.283

111.62

6.366

81.83

12.920

14,621

45,940

Do.

2.0805

.799

lAl

6.306

81.884

7.990

89.96

20.69

23,308

58,885

Washed.

2.271

.894

6.891

91.011

6.650

28.26

18.27

20,682

78,221

2.330

.9176

tA»

7.575

116.900

7.132

36.66

22.824

25,267

70,857

2.286

.900

11^

4.460

68.673

5.224

26.12

13.62

15,423

69,160

2.652

1.044

«iT

7.483

115.480

6.582

82.91

17.02

19,268

58,546

2.256

.888

Il}l.

7.826

113.041

6.532

.32.66

23.027

26,062

79,801

2.279

.897

tS*

11.833

182.610

7.290

86.45

36.443

41,247

118, 150

2.276

.896

tiVk

7.116

109.816

7.740

38.70

21.97

24,870

64,280

2.469

.972

Il/ttl

10.516

162.28

7.490

37,40

27.585

81,583

83,369

2.081

.8196

7.033

108.53

7.450

87.25

20.683

28,360

62,714

2.078

.818

iA»

6.400

98.767

6.708

28.54

23.714

26,840

94,048

1.988

.7824

WVt

7.668

116.63

5.166

26.83

30.628

34,675

134,200

2.434

.958

Tl^5

7.433

114.70

6.066

30.88

20.07

22,720

74,910

2.312

.910

1^^

6.800

81.79

5.666

28.83

15.86

17,955

63,376

2.170
2.530

.854
.996

xiAra

'7*968*

""i23.'63""

"*5.*624"

*28.*i2'

'*i9.'76"

■'22,' 373*

"TO.'sei'

2.140

.843

ttW

6.650

102.62

7.108

35.54

23.190

26,248

73,851

2.0266

.797

n^

4.900

76.618

6.674

28.37

19. 119

21,639

76,274

2.165

.852

6.108

94.26

6.800

34.00

20.849

23,698

69,406

2.078

.818

T9^9

6.866

98.24

14.882

74.41

28.642

26,697

a5,878

1.665

.616

T^l

6,066

98.61

5.382

26.91

89.627

44,850

167,060

2.116

.833

tAo

6.400

98.76

6.424

32.12

22.87

25,884

806,811

2.446

.963

l5s8

6.375

98.38

6.824

84.12

17.047

19,295

56,552

2.121

.835

ttVt

6.666

102.87

4.882

24.41

23.708

26,833

109,620

2.512

.989

TI^I

6.008
5.008
6.108

92.71
77.28
94.26

7.300
6.508
6.682

86.50
32.54
83.41

15.23

17,244

47,236

Unwashed.
Washed.

'2.'492'"

'".*98i"'

"t^V"

"ih.m

'"'i7,*8ii'

*53,*3ii'

2.261

.890

tAs

6.540

100.92

7.100

35.60

20.46

23,167

65,260

2.248

.885

5.576

86.03

7.308

36.54

17.65

19,978

54,671

3.841

1.512

sir

19.426

80.97

7.400

37

21.06

28,882

64,424

3.722

1.465

8H1

16.608

256.30

6.724

33.62

24.132

27,316

81,258

3.063

1.206

viv

11.426

176.81

5.916

29.58

21.85

24,169

81,709

2.779

1.094

via

11.291

174.24

4.942

24.71

28.89

26,478

107,1.50

3.818

1.503

B^B

22.408

340.74

7.668

37.79

25.16

28,485

75,378

3.998

1.674

B B

13.800

212.96

7.092

35.46

13.49

16,635

4-1,090

3.340

1.315

T B

12.891

228.93

4.424

22.12

18.48

20,920

94,590

3.7805

1.479

B T

16.041

232.11

6.066

30.33

16.84

19,061

62,845

2.586

1.018

viv

7.900

122.91

6.974

34.87

18.901

20,906

61,349

2.332
2.863

.918
1.005

iAb

BBS

■"6.'633'

"'*i62.*36"

"7*682'

*35.*4i"

"i6.'282"

"'is.' 428'

*62,"644*

2.332

.918

6.041

93.22

6.608

32.54

17. 773

20,162

61,817

2.281

.898

TiSrs

6.133

94.646

6.524

82.62

18.86

21,346

65,438

2.337

.920

tAb

5.200

80.248

6.260

31.26

15.233

17,241

53,917

2. 118

.8340

tiVb

6.276

96.837

7.790

38.95

22.381

25,331

66,660

2.216

.8726

iAb

5.983

93.317

6.960

34.75

19.493

22,062

63,490

3.528

1.3890

t}b

25.700

896.60

8.092

40.46

33.08

37,390

92,410

2.670

1.051

^h

24.908

375.889

6.716

38.58

65.90

63,270

188,420

COL EXPO — 02-

-102

Digitized by VjOOQIC

1618

BEFOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWABD8.

Details of history and operage reauUs
DOMESTIC— Continued.

Name and address.

Record
No.

Ex-
hibit
No.

101

101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111

112
113

114
115
116
117
118

119
120
121

122
123
124

126

126

127

128
129
130

131
132
133
134

ia5

136
137
138
139
140
141
142

1

2

3

4

6

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

Breed.

Sex.

Age.

lyr

1 yr

1 Cor-
T «„- rected

' fleece.

Coi^
rected
le^

fiber

in
crimp.

WISCONSIN— continued.
Oeo McKerrow. Sussex..

Oxfordshire

Down.
do

1

Ram....
....do...

i

PoHwh. , Lftt. as.

189 ! Not

Inches.
5.20

5.20
9.60
4.86
4.86
4.94
3.71
4.94
4.13
4.17
4.17
2.24

2.24
3.36

3.86
2.80
2.52
2.80
3.36

2.80

2

8.28

4.50
4.61
2.80

2.80

2.76

4.22

1.86
8.43
3

2.57

2.60

2.60

2

2.50

3.75

3

3

2.57

4.33

4.9ft

5.35

2.55

3

2.12

2.50

1.36

2.45

2.45

8.75

8.48

"■*i.*75'
3.75

Do

given.
11 13
15 0

Do

3814
8816

do

do

Ewe

....do...

2yps

1 vr

lyr

4yrs....

5 yrs —

6 yrs . . . .

2 yrs

2 yrs ... .
2 yrs....

242

Do

175 16 0
172 14 8

Do

do

....do...

Alex. White, FiilUMi

Do

8791
3792

do

do

do

Ram...,
Ewe....
....do...

192
142
123
160

13 0
8 1
8 4
6 14

Do

Do

8796
3796

do

. ..do.

Do

do

....do...

130 7 2
132 1 7 0
188i 12 6

97i> 10 9

Do

do

....do...

Do

3797

American Me-
rino.
do

....do...

Do

....do..J

Agricultural Experi-

mentStation, Madimn.

Do

3798
3799

First-cross

Shropshire.

do

....do...
. .do...

2yr8 —

3 yrs . . . .
8 yrs....
2 yrs ....

106

1291
136

12 0

13 0
9 1

10 0
8 10

8 7

7 12

7 4
6 2

6 5
6 10
10 12

13 1

18 0

9 10

41 0
10 8

5 13

6 10

8 7

7 5

9 5
7 9

5 1

6 1

7 8
4 6

7 12
6 9

8 0

10 6
20 8
17 4

Do

do

....do...

Do

3800
3801
3772

do

do...

Do

do

...do...

3 yrs

2 yrs....

2yrs

2yr8....

lyr

Jyr

3yrB

3 yrs

3 yrs —
2 yrs....

106*
104i

122
100
80

92

91
160

166

150

130

Do

Second -cross

Shropshire.

do

....do...
....do...

Do

Do

do

....do...

Do

3773

Dorset horn

grade.
do

....do...
....do...

Do

Do

do

....do...

Arthur Broughton, Al-
bany.
Do

3766

Pure-bred

Shropshire.
First-cross

Shropshire.
Pure-bred

Shropshire.
Second - cross

Shropshire.
do

....do...
....do...
....do...
....do...
....do...

Do

Do

3767

Do

Do

do

....do...

lyr

lyr

lyr

lyr.,...

120
70

100
80

Samuel Jones, Hustiford .
Do

3839

First-cross
Oxfordshire
Merino.

do

....do...
....do...

Do

do

....do...

Do

do . ..

...do...

Do .

do

....do...

ly

2yr8....

lyr

lyr

2yr8

2yr8....
2yr8....

2 yrs —

3 yrs

100
90

90
80
100
150
82
70

Do

3840
3841

Second - cross
Oxfordshire
Merino.

do

....do...
....do...

Do

Do

do

....do...

Do

do

....do...

Do

do

....do...

Alex. White, Fulton

3793

do

....do...

Do

do

....do...

Do

3794

6274
6279
6280
19571
6275
6276
6277
6278
19664
19556
19556
19567

do

....do...

WYOMING.

J W Moore

Grade Merino.

do

do

Wether .
Ewe....
....do...

3 TTS....

J. B. Onkie

3 yrs

Do

3 yrs

Do

.... do

....do...

3 vrs

D. A. Kingsbury

Do

Merino

Grade Merino.

do

do

do

do

Whether .
....do...
Ewe....
Ram....
Ewe....
....do...

2 yrs

9 12

7 6
12 0
12 4
10 6

8 11
8 11

16 15

11 mos . .

Do

2yr8....

Do

8 yrs

Jno E Oslximu

3 vra ....

Do

3 yrs

Do

do

....do...

3 yrs....

Do

do

Wether.

3 yrs....

Digitized by VjOOQIC

WOELD 8 COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1619

of tests of individtuil samples of vx)ols — Ck>ntinued.

DOMESTIC-Oontinued.

Fineness of fiber.

Strength of liber.

Total stretch
of fiber.

D'SxS

S

Milli-

Centi-
milli-
meters.

Thou-
sandths
of
inch.

Frac-
tion of
inch.

Grams.

Grains.

meters
in 20-
milli-
meter

Per

cent

of

length.

S'.

1810t)j^ =

E=-«-

Remarks.

length.

S.628

1.387

tK

11.791

182.063

7.440

37.20

14.86

16,810

46,180 1 Washed.

2.678

1.054

B

9.191

151.938

8.024

40.12

20.604

23.207

67.846 Unwashed.

8.796

1.494

f

20.166

311. 192

11.582

57.91

22.89

26,350

43,770

3.9985

1.572

v

26.875

414.74

7.866

39.38

26.962

30.516

77,691

4.214

1.669

1

22.633

347.786

6.682

33.41

20.80

22,970

68,770

3.480

1.370

«

16.208

260.184

6.692

33.46

21.40

24,225

72,398

8.2615

1.284

V

16.468

238.561

7.942

39.71

28.24

26,829

66,271

4.0696

1.602

1

17.891

276.08

7.832

89.16

17.285

19.668

49,966

2.888

1.1370

B

15. 146

233.72

6.858

29.29

28.65

32,310

114,400

8.879

1.6270

z

14.70

226.84

4.842

24.21

16.68

17,690

73,090

3.5946

1.4152

V

27.875

422.43

8.882

41.66

38.90

88,380

92,100

2.682

1.066

Y

6.216

96.927

6.990

84.96

18.822

15,643

44,761

1.900

.748

T^«

5.075

78.319

6.082

80.41

22.441

25,399

83.528

2.609

1.027

^

8.958

139.24

6.166

80.83

21.066

28,831

77.301

2.9665

1.168

V V

18.538

208.84

7.900

89.60

24.60

27,861

70,510

2.6855

1.018

V Y

8.525

140.06

6.632

33.16

20.41

23,100

69,670

2.5406

1

W V

7.441

114.83

7.998

89.99

18.45

20,885

62,226

2.817

1.110

W T

9.800

148.52

6.882

29.41

18.75

21,220

72,165

2.525

.994

tiAjx

7.1583

110.47

7.466

87.83

17.96

20,531

54,460

3. 1725

1.249

B V

11.566

178.49

6.068

30.29

18.38

20,801

68.688

3.0685

1.208

■■ T

7.908

121. M

6.858

29.29

13.44

15,215

51,943

3.358

1.322

TCT

12.400

191.86

6.392

31.96

17.59

19,918

62,309

2.5855

1.018

V^

12.925

199.46

7.782

38.91

30.98

85,015

89,985

8.4395

1.354

18.825

202.240

5.624

28.12

18.69

21, 162

75.268

2.7565

1.089

wli

13.716

211.66

8.232

41.16

28.88

82,685

79.415

8.0125

1.186

>i«

9.200

169.76

6.624

28.12

20.42

28,115

82,215

2.972

1.170

y^

8.075

186.08

5.482

27.41

14.62

16,568

GO. 400

3.2155

1.266

ri.

10.675

163.196

6.416

32.08

16.86

18.520

57,726

3.417

1.345

T H

16. 191

249.96

7.800

89.00

22.18

26,110

64.382

2.880

1.134

» T

12.100

186.78

6.100

80.60

23.34

26,415

86.614

2.891

1.138

%H

7.008

108.14

6.460

27.26

18.415

16,185

55,725

2.5435

1.009

±

11.700

170.88

8.866

41.83

28.98

82,751

78,294

2.957

1.164

9.983

165.05

7.368

36.79

18.26

20,675

66,019

2.891

1.138

ri«

9.400

155.06

7.724

33.62

17.99

20,870

60,580

2.688

1.050

1

8.960

139.11

6

80

19.81

22,486

74,772

2.825

1.112

1

12.275

189.43

8.800

44

24.60

27,845

63,270

8.8925

1.532

S T

17.341

267.612

7.082

.36.41

18.81

20,730

68,640

2.937

1.156

It <

10.860

169.72

6.432

27.16

19.19

21,729

80,000

2. 586

1.018

V 1

22.133

341.56

7.808

39.04

62.94

69,920

153,500

3.884

1.529

B S

9.858

162.14

6.808

29.04

10.46

11.885

40.750

3.435

1.352

r 9

16.233

250.61

4.200

21

22

24,900

118,650

2.818

1.119

W 1

16.083

248.19

8.500

42.60

82.39

86,666

86.280

3. 424

1.348

TIT

16.388

237.89

7.682

38.41

20.99

28,756

61,850

2.215

.872

TlVl

6.400

97.22

7.766

38.83

21.362

24,167

62,238

1.908

.749

5.368

82.68

6.850

34.25

23.67

26,791

78,225

2.195

.864

5.616

86.66

6.712

28.66

21.21

24.015

84.075

2.464

.966

Tl^Z

7.400

114.19

7.066

36.38

19.66

22,252

79.294

1.768

.696

T^.

6.233

80.75

7.650

37.76

26.78

30,317

80,310

1.686

.644

4.583

70.72

6.558

27.79

27.40

31,021

111,628

2.139

.842

T^Wr

4.861

74.86

6.808

34.04

16.96

19,202

66,411

1.730

.681

tAb

4.726

72.91

6.124

30.62

25.26

28,589

93,429

2.180

.858

TlV*

6.658

101.205

6.190

30.96

21.57

24.989

80,740

2.383

.938

T<^B

5.568

86.77

6.990

29.96

15.66

17,724

59,179

1.763

.694

14^

3.926

61.57

6.616

83.08

20.20

22,869

69.130

2.124

.886

It"

b

7.741

119.46

8.190

40.96

26.28

29,748

72,645

Digitized by VjOOQIC

1620

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

Details of hiatory and Orverag^ remiUs
DOMESTIO-OmUnued.

Name and addrfiw.

Record
No.

Ex-
hibit
No.

Breed.

Sex.

Age.

Live
weight.

Cor-

COT-

rected'

recte<i

length

weight

of

of

. fiber

fleece.

in

criXQp.

Lb8.oz.

TnehetL

14 15

2.50

15 0

2.50

22 0

2.50

16 0

2.75

18 4

2.75

13 5

2,75

7 0

2.72

7 9

2.46

7 U

1.90

17 13

2.75

17 14

WYOMING — continued.

Jno. E. Osborne .

Do

Robert Taylor...

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.

Do.
Do.

19658
19559
6281
6282
6282a
19560
19561
19562
19563
19564

19566
19567
19568
19569

19572
19673

Orade Merino Wether ,

do do...

do do...

do I do ...

do do...

do I Ram

do I Ewe

do I Wether.

do ; do...

ShropHhire do...

Merino. '

Merino

....do I

Pure Merino.., Ewe

do I do ...

French Me- i do...

rino. I

Pure Merino do . . .

do [ do ...

3 >-!«.. .
Syrs...
"■ yrs.
rs.

ill yi
ifl yi

llmofl.
Itmos.
llmoB.
llmos.
2 yrs . . .

Pounds

2yrs 14 2

2yrs I 10 6

2yr8 14 2

2yr8 ' 14 14

2 yrs j 9 6

Syrs.... 24 10

FOREIGN.

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.

Unknown '

Juan Planee, Buenos i

Ay res.
Ghiraldo, Saenz y Ca.,

Buenos Ay res. >

Manuel Orgueira, Bue- ,

nos Ayres.
Juan B. Bioz, Buenos

Ayres. I

Manuel F. Parea, Bue- i

nos Ayres. ]

Antonio y Pedro La- i

nusse, Buenos Ayres. '

Ruflno Baravilbara, I

Buenos Ayres. I

Do ,

Devoto, Gallegos y Ca., '
Buenos Ayres.

Pedro Sante, Buenos I
Ayres, I

Duggan Bros., Buenos '
Ayres.

Angel T. de Alvcar,
Buenos Ayres.

Gaston Sa usmcna y hi j os,
Buenas Ayres.

Juan Vldela, Buenos
Ayres.

Belisario Lynch, Bue-
nos Ayres. ,
Do I

Martinez F. Louza, Bue- '
nos Ayres. I

Manuel Aguirre, Bue- 1
nos Ayres.
Do 1

Pedro de Achaval, Bue-
nos Ayres. I
Do

E. Acuna, Buenos Ayres.

M. Alchurrut

Angel T. de Alvear

Do

27151
27248
27269
27239
27260
27252

27247

27243
27267
27244
27233
27266
27275
27263

26096

26906
26879

2l»80
26881
26883
26886

54

54

58

60

62

64

67

68

2712
2719

94

i;j5

133
164

471
470

Merino

Lincoln and 1 yr.

Merino.
Grade Merino. Ewe | 2 yrs.

.do.
.do.
.do.

.do...' 2 yrs.
.do ...| 2 yrs.
.do...j 2 yrs.

Merino, cro.H8 do...llyr

South Da-
kota.

Lincoln croea do .

Lamb.

Grade Merino.

do Ewe ...

Lincoln do ..

....do..

Grade Lincoln

cross.
Lincoln cross.

Cross Merino.
Grade Merino.

...do...
...do...
...do...

Rambouillet. . i do .

Merino | do .

lyr...
9mos.

lyr..
lyr..
lyr..
lyr..
2 yrs.
lyr..

.do.

.L...do...l.

Grade Merino . ' do . .

Rambouillet. . I . . . . do . .

l^yrs.
1 yr....

Lincoln crows. I Lamb... I 6mos..

Cross Merino. i Ewe

do do. ..I

Lincoln, pure. Ram I 10 mos.

do I do...l 2 yrs...

5 8

7 6

8 10

7
6
5

13
5

6 0

12 12

9 13

14 14

10 12

10 6

3

3

5

1

5

10

6

12

10

8

15

12

15

13

Digitized by VjOOQIC

world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.
of tesis of individtial samples of wools — Continued.

1621

DOMESTIC— Continued.

Fineness of fiber.

strength of fiber.

Total stretch
of fiber.

D'^xS

,o,««S

B-P.

Milli-

Centi-

mUli-

meters.

Thou-
sandths
of
inch.

Frac-
tion of
inch.

Orams.

Grains.

meters
In 20-
milli-
meter

Per

cent

of

length.

S'.

1810^=
R.

length.

1.916

.754

6.276

81.405

6.866

34.38

21.56

24,890

71,047

1.898

.747

4.916

76.866

6.024

30.12

21.840

24,712

82,046

2.380

.937

ToW

4.358

66.764

4.274

21.37

12.31

13,932

65,198

2.043

.8W

11^3

4.633

71.492

7.260

36.25

17.76

20,101

55,460

1.883

.741

t:^«

4.716

72.77

6.190

30.96

21.28

24,080

77,820

2.012

.792

TiAni

5.633

86.930

6.600

33.00

22.26

25,200

76.360

2.048

.806

1^.0

6.526

100.69

6.616

33.08

26.063

29.499

89,180

2.144

.844

ilVf

5.691

87.92

6.490

32.45

19.808

22,420

69,090

2.129

.838

TlV.

6.741

104.02

7.900

89.50

23.79

26,932

68,182

2.749

1.082

.is

11.166

172.31

6.716

83.68

34.48

89,084

116,248

2.086

.821

1^3

11.84

182. 718

7.400

37.00

43.685

49,274

183,160

1.979

.779

5.408

84.46

5.882

29.16

22.09

26,006

85,766

2.454

.966

^^i

5.983

93.33

6.a52

81.76

15.89

17,992

66.643

2.266

.892

Tt^lo

6.366

83.80

6.532

27.66

16.72

18,926

58,419

2.840

1.118

.h

7.491

116.703

6.400

27.00

14.86

16,819

60,874

2.520

.992

tiAjt

5.641

96.189

6.732

83.66

14.212

16,087

47,790

1.880

.743

tAi.

1.906

86.711

6.882

29.41

22.021

24,923

84,775

FOREIGN.

1.8(M
1.751

.710
.689

4.916
4.700

76.866
72.532

6.100
. 7.632

30.50
37.66

24.16
24.62

27,866
27,760

89,690
78,711

1.669

.657

Ti;^!

4.860

74.^16

6.232

31.16

27.85

31,630

112,680

1.611

.634

I,^,

4.650

71.760

5.890

29.45

■28.66

82.440

110,160

2.M3

.804

I«>13

5.133

79.214

5.440

27.20

19.67

22,270

81,878

2.013

.801

,A3

10.85

167.44

6.950

84.75

41.69

47,076

165,460

1.999

.787

1^0

4.408

68.025

6.658

28.29

17.65

19,976

70,610

3.896

1.337

tJt

26.66

411.42

8.166

40.88

36.98

41,862

102,600

1.476
2.152

.581
.W7

4.008
4.433

61.852
68.411

5. .540
4.422

27.70
22.11

29.43
15.81

33,318
17,336

120,200
76,680

2.574

1.013

«i^S

4.925

77.003

4.782

28.66

11.89

18,463

56,892

3.719

1.464

«lf

21.61

338.49

7.890

39.45

25.00

28,290

71,720

8.290

1.296

r\x

25.85

398.05

9.200

46

88.21

43.1M6

94,018

4.329

1.701

zU

17.48

269.76

6.782

33.91

14.92

16.890

49,810

1.824

.n8

1^07

6.491

100.271

9.032

45.16

31.216

35,380

78,235

2.160

.860

tiVb

5.925

92.436

6.866

31.83

43. 88

49,673

156,000

1.753
2.200

.690
.866

6.041
6.160

77.794
94.908

7.590
7.240

37.95
36. -20

26.297
20.380

29,706
23,010

78,277
63,565

1.611

.646

tA.

1.789
2.030

.7013
.799

4.638
7.966

71.498
109.588

6.624
6.316

33.12
31.58

23.161
80.928

26,214
35,005

79.149
110,840

2.472
1.931
1.885
4.1<M
4.133

.973
.760
.742
1.651
1.617

±

13. M
4.200
4.175
84.808
30.183

208.953
64. 815
61.430
5;i7. 169
465.794

8.732
5.158
5.516
8.758
9. 450

43.66
25.79
27.58
43.79
47.25

35.46
18.02
18.80
31.66
40.06

40,126
20,890
21,270
35,836
44,310

91,901
79,090
77,150
81,835
96,961

Digitized by VjOOQIC

1622

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

Details of history and average results
FOREIGN— Continued.

Name and addrem.

ARGKKTINB RKITBLIC-

contlnucd.

Carlos J. de Alvear

Do

E. Amido

Vluda de Apellaniz

Do

Ayarragara y Capide-
pont.

T.Aria«

Lorenzo Alourta

Juan Aoeval

Do

Manuel 8. Aeulerre

Aspitarte yde Ion Santos.
Artayeta CaHtex de Lima

JOtA AjM>aRUNO

Alfredo AIohho

Felix Alxaga

Aohaval, RtMlriguex y Ca.

Juvenal Barboza

Kxoquel Belaudo

G.Bell

Juan B. Bioz

Do

Do

Do

Enrique Bonifacio, Bue-
nos Ay res.

Do

Do

Do

Do.

Enrique Boeoh, Buenos
Ayres.

Mariano Bians, Buenos
Ayres.

Bellocq y Duranona,
Buenos Ayres.

Luis Bonjou, Buenos
Ayrea.

L. Bailati. Buenos Ayres.

Luis P. Burgos, Buenos
Ayres.

Carlos Baravilbaro, Bue-
nos Ayres.

Oswaldo 8. Carrizo, Bue-
nos Avres.

P. Carricaburo, Buenos
Ayres.

Juan Chapar, Buenos

^^:.

M. Chiezza, Buenos

Ayres.
Chillado, Gonzales y

Ca., Buenos Ayres.

Do

Do

Martin Colmann, Buenos

Ayres.
Rafael Clrto, Buenos

Ayres.
Cemadas y Inbame,

Buenos Ayres.
Ceasar Cardosa, Buenos

Ayres.
Doctor CarrI6, Buenos

Ayres.
Correa y lArrazaljcl,

Buenos Ayres.

Record
No.

Ex-
hibit
No.

26902
26904
26905
26907
2690K

26912
26913
26914

26917
26919
26921
26922
26923
26924
26925

26927
26928
26929

26940
26941

26945

26940

26947

26918

26949
26950

26951

26952
26958
26957

26959

26963

26887
26888
26891
26892 I 508
26898 652
26895 684

816
845
810

53
34

27

26
8
538
280
401
132
529

30
511
615
674

68

38
589

637

544
32

48
10

626

621

60

328
473

682

577

597

515

313
638

459

643
73

630
11

122

Breed.

Lincoln

do

Grade Merino
Rambouillet..
Grade Merino.
do

Sex.

Ram..
....do.

Ewe . .
....do.
....do.
....do.

do ' do.

Lincoln, pure.' do .

Croe« Lincoln do.

Age.

3 yrs. .
8mo6.

2 yra..
2 yrs.
2 yrs.,

lyr..

Pure Lincoln
Lincoln, cross.
Grade Merino.

do

....do

Lincoln, pure.
Grade Merino.
Lincoln cross ,
Grade Merino.

do

do

do

do

do

Lincoln, pure.
Rambouillet. .

....do

Grade Merino.
Lincoln, cross

Merino.
Lincoln cross.
Lincoln, cross

Merino.
Grade Merino.

.do.
.do.

.do.
.do.

Rambouillet..

Lincoln cross.

Merino

Grade Merino.

Lincoln cross.
....do

Rambouillet.

Grade Merino.
Lincoln cross.
Grade Merino.

.do.
.do.

Rambouillet.

Lincoln, croj«

Merino,
Grade Merino.

.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do .
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.

1 yr..

2 vrs.
lyr..
2 yrs..

.do.
.do.
....do.

...do.
...do.

.do.

.do.

.do.

.do.
.do.

.do.

.do.

.do.

.do.

....do.
....do.

-do...

...do.
...do.
...do.

...do.
...do.
...do.
...do.
...do.

3 yrs.

lyr...
3 yrs. .
2iy«.
lyr...

lyr..
lyr..
lyr..

1 yr..
lyr..

lyr..

2 yrs.
lyr..

2yrB..
2 yrs..

2 yrs..

lyr...

U yra.

1 yr.
lyr.

yr..
yrs.

yrs.
yr..

2 yrs.

yr..
yr..
yrs.

Uve
weight.

' Cor-
Cor- rected
rected length
weight of

of fiber
fleece. in

crimp.

Bounds, IJb».oz. Inchea.

18 0 10

11 12 9.50

4 4 1.5
6 8 L3

5 6 2

6 6 2.50

11
10 ;

5
14 '

2 I

4

0

4
10

1
13

3
10
12

6
10
10
13

6 12

6 14

I 5 6

20 8

I 5 8

I 4 6

2.50

7

4.50

4

4

3

2.5

2.50

7

4

4.50

3

3

1.50

3.60

2,50

3.50

6

8.5

2.50

8

4.50

5
4.5

2.5

3

1

2.50
2.50

8.75

2

8

2.50
5

2.55
6

4

2

2.60

8.20

5

2.50

Digitized by VjOOQIC

world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1803.

1623

of tests of individual samples of wool — Continued.

FOREIGN— Continued.

Fineness of fiber.

Strength of fiber.

Total stretch
of fiber.

D'2xS

18109p=
R.

e4.

Centi-
milli-
meters.

Thou-
sandths
of
inch.

Frac-
tion of
inch.

Qrams.

Grains.

Milli-
meters
in2a-
milli-
meter

Ver

cent

of

length.

Remarks.

length.

8.061

1.205

19.438

809.89

7.208

36.04

38.186

87,561

104,216

2.9086

1.867

73T

25.233

889.40

3.674

18.87

47.72

60,710

33,048

2.119

.834

llW

4.626

71.374

6. -216

31.08

16.48

18,650

60,015

2.011

.791

T^^

6.026

77.447

6.408

32.04

19.880

22,601

70,228

2.119

.884

nfe

5.016

77.412

6.800

29

17.873

20,229

69,767

2.114

.832

5.658

87.316

7.690

88.45

20.256

22,927

69,628

1.819

.716

T^

5.316

82.038

7.024

35.12

26.70

'2'j. im

82,840

3.866

1.522

30.088

464.26

9.132

45.66

41.661

17, 158

103,270

2.283

.879

11.95

185.416

7.882

39.41

38.84

I:;, wo

110,100

2.977

1.172

sh

9.833

161.746

6.874

84.37

17.752

'JdJiOl

68,467

2.363

.930

X

6.391

88.295

7.682

38.41

15.44

17,480

45,516

1.989

.788

6.741

88.597

7.140

36.70

28.218

■2u, m

73,611

1.918

.763

vStf

4.666

71.997

6.640

82.70

20.40

'SA,m

70,610

2.378

.934

jihv

6.458

84.229

5.382

26.91

16.507

1 7,. -152

65,225

3.650

1.437

vbt

13.76

212. 185

8.066

40.33

16.661

is,(»0

73,786

2.223

.876

iA»

5.725

88.350

7.308

36.64

18.536

'.^ti, '.f79

67,414

2.604

1.025

6.766

104.41

6.500

32.60

15.964

I.MJ69

66,598

2.193

.863

TISB

5.066

78.180

6.308

81.54

16.854

ly, 075

60,481

2.040

.803

T4^

4.600

71.088

6.816

34.08

17.685

20,016

68,734

1.837

.723

TaVs

4.766

73.66

7.732

38.66

22.59

25,570

66,156

2.281

.898

tAs

4.566

70.87

7.082

30.41

14.041

15,865

62,259

1.939

.763

T^0

5.065

77.988

7.100

36.50

21.49

24,326

68,518

2.353

.926

jifrv

5.276

81.266

7.650

38.26

16.21

17,220

45,030

8.674

1.407

rfa

20.67

318.966

8.608

43.04

25.89

29,305

68,082

2.269

.893

rA»

4.691

72.493

6.708

33. M

14.57

16,500

49,190

2.309

.909

j^v

4.191

64.776

5.632

28.16

12.57

14.235

60,650

2.198

.866

rtV.

4.416

68.149

5.832

29.16

14.62

16,555

56,760

1.846

.726

i!^

13.03

201.088

7.090

36.46

61.246

69,318

196,630

2.622

1.032

t

17.54

270.68

7.008

36.04

40.82

46,200

131,850

2.883

1.136

19.87

316.64

7.760

38.75

38.24

480,290

111,760

2.279

.897

itV.

5.850

90.279

6.516

32.68

18.062

20,396

62,605

2.248

.885

iT^n.

6.066

78.180

6.216

31.08

16.002

18,153

58,409

1.867

.731

T3Vt

6.466

98.736

8.082

40.41

30.00

33,956

84,026

2.203

.867

11^(1

5.816

89.750

7.800

39

19.17

21,700

55,640

2.088

.820

lA.

4. 616

71.236

3.708

28.54

17.021

19,265

67.508

1.692

.666

jM

4.158

64.167

5.450

27.25

•23.237

26,304

96,518

2.937

1.156

.k^

12.81

197.68

6.650

33.25

23.77

26,892

80.880

2.033

.800

t/4«

4.941

8:j.25

6.690

33.46

19.128

21,648

64,720

2.016

.793

i^

4.483

09. 18;*

6.166

30.83

17.661

19,994

64,854

2.376

.9848

TiAia

5.991

83.65

7.116

35.58

16.903

19,233

54,058

3.470

1.366

Th

21.65

334.110

8.060

40.25

28.768

32,560

80,896

2.302

.906

it4ii

4.950

77.390

6.308

31.64

14. W

16,912

53,630

2.464

.970

10^10

5.683

89.930

6.966

34.83

14.84

16,802

48,235

3.404

1.340

±

14.51

233.92

6.666

33.33

20.03

22,670

68,035

1.728

.680

3.783

68.380

7.482

37.41

20.270

22,942

61,327

2.027

.798

r^f

4.383

66.868

5.440

27.20

16.87

19,090

70,215

2.414

.960

r^\.

5.800

78.352

6.616

33.08

16.56

17,610

53,240

2.203

.867

iA»

5.166

79.724

6.900

34.50

17.03

19,275

55,875

3.318

1.306

T&H

13.72

211.73

7.658

38.29

19.94

22,665

58, WO

2.083

.820

Tl\»

4.400

67.902

5.190

25.96

16.225

18,364

70,767

Digitized by VjOOQIC

1624

BEPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

Detcdls of hiMory and average reauUs
F0REIGN--Contixii2ed.

Name and addrcas.

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC—

continncd.

Juan CafiAa, Buenos

Ayres.
Federieo CibiJs, Buenos

Ayres.
Tomas Deloy, Buenos

*sr.

Nicolas Delaner, Buenos
Ayres.

Devoto, Galegoso y Ca.,
Buenos Ayres.

Devoto, Balblani y Ca.,
Buenos Ayres.

Ramon Diaz, Buenos
Ayres.

Duggan Bros., Buenos
Ayres.
Do

Adolf o Du^uenay, Bue-
nos Ayres.

Manuel Duranona, Bue-
nos Ayres.

Simon Escurra. Buenos
Ayres.

M. Duranona, Buenos
Ayres.

Dierks & Mentorff, Bue-
nos Ayres.

Errea y Urtasein, Buenos
Ayres.

Simon Ezcurra, Buenos
Avres.

Etcheto y Etchart, Bue-
nos Ayres.

Bautista Echeverry, Bue-
nos Ayres.
Do

Juan Elizalde, Buenos
Ayres.

Nicanor Ezeiza, Buenos
Ayres.

Juan Jos^ Ezeiza, Bue-
nos Ayres,

Agusta de Elia, Buenos
Ayres.

Fermin Echarry, Bue-
nos Ayres.

Tomas Magulrre, Bue-
nos Ayr^'**-

Carlos Tremery, Buenos
Ayres.

Do.
Do.

Celestlnc Garros, Buenus

^^:.

Gibson Bros., Buenos

*sr.

Do

Do

Ghinotis y Pedesta

Ghiraldo, Saenz y Ca...

Miguel Gogorza

Ignacio Goni

Graciarena Hno.s

Juan C. Giribone

Alejandro Gallardo

Octavio T. Gonzales

Ft-
^«- No!

26964
26965

26970
26971

26973
26972

26978
26979

26984
26990
26992

26991
26995

26997

27000
27001

27006
27007
27013

27014
27015

27016
27017
27018
27020
27021
26022
27023
27026
27030
27031
27032

427

468

601

548
870

179

8S3

167

ao5

293
677

604

486

616

614

647

667

118

639

28
157

106

42

558

215

533

410

420
36(i

Breed.

Lincoln cross.

Lincoln, pure,

Bambouillet. .

Lincoln cross.
Grade Merino.

.do.

Grade Ram-

bouillet.
Grade Merino.

Lincoln cross.

Lincoln, pure
Merino ,

Rambonlllet..
Lincoln cross.
....do

Grade Ram-

bouillet.
Lincoln croas.

Grade Merino.

....do

....do

Sex.

Ewe..
...do.
...do.

.do.
.do.

.do.
....do.

.do.

....do.

.do.
.do.

.do.

.do.

.do.

.do.

..-.do.

.do.

.do.

.do.

Age.

lyr...
2 yrs. .
2yr8.
2 yrs..

Live
weight.

Pounds.

lyr..
3 yrs.
lyr..
2 yrs.
lyr..

Grade Lincoln do . .

Bambouillet. . i do . .

I
Grade Merino. I do . .

Rambouillet..

....do

Lincoln cross.

....do

Grade Merino.

....do

....do

....do

Rambouillet..

....do

Grade Ram-

....do

bouillet.

(» r ade Merino . do .

Cross bred I..amb.

496 Lincoln, pure.

689 Lincoln cross.
864 Lincoln

865 ,
86G
867
421
200
585
332
120
43
116
117

.do.

Lincoln cross.

do

Grade Merino.

do

Lincoln cro»<.

do

Grade Merino.

Lincoln cross. do

Grade^Merino. do

do I do

Ewe ....

2 yrs...
lyr....
lyr....
2 yrs...
lyr....
2 yrs...
2 yrs...
lAyw.

lyr.
lyr.

2 yrs.
2 yrs.
lyr..
lyr..
lyr..
2 yrs.

1>T..

2 yrs.
2 yrs .
lyr..

.do.
.do.

....do.
....do.
....do.
....do.
....do.
....do.
....do.
do.

.. lyr..
.. lyr..

..| lyr..
.. lyr..
.. lyr..
.12 yra .
,.' 2 yrs.
. . , 2 yrs .
..Ilyr..
. '2 yra .
, . 2 vrs .
. 2 yrs.
.1 lyr..

' Cor-
Cor- reeled
rected length
weight of

of fiber
fleece. in

I crimp.

11

0

6

14

8
3

0
8

11

14

5

13

8

8

8
6

14
3

8

7

4

3

6

6

6

0

7

10

8 12

Lbs,oz. Indie*.

7 11

8

2.50

5
2.50

3

2.50

2.60

6.50

2.70

2.60

4.50

5

8

5

2.50

L50

2.50

4.50

3
2.50

8

5

2.25

3

2. SO

3.50

2,50
2.50
9.50

7.60

8.50

8.50

3

3

6.50

5

3

3.50

2.50

2.50

10 I

10 14
5 5

12 9

8 14

8 12

7 3 I

8 3 I
7 4

5 15

7 0

8 9

6 0

4 8
6 12

5 5

Digitized by VjOOQIC

WOKLd's COLOMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1625

of tents of individual samples of wools — Continued.

FOREIGN— Conttnued.

Fineness of fiber.

Strength of fiber.

Total stretch
of fiber.

D'SxS

18109^2=
R.

E-_.

Centi-
mllli-
metere.

Thou-
sandths
of
inch.

Frac-
tion of
inch.

Grama.

Grains.

Milli-
meters
in 20-
milli-
meter
length.

Per

cent

of

length.

8'.

Remarks.

2.904

1.143

Mh

12.46

191.71

6.840

29.20

23.639

26,766

91,629

3.460

1.362

A.

26.80

418.68

7.640

27.70

36.81

40,586

107,500

2.172

.865

n^™

5.150

79.47

7.200

36

17.506

19,814

55,040

2.838
2.299

1.117
.905

,t

12.16
6.400

187.66
98.76

6.358
7.516

26.79
37.68

24.166
19.37

27,340
21,925

10,206
68,349

1.954

.769

tA.

4.925

77

7.640

88.20

20.638

• 23,368

61,148

1.766

.696

n^

6.883

90.78

8.124

40.62

30.18

34,168

84,092

2.081

.819

T1^

4.941

77.261

6.482

32.41

18.256

20,661

63,750

3.636

1.392

ri.

21.43

830.71

7.266

36.33

37.423

31,038

86,433

2.982
2.634

1.174
1.087

t

27.676
6.191

427.09
95.641

8.000
7.608

40
38.04

49.795
14.96

58,186
16,920

14,666
44,481

1.870

.736

r^i

4.975

77.775

6.666

33.33

22.762

26,704

77,297

2.812

1.070

.b

15.22

234.88

6.868

34.37

30.796

34,866

101,410

3.016

1.187

a^

10.233

16.791

6.908

39.64

18.011

20,385

61,666

2.322

.914

iiAis

6.100

94.187

6.208

31.04

18.101

20,487

66,005

2.020

.795

iAt

5.768

88.850

7.900

89.50

22.678

25,654

64,694

2.083

.820

tA»

4.391

67.863

6.382

31.91

16.19

18,320

67,480

1.758

.692

tA,

4.668

71.883

7.082

36.41

24.11

27,290

77,070

2.119

.834

T1^.

4.741

73.164

6.940

84.70

16.890

19,120

65,100

2.5826
3.907

.997
1.638

±

6.915
21.75

107.714
335.65

5.900
9.190

29.60
46.96

17.260
22.79

19,624
25,800

66,186
56,160

2.299

.905

lA*

7

108.02

8.124

40.62

21.19

23,960

69,040

1.867

.735

T.\r„

5.491

84.90

7.966

39.83

25.204

28,461

71,622

3.6755

1.447

.4t

12.391

191.32

7.374

36.87

14.675

166,090

567,140

2.060

.807

>^8

4.991

78.120

6.732

33.66

19.002

21,506

63,894

2.297

.904

itVk

5.566

85.906

6.766

33.83

16.917

19,103

56,468

1.860

.732

idW

5.060

77.933

7.190

35.96

23.360

26,433

73,629

2.106

.829

lAs

5.441

83.967

7.808

39.01

19.628

22,200

66,827

2.185
2.663
3.668

1.009
1.000
1.440

TlJ«

5.851
9.825
32.56

90.403
181.623
502.32

8.016
6.824
4.666

40.06
31.62
23.33

19.682
23.93
38.709

22,229
27,084
43,710

55,438
85,658
187,780

2.694
3.183

1.021
1.253

7i7

10.90
18.475

169.21
285.112

7.758
9.700

38.79

48.50

26.918
29.180

29,327
33,025

75,606
68,090

2.612

3.536

2.291

2.027

2.703

2.8515

2.690

2.124

2. 1735

2.266

2.088

.989
1.392
.902
.798
1.064
1.225
1.059

.m

.857
.892
.822

tVbh

TlVo
B9T

16.491
18.06
11.29
5.2a3
5.016
18.95
20.31
4.716
9.841
4.783
4.891

245.59
278.56
174.33
81.529
77.408
293.44
313.43
72.77
161.86
73. S12
75. 579

6.600
4.700
4.416
8.050
6.632
7.882
7.982
6.832
6.2.50
6.982
7.000

33

23.50

22.08

40.25

33.16

39.41

39.91

29.16

81.26

ai.91

35.00

41.821

23.097

33.632

20. .57

10.98

87.80

44.90

16.72

33.34

14.903

17.»t9

47,334
26,142
38,065
23,280
12,430
42,220
52,010
18,930
37,740
16,867
20,315

143,437
111,240
172,400
57,850
37.490
107,100
127,300
64,908
120,750
48,319
56,044

Digitized by VjOOQIC

1626

REPORT OF COMMITTER ON AWARDS.

DetaiU ofkigtory and average retulU
FOREIGN— ContlxKied.

Name and addrem.

ABOKirriNX BSPUBUO—

continued.

Ramon Gonzales

Martin Graciarena

Jose Garcia

G. B. Hallett<ScCo

Patricio Ham

Do

Maximo Hopff

Do

Imas y Rlvero

Juan Incharope

Amadeo Jolly

Dr. Enrique Keen

Carlos Fremery

Sonano Garcia

Dr. Enrique Keen

Jo86 Seguneche 6 liljo . . .
Pedro y Antonio, Lan-
usse.

Do

Do

S. Larrambe

Salvador Larredi

Federleo Leloir

Nicholafi Lowe

Salvador Sarrede

NlcholfU) Lowe

CIcilio liOpez

Ferrando Laronde

Bellsario Lynch

Manuel 8. Lopez

3ob6 Ma. Loughlin

Patricio Maguirrre

Felipe Martinez

T. Martens

T. M. Mendez y Ca., Bue-
nos Ayres.
Jo86 Moras 6 hijos. Bue-
nos Ayres.

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Juan Muiray, Buenos

^SS':

Antonio Monasterio,

Buenos Ayres.
P. Marcenave, Buenos

Ayres.
MiflTuel Martinez de Hoz,

Buenos Ayres.
Emilio Martinez de Hoz,

Buenos Ayres.
Do

Lorenzo Moreno, Bue-
nos Ayres.

Antonio Migruens, Bue-
nos Ayres.

Record
No.

27066
27036
27087
270a
27043
27044
27046
27046
27049

27061
27063
27064
27008
27011
27065

27056
27057

27068
27059
27060
27061
27064

27066
27066
27067
27068
27069

27070
27071

27072
•27076

27076

27077
27079

2708:^

27084
27085
27086
27087
27088
27089
27090

27091
27092

27093

27094

27096

27096

27098

27100

Ex-
hibit
No.

Breed.

5 Lincoln croas.
124 Grade Merino.

666 I Rambouillet..
672 I Grade Merino.

4^ I do

458 do

186 I Merino

746 Grade Merino.

667 Grade Ram-
I bouillet.

Merino cross..

Grade Merino.

Rambouillet. .

Lincoln cross.

Rambouillet. .

Rambouillet
and South-
down.

Merino

Grade Merino.

62
649
854
434
608
865

618
643

661 do ,

623 Lincoln cross .
622 Grade Merino,

680 do

190 Lincoln and

, Rambouil-

! let.

852 Rambouillet. .
Merino

853 Lincoln

462 ' Lincoln, pure.

7 Lincoln, first
I and second
cross.
130 ' Grade Merino.
Lincoln, one-
half cross.
Grade Merino,
Grade Ram-
bouillet.
Lincoln, cross
Merino.

do

Grade Merino.

12

107
441

642

612
536

857

858
859
867

646
474

119

65

199

560

806

Rambouillet.

,....do

.....do

Negretti

do

Lincoln

do

Lincoln, cross

Merino.
Lincoln, cross.
Grade Merino.

.do.
.do.

Grade Ram-
bouillet.

Lincoln, cross
Merino.

Merino

Grade Merino

Sex.

Ewe..
...do.
...do.
...do.
...do.
...do.
...do.
...do.
...do.

...do.
...do.
...do.
...do.
...do.
...do.

Age.

...do.
...do.

.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.

...do.
...do.
...do.
Ram..
Ewe..

...do.
...do.

.do.
.do.

...do..

.do.
.do.

...do.

Buck.
Ewe ..
Ram..
Ewe..
Ram..
Ewe..
...do.

.do.
.do.

....do.
....do.
....do.
....do.
....do.
....do.

2yrB.
lyr..
2yr8.
lyr..
Syrs.
2yrB.
lyr..
lyr..
lyr..

lyr..
2yrB.
2yr8.
lyr..
2yT8.
lyr..

lyr..
lyr..

lyr..
lyr..
2yrs.
2yr8.

2yr8.

lyr..
lyr..
2yrB.

2yrB.
2yr8.

2yr8.,

2yrB.

2yrs.
lyr..

2 ym.

3 yrs.
2 yrs.
2 yrs.
2 yrs..

2 yrs.,
2 yrs.

2 yrs.
2 yrs.
lyr..
2 yrs.

2iyr8.

Live

Cor-
rected
weiftat

fleece.

Pounds.

5 10

5

6
4
9
9
2
4
4

4
4
8
4

5 9
4 11

9 10
9 4
5 2

8 13
7 11

3 14

4 10

6 9

21 8

10 12
14 1

11 2
9 IS

10 14

6 12

Cot- 1
lected
length

fiber

in

crimp.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

woeld's Columbian exposition, 18»3.

1627

oj tests of individual samples of wools — Continued.

FOREIGN— Continued.

Fineness of fiber.

Strength of fiber.

Total stretch
of fiber.

S'.

18109^=
K.

K=H.

Centl-
milli-
meteis.

Thou-
sandths
of
inch.

Frac-
tion of
inch.

Grams.

Grains.

Milli-
meters
in 20-
milli-
meter

Per

cent

of
length.

Remarks.

len^h.

2.894

1.189

t

14.41

222.38

6.866

84.29

27.628

81,167

90,864

2. 216

.872

6

92.594

7.968

39.29

19.666

22.146

66,865

2.408

.948

-JL^

6.816

97.470

6.298

31.04

17.428

19,735

68,648

1.989

.783

_JL_

5.191

80.209

6.982

84.91

20.99

28,762

68,065

2.332

.918

iiAre

5.888

80.016

7.260

36.25

17.16

19,485

53,684

2.331

.878

JAit

4.700

72.532

6.224

81.12

18.84

15,668

50,380

1.839

.724

T^

5.883

84.616

7.116

35.58

26.00

28,765

80,826

1.961

.768

4.891

67.863

5.082

25.41

18.45

20,890

82,215

1.982

.780

inv

5.716

88.211

3.960

29.75

23.28

26,348

88,670

1.880

.740

8.475

180.78

8.016

40.08

88.86

43,420

100,800

1.961

.768

tAi

4.883

75.866

6.624

82.62

20.52

23,285

71,215

2.626

1.034

6.616

10.210

6.640

83.20

16.850

17,334

52,881

2.609

1.027

vfa

4.360

67.130

7.666

88.88

10.22

11,571

80,192

2.264

.891

^T

5.616

86.680

6.816

34.08

17.692

19,841

68,219

1.829

.720

TtAr^

6.226

80.634

7.166

86.83

24.99

28,284

78,941

2.561

1.008

.t

6.641

87.063

6.400

32

18.761

15,674

48,672

2.256

.888

4.958

77.613

6.816

34.08

15.586

17,641

51,768

2.541

1

T »

6.666

102.87

6.666

82.83

16.618

18,696

66,948

3.229

1.271

T 'B

17.73

275.66

8.100

40.60

27.207

80,794

76,084

2.S88

.940

Tinrs

5.850

90.279

7.140

85.70

16.418

23,382

66,510

2.196

.864

±

4.825

74.46

6.468

82.29

16.06

18,186

66,163

2.088

.822

5.916

92.297

6.882

84.16

21.711

24,678

71,935

2.271
2.0675

.894
.810

±

"5.*633'

'**'86.*928'

'*7

**36***'

"2i.'296*

***24,'696*

"68,'847*

3.279

1.291

T Z

22.475

347.84

8.966

44.88

83.468

87,862

64,456

4.049

1.694

vkr

28.66

442.29

7.842

89.21

27.970

81,657

80,787

Washed.

8.629

1.389

13.25

204.46

5.340

26.70

17.022

19.266

72,169

2.208

.869

TtV«

4.226

66.201

5.266

26.83

18.962

15,791

59,975

8.621

1.386

r*T

18.06

278.70

8.466

42.33

23.80

26,880

62,320

1.972

.776

±

6.083

78.442

5.800

29

20.91

28,670

81,620

2.180

.858

4.916

76.866

6.216

31.08

16.55

18,780

60,278

3.381

1.831

T*T

12.766

197.009

7.200

86

60.412

68,859

189,887

2.792

1.099

±

9.560

157.37

6.742

38.71

18.69

22,186

65.810

2.195

.864

6.800

81.791

5.266

26.33

17.60

19,920

75,657

2.271

.894

r^

5.611

87.068

5.468

27.29

17.50

19,807

72,579

2.661

1.004

«h

9.658

167.391

6.574

82.87

28.50

26,692

80.920

2.228

.877

5.091

78.666

4.690

23.45

16.409

18,572

79,200

2.594

1.021

VtV

5.241

80.880

6.758

88.79

12.462

14.104

41,742

2.261

.890

6.133

94.64

6.182

30.91

19.196

21,720

70,285

3.269

1.283

rfv

30.88

476.56

8.150

40.75

46.61

62,660

129,200

3.681

1.449

sp

21.08

325.80

9.000

45

24.89

28,106

62,460

2.906

1.144

»fs

13.32

206.66

7.516

37.68

25.17

28,493

75,830

2.876

1.132

±

11.24

178.45

5.066

25.88

21.74

24,601

97,160

2.297

.904

5.766

88.062

6.982

34.91

17.48

19,790

66,680

2.137

.841

Il^^»

4.266

64.741

6.266

81.83

15.888

17,810

56,261

2.868

.932

1,^1

4.841

74.708

5.274

26.87

13.818

15,683

69,286

2.058

.810

Wft

4.791

74.036

6.290

81.45

18.098

20,484

66,651

8.446

1.356

.hr

13.816

218.89

6.800

84

18.618

21,072

61,977

2.266

.892

Tin

5.266

81.166

6.332

81.66

16.40

18,570

58,760

2.246

.884

i^

6.191

80.209

6.316

31.58

16.464

18,634

60,243

Digitized by VjOOQIC

1628

BEPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWASD8.

Details of hittory and average rettdtg

FOREIGN-Continned.

Name and addrem.

Record
No.

hibit
No.

Nccol y Aguirre, Entre

RioH.
Rieardo Newton, Entrt*

RioH.
Litx>rio Novara, Entre

Ri(w.
Seftor Nufiez, Kntre Rioh
Benjamin Nazar, Entre

RioH.

Do

Do

J. M. Ortejfa, Entre RioH.
Fermln Ortiz, Entre RIom.

Do

Julian Ortiz, Entre RIom
BuHuuklo Ortiz, Entre

RioH.
Juan Oehat, Entre Rlo8.
Juan R. de Olasco, Entre

Rio8.
Manuel If. Parea, Entre

RiON.
Do

ABtiKNTlNB BEPrBlJC-— I

continued. '

Toman Maguirre, Bue- | 27101

no« Ayre«.
Afni^tin Miguelarena. 27102

San AguiftiB.

Do 27108 I

Felip Martinez de Hoz, 27106

San AioiBtin.
Mendiburo y IshUUrt. 27107 866

Entre Rioe.

S20

K60

PegaH.sano Hno8. y Re-
petto, Entre Rios.

Pega.s8tino HnoH. y Re-
petto, BuenoH AyreH.

ToilM Peralta, Buenos"
Ay res.

Perez y Cueto, BuentKs
AyreH.

Juan Petersen, Buenos
AyreH.

Planaii Hnos., Buenos
Ayres.

Antonio Pereyra, Bue-
nos Ayres.

Pena Huos., Buenos
Ayres.

Manuel R. Patino, Bue-
nos .\yres.

Denu'trio Pereym, Bue-
nos Ayres.

Palma y Brand i, Bue-
nos Ayres.

Marcus Pera, Buenos
Ayres.

Juan Plance, Buenos
Ayres.

A. y E. FMerres, Buenos
Ayres.
Do

Pourtalet Hnos., Buenos i
Ayres. I

DicKo Ramsay, Buenos \

^^::.

Jofl^ RodriKUcz, Buenos
Ayres.

27108

27109

27110

27112
27114

27115
27116
27119
27120
27121
27122
27127

27128
27129

27130

27131

27133

27131

27136

27138

27140

27142

27146

27146

27147

27148

27149

27150

27151

27152

27153
27157

27159

27160

27160

H43

&t9

180
714

726

719
228
636
1
1«)
598

35
41

488

602

675

527

506

534

274

112

Breed.

Sex.

Rambouillet. .
....do

do

Grade Merino.

Ramboull I e t
and Lin-
coln crom.

Merino

Lincoln, pure.
Merino

Grade Merino.
do

do

....do

do

Rambouillet.
Lincoln cross,
Grade Merino,
Merino cross. ,

Lincoln croHs,
....do

Grade Merino.

Grade Ram-
bouillet.
Grade Merino.

.do.
.do.

Grade Ram-

l>ouillet.
Grade Merino.

do

24 ' Lincoln cross.
17 ' do

19

.do.

Grade Merino.

.do.
.do.

92

82

4 Lincoln, cross
I Merino.

.do.
.do.

284 ' Grade Merino,
8 I do

Ewe..
...do.

Age.

.do.
.do.

1 yr..

H yr.

...do... 1 >T.,

'30G ' (Jrade Ram-

I boulUet.
679 1... .do

...do.

Lamb.

Ewe..

...do.
Buck.

...do.
Ewe..
...do.
...do.
...do.
...do.
...do.

1 yr..
2yra.

4 yr«.

lyr..
lyr..

do.
.do.

...do.
...do.
...do.
...do.
...do.
...do.
...do.
...do.
...do.
...do.
...do.
...do.
...do.
...do.
...do.
...do.

I 2.vr8.
|2yrs.
' 2 yrs .

I lyr..
, lyr..

I lyr..
I 3 yrs.
ilyr..
I 3 yrs.
2 yrs.

2 yrs.

3 yrs.
2 yrs.
lyr..
lyr..
lyr..
2 yrs.

.do.
.do.

1 yr. .

2 yrs.
lyr..

.do.
.do.

2 yrs.
2 yrs.
2 vrs.

Live
weigrht.

Poundg.

Cor-
Cop- reeted
reeled lenirth
weight ol

oT I fiber
fleece, i In
I crimp.

Lbt, oz., Inthf*,
h 12 2.50

.1 3

7

10

5

0

6
27

3
13

16
16
4

7
5
6
4

6
12
14

4

3
13

1

9
4

13
12

7

2

5

0

5

14

5

6

8

8

5

7

6

8

4

2

6

7

5

14

3

10

3

14

3

7

4

0

5

8

6

8

8
5

1
4

6

16

6

8

6

9

Digitized by VjOOQIC

world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1629

of tests of individual samples of wool — Continued.

FOREIGN— Continued.

Flnenesw of fiber.

Strength of fiber.

Total stretch
of fiber.

D'SxS

S'.

18109^=
R.

Centl-
milli-
tneters.

Thou-
sandths
of
inch.

Frac-
tion of
inch.

Grams.

Grains.

Milli-
meters
in20-
milll-
meter
length.

Per

cent

of

length.

Remarks.

2.081

.819

X^Xi

5.583

86.158

7.066

36.83

20.62

23,840

66,080

1.867

.736

1^0

4.466

68.920

5.366

26.83

20.499

23,201

86,477

2.434
2.276

.958
.896

5.250
4.241

SI. 019
W.44

6.550
5.658

27.76
28.29

14.17
13.09

16,043
14,820

67,827
52,402

1.837

.723

TtAr>

5.025

77.542

7,416

37.08

27.838

30,938

88,437

2.370

.933

lAi

4.6d6

72.007

5.082

25.41

13.290

15, (HO

59,200

4.522

1.780

xkj

27.89

430.50

7.930

89.66

21.820

24,690

62,290

2.106

.829

iiW

5.283

91.529

6.716

33.68

19.058

21,670

64,236

2.350
2.137

.925
.841

6.508
4.775

100.48
73.609

3.774
6.058

18.87
30.29

18.85
16.72

21,340
18,930

113,000
62,511

2.022
2.253
2.634
1.710
2.264
2.055
2.690

.796
.887

1.037
.673
.891
.809

1.069

6.916
4.383
5.290
4.441

8. aw

3.925
8.008

107. 730
67. MO
80.737
68.535
12. 123
61. 571
12.367

7.774
6.124
4.760
6,416
7.658
5.358
5.324

38.87
80.62
23.76
32.08
37.79
26. 79
26.62

27.06

13.815

12. 19

24.30

25.128

14.870

17.706

80,630
15,636
13,800
27,500
28,440
16,831
20, (MO

78,700
51,066
58,135
85,730
75,259
62,825
75,284

2.809
2.919

1.069
1.149

.1.

12.80
14.35

197.68
221.46

3.882
6.666

19.41
33.33

25.965
26.94

29,376
80,490

151,840
91,500

2,330

.917

ioVb

5.833

90.016

7.274

36.37

17.19

19,460

63,490

2.375

.935

Tl^B

5.608

86.64

7.408

37. W

15.90

18,000

48,600

1.860

.732

xi^

4.208

64.93

5.708

28. M

19.46

22,020

77,176

1.918

.756

TsSl

4.458

68.79

6.024

80.12

19.38

21,943

72,859

2.182

.859

lA»

5,826

89.89

5.216

26.08

19.675

22,155

84,951

1.849

.728

lArs

4.768

73.42

6.290

31.45

22.267

61,911

196,855

1.870

.736

T3'5.

4.358

67.25

4.516

22.58

19.94

22,565

99,945

1.748

.688

TiV.

3.958

62.08

5.308

26.64

20.72

23,450

88,380

3.310

1.303

yh

2.226

34.351

7.640

38.20

32.607

36,776

96,316

2.680

1.065

•h

11.758

181.45

8.W6

44.73

26.193

29,645

66,276

2.657

l.(H6

oh

7.033

108.53

5.266

26.83

19.938

18,040

68,617

1.832

.721

id^.

4.933

77.12

5.184

25.92

23.571

26,616

102,680

2.187

.861

T^T

5.883

90.68

4.950

24.75

19.68

22,270

90,000

1.817

.715

tAt

4.758

73.42

5.716

28.58

23.05

26,092

91,310

2.711

1.067

.h

9.725

159.97

6.708

83.54

21.17

23,960

71,440

3.6145

1.423

rh

18

177.782

8.500

42.50

22,044

24,950

68,705

3.269
2.096

1.287
.825

±

15
4.033

231.48
62.238

6.858
4.082

34.29
20.16

22.45
15.07

26,410
16,980

74,120
86,045

2.187

.861

tAi

5.675

87.578

6.416

27.08

18.98

21,485

79,345

2.162

.851

TtW

4.783

73.812

5.932

29.66

16.372

18,580

62,470

2.235

.955

I(^

4.375

67.516

6. (MO

30.20

14.013

15,860

52,618

igitized by

GooqI(

1630

BEPOBT OP GOMMITTEK ON AWARDS.

Details of history and average resnUs
FOREiaN-<}ontlxiued.

Name and addrew.

ABOBNTINB REPUBLIC—

continued.

JO06 Rodeiiguez, BaenoN
Ayres.

Juan Joh6 Romero, Bue-
nos Ayres.

Otero Ramoc, Buenos
Ayres.

Isidoro Ramayo, Buenos
Avres.

Carios Saavedra, Buenos
Ayres.

Jose Salirrea, Buenos
Ayres.

N. Sander, Buenos Ayres.

Felipe Senillosa, Bue-
nos Ayres.

Do

Do

Do

Do

Pastor Senillosa, Bue-
nos Ayres.

Alberto Serantes, Bue-
nos Ayres.

Felipe Solanet, Buenos
Ayres.

Juan Lucio Soniosa,
Buenos Ayres.

Francisco Souza, Buenos

*SS".

Rodolfo Valiente Saenz,
Buenos Ayres.
Do

Emilio Lamont, Buenos

Ayres.
Fefia, Villar y Saenz,

Buenos Ayres.
Emilio Saenz, Buenos

Ayres.
Julio Taillade, Buenos

^C-.

Antonio Toledo, Buenos
Ayres.

M. Trelles, Buenos Ayres.

Trellea y Parent, Buenos
Ayres.

Juan Turry, Buenos
Av-res.

E. Torres, Buenos Ayres.

Enrique Thompson,
Buenos Ayres.

J. Toroscend, Buenos
Ayres.

Manuel Udaoudo, Bue-
nos Ayres.

M. Uribellarea, Buenos
Ayres.

Satumlnio Unque € hi-
jos, Buenos Ayres.

Jois6 Ma. Urquia^a, Bue-
nos Ayres.
Do

Cartelhun Vivanco, Bue-
nos Ayres.

Juan Victor, Buenos
Ayres.

Doma R. Videla, BuenoQ
Ayres.

Record
No.

Ex-
hibit
No.

27167

27171

27172

27174

27176

27177

27178
27179

27180
27181
27182
27183
27184

27185

27188

27189

27190

27191
27105

27196

27197

27198

27200

27202

27203
27205

27206
27207

27208

27209
27211

27213

27214

27215

27216

27217

27218
27220

27221

27222

521

318

650

863

111

634

368
868

869

871
872
878
870

520

150

603

619

87

87

84

783

609

63

47
59

644
685

447

56
15

80

14

491

151

519

123

842

31
137

Breed.

Grade Merino
Lincoln cross .
Rambouillet.
Grade Merino

do

do

....do

Rambouillet.

....do

Lincoln

....do

....do

Rambouillet.

Grade Merino

do

do

Merino

Grade Merino.
do

Second - cross

Lincoln.
Merino

Lincoln cross,

Merino

Grade Merino.

Lincoln cross.
Grade Ram-
bouillet.
Grade Merino.
Merino

Lincoln, cross

Merino.
Grade Merino.
Lincoln cross.

Grade Merino.

Lincoln, cross

Merino.
....do

Lincoln, pure.
Grade Merino

do

Lincoln cross.

Lincoln, cross

Merino.
Grade Merino.

Sex.

Ewe ..
....do.
....do.
....do.
....do.
....do.

.do.
.do.

...do.
Ram..
Ewe..
Ram..
Ewe..

...do.

...do.

...do.

...do.

...do.
...do.

...do.

...do.

...do.

...do.

....do.

.do.
....do.

.do.
.do.

.do..

.do.
.do.

....do.
....do.
....do.
Ram..
Ewe..

.do.
....do.

....do.
...do.

Age.

2 yrs.
2yrs.
2yre.
2yrH.
2 yrs.

lyr..

lyr..
lyr..
lyr..
lyr..
4 yrs.

lyr..

lyr..

lyr..

3 yrs..
2 yrs.

lyr..

lyr..

l*yr.

lyr..
lyr..

8 yrs.
3 yrs.

lyr..

lyr..

lyr..

2 yrs.

2 yrs.

8 yrs.

2 yrs.

lyr..
lyr..

lyr..

lyr..

Uve
weight.

Cor-
rected
weight

fleece.

Founde. IM.oz.

6 15

13 0

9 8

10 14

16 2

4 10

2 13

4 12

5 6
9 12

6 12
6 0

5 12

12 10

5 12

3 12

8 2

4 11

4 5
7 0

16 10

6 2

5 1

7 4

Cor-
rected
lenfth

fiber

in
crimp.

Inches.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

WORLD 8 COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION,
0/ tests of individual samples of wools — Continued.

1631

FOREIOM-Contlnued.

FinenesB of fiber.

Strength of fiber.

Total stretch
of fiber.

D'«x8

,o,«vS

Milli-

Centi-
milli-
metere.

Thou-
sandths
of
inch.

Frac-
tion of
inch.

Grams.

Grains.

meters
in20-
milll-
meter

Per

cent

of

length.

S'.

13109^-=
R.

Remarks.

length.

2.119

1.161

nil

4.758

78.427

6.758

28.79

16.961

19,189

66,652

3.115

1.226

^

10.97

170.29

6.932

29.66

18.94

20,475

69,025

2.444

.962

r^

4.683

72.26

5.390

26.95

16.30

18,445

68,455

2.096

.825

lAi

4.416

68.149

5.560

27.75

16.08

18,205

66,590

2.083

.800

T^

8.150

125.77

6.732

38.66

31.65

35,706

106,000

2.421

.958

tA«

4.941

77.25

5.606

28.04

13.48

15,260

54,440

1.966

.770

lAv

4.725

72.917

6.206

31.04

19.76

22,360

72,070

1.890

.744

iS?

4.641

71.621

6.600

33

20.78

23,520

71,290

1.7415

.6856

tA«

8.966

61.194

6.600

82.60

20.923

28,681

72,864

3.511

1.882

T V

20.141

310.861

7.166

36.83

26.143

29,590

82,580

4.313

1.698

I V

32.10

495.37

7.268

36.29

27.61

81,250

86.110

3.948

1.554

s s

31.20

203.70

7.324

36.62

82,02

86,245

98,985

2.865

.927

T^

6.875

82.948

6.274

26.37

15.50

17,563

66,555

2.294

.903

nW

4.325

66.74

4.708

23.54

13.15

14,885

68,223

2.106

.829

T^

5.806

81.915

6.168

25.79

19.14

21,675

84,038

2.139

.842

iiW

8.275

50.510

4.274

21.87

11.46

12,962

60,656

2.088

.800

T^

5.291

81.762

6.560

32.75

20.48

23,180

70,783

1.979

.779

tAi

4.258

65.710

4.850

24.25

17.39

19,685

81.185

2.246

.884

TtV«

5.088

78.442

5.616

28.08

16.122

18,247

64,982

2.8805

1.834

«ll

7.908

128.03

6.674

32.87

15.254

17,225

62,405

2.149

.846

tAt

5.766

88.982

6.724

33.62

19.976

22,609

67,261

8.102

1.221

«h

18.60

209.87

6.756

83.78

22.613

26,694

75,768

1.867

.781

iAt

6.891

98.728

5.832

29.16

29.668

33,661

116,060

2.149

.846

iAt

4.758

78.427

4.550

22.75

16.484

18,657

82,009

2.184

.840

TI^IS

5.46

84.106

5.540

27.70

19.148

21,672

78,239

1.890

.744

1^3

4.141

68.905

4.982

24.66

18.548

20,992

85,129

1.878

.739

T^f

4.806

75.309

6.674

83.87

21.811

24,686

73,979

1.867

.735

X

4.660

71.760

6.074

80.37

22.35

26,296

83,294

2.060

.807

11^.

5.80

78.352

5.524

27.62

22.062

26,060

90,487

2.868

.932

ToVf

5.391

83.296

4.858

24.29

15.382

17,410

71,675

2.087

1.105

.h

19.66

813.23

9.282

46.41

72.18

81,695

172,350

1.926

.768

I^

4.966

76.544

6.674

83.37

21.42

24,245

72,650

8.160

1.244

.i>

16.09

248.408

7.490

87.46

32.45

36,730

98,090

2.767

1.089

ffr

7.968

223.81

5.832

29.16

16.68

17,420

59,745

8.506

1.881

ris

83.568

517.77

7.816

89.08

43.64

49,894

126,393

1.794

,706

iA»

3.641

66.189

6.90

34.60

18.10

20,485

59,383

2.078

.818

Wn

4.008

61.862

6.132

30.66

14.85

16,810

64,820

3.378

1.880

t

28.126

356.872

6.908

34.54

32.425

36,700

106,251

8.076

1.211

11.166

172.317

7.621

87.62

19.T27

22,327

69,350

1.997

.786

T^

4.308

66.482

6.606

33.04

17.28

19,665

69,206

Digitized by VjOOQIC

1632

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

DetcUU of hxtiory and average results
FOREIGN— Continued.

Name and address.

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC—

continued.

Juan Videla, BuenoN
Ayres.

PiHlro Whalan, BuenoM
Ay res.

Luis Ma. Saavedra, Bue-
nos AyreM.

Antonio Ojea, Buenon
Ayrea.

JoN<> Rodriipuez, BuenoK
Ayres.

OctAvio Gonzales, Buc-
noe Ayrea,

Juan P. Althapairo.Bm^
no^ A>'Tea.

W. H. Hallet, Buenw
Ayrea.

Enrique Bonifacio, Bue-
nos Ayres.

Do

Do

Chamber of Commerce. .

Record
No.

CANADA.

Unknown .
Do

J. B, Lander

William Dickson .

J. B. Sauer

William Dickson .

Unknown .

Do

Do

Do

CAPK COLONY.

J. G.Steyn, Zwellendam.

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

A. N. Robertson, George.
H. P. Beyers. Caledon...
S. P. duToit, Caledon...

Do

Donald Robertson

Do

Do

F. H. RobertHon, George.

Do

J. N.VanderBye, Bredes-
dorp.

Do

Do

Do

Do

P. V. Vander Bye, Cale-
don.

Do

Do

Do

C. H. Button, Middle-
bury.

2722;*

27229
27117
27168
27033
26903
•27012
26926

Ex-
hibit
No,

Ml
691
442
648
34
39
281
577

Breed.

27201 874

26629
26629
26629
26629
26629
26(i29
26629

26630
26630
26631
266;n
26631
26632
26632

26628

26628
26628
26628
26624

Lincoln, pure.
Lincoln crum.

Merino

Grade Merino.
Lincoln cross.

do

....do

Grade Ram-

bouillet.
Croes Lincoln,

Cotswold

Shearling
Shropshire.

Grade Shrop-
shire.

Shearling
Shropshire.

....doVT......

Fall wool.

Merino .
....do..
....do..
....do..
....do..
....do..
....do..
....do..
....do..
....do..

do..

do..

....do..
....do..
....do..
....do.-
....do..

RamboulUet.

Merino

Rambouillet.

....do

....do

.do...
.do...
.do...
.do...

Sex.

Age.

lyr..
2 yrs.

2yni.

Ewe

...do.
...do.
...do.

do... I 2 yrs

...do...]

...do. ..I 1 yr.
...do. ..I 1 yr.
...do...' 1 yr.

Uve
weight.

PouwUt.

■I-

.do.,
.do..

Wether.
...do...

...do.

Wether
....do..
,...do..
...do..
Ewe...
....do..
...do..
Wether
...do..
...do..
...do..
Ewe . . .
Wether
...do..
Ewe . . .
Wether
Ewe...

lyr..
2 yrs.,

4yr8...

8 yrs . . .
, 3 yrs...
, Syrs...
' 3 yrs . . .
,1 Syrs...
,1 4 yrs...
,1 2yr8...
.' 12mo8.
i 3yr8...
.' 12moe.
;4yr8...
,' 4 yrs...

4 yrs . . .
4 yrs...
14 mos.

.do...i 14 mos.
.do. ..I 14 mos.
.do..., 14 mos.
.do... 2yrs...
.do...' 15moe.

.do.,
.do.,
.do
.do

:,s

15 mos.
15 mos.
15 mos-
3 yrs...

. Cor-
Cor- reeled
rected ; length
weight of

of fiber
fleece. , in
I crimp.

Lbe. OS. Inches,

9 10 ' 7.50

5 13

11 0

5 14

6 5
5 10
4 10

4 15

5 4

4 4
7 11

3 11

3 13

8 4

3 6

5 5

5 13

4 12

6 2

6 12

7 4

Digitized by

Goog

6.60

4

3

4.50

6

5.50

3

4.50

5
2.50

9
6.25

5.50
4.50

4.50

3

3

3

3

2.50

2.50

2.50

3

3

3.50

3.50

3

3

2.90

3.50
3.50
2.90
3.60
2.40

2.40
2.70
2.60
3.50

le

world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1633

of tests of individual samples of wools — Continued.

FOREIGN— Continued.

Fineness of fiber.

Strength of fiber.

Total stretch
of fiber.

D'SxS

18109^ =
R.

P

Centi-

milli-

raetcrs.

Thou-
sandths
of
inch.

Frac-
tion of
inch.

Grams.

Grains.

Milli-
meters
in20-
milli-

meter

Per

cent

of

length.

Remarks.

length.

3.876

1.626

«i>

17.683

272.118

4.706

28.68

18.776

21,269

90,814

2.506

.986

Tl^

19.60

310.93

8.268

41.29

49.72

66,276

136,281

2.060

.811

T^I

6.126

94.821

6.240

81.20

23.09

26,132

88,770

2.424

.964

n^

6.788

88.473

5.808

29.04

16.61

17,660

60,846

2.119

.834

TtW

10.108

167.201

6.666

27.88

86.98

40,780

146,800

2.739

1.078

j^

14.16

218.52

7.432

87.16

80.199

34,180

91,980

2.894

1.139

sir

10.620

163.890

6.060

26.26

20.28

22,960

90,940

2.698

1.062

^z

4.960

77.390

6.682

27.91

10.88

12,316

34,868

4.702

1.851

«i«

36.278

669.854

8.982

44.91

26.26

29,714

66,166

2.835

1.116

X

17.100

263.893

4.808

24.04

34.04

38,628

160,268

4.013

1.680

t

18.426

284.340

6.782

33.91

18.30

20,496

61,100

3.825

1.506

26.116

887.698

8.000

40

27.46

31,087

77,718

2.611

1.028

.fi

14.616

224.015

7.492

37.46

34.06

88,659

102,926

3.000

1.181

Hi.

10.133

165.370

6.476

27.38

17.967

20,836

74,272

2.866

1.136

8^9

11.666

180.030

8.a58

40.29

22.72

26,720

63,690

Fine.

7.616

2.959

s r

40. 441

624.090

6.350

31.75

11.46

12,960

40,830

Coarse.

4.103

1.616

B n

18.640

287.650

6.100

30.50

17.71

20,050

65,740

2.411

.949

lAs

9.133

150.940

7.400

87.00

25.18

28,455

76,895

2.202

.866

1A3

6.066

93.612

8.058

40.29

20.01

22,650

66.280

1.8275

.719

\t\

4.700

72.532

6.482

32.41

22.61

25,484

78,631

2.058

.810

T3^

6.016

77.408

6.224

31.12

18.94

21,44^

68,916

2.093

.824

tK

7.816

110.619

4.950

24.75

28.54

32,310

130,546

1.834

.722

TsnS

4.491

69.406

6.660

32.76

21.363

24,179

73,829

2.043

.8(M

tAs

5.308

81.914

7.666

38.33

20.347

23.029

96,046

2. 119

.834

tA«

O.308

81.914

6.768

33.79

19.35

21,406

64,830

2. 116

.833

TViV

6.041

93.226

7.674

87.87

21.58

24,434

64,519

1.735

.683

'1

4.825

74.461

7.000

85

26.64

29,017

82,913

WaiOied.

1.907

.750

1:^3

5.250

81.019

7.490

37.46

23.09

26,142

69,807

1.885

.742

T.l'.T

6. 316

97.470

7.558

87.79

28.44

32,188

86,180

l.(>195

.649

tAo

4.266

65.834

7.258

86.29

25.09

28,410

78,285

2. 210

.871

\L-

4.833

74.584

4.566

22.83

15.83

17,918

78,492

2.380

.937

Xl

4.100

63.272

7.232

36.16

11.581

13,106

36,248

1.562

.615

\L

5.525

86.263

6.200

31

36.231

41,007

132,282

1.654

.651

\l,Z

3.650

66.328

7.316

36.58

21.34

24.161

66,0-19

1.692

.666

t^J!

4.741

73.164

7.200

36

26.49

29,989

83,304

1.956

.770

la^H

4.325

66.744

5.200

26

18.08

20,472

78.782

1.844

.726

t"t

5.708

88.087

6.800

34

26.85

30,400

89,410

1.726

.679

]Tl

4.833

74,58-1

5.250

26.26

25.98

29,400

112,040

2.169

.850

An

6.150

94.908

5.882

29.41

21.11

23,895

81,239

1.669

.657

tAt

3.425

62.855

6.440

32.20

19.67

22,266

69,149

2.002

.788

TSW

4.458

68.797

6.200

31

17.89

20,142

64,974

2. 126

.837

tA*

4.8a3

74.584

6.4,50

32.26

17.10

19,364

60.011

2.010

.791

ttAtJ

4.625

71.374

5. 474

27.37

18.31

20,730

75,742

1.W6

.726

i^a

4.658

71.883

6.908

34.64

21.89

24,780

71,743

/'^V /'^V /'-^ 1 /-v

COL EXPO — 02-

-103

1634

REPORT OF COMMITTEK ON AWARDS.

Details of history and average rewlU
POREICi N— Continued.

Name and address.

Record 1
No.

CAPE COLONY— cont'd.
P. K. Albubyn

H. P. Beyers, Caledon...

W. R. Southey, Middle- i 26621

bury. 1
8. P. duToit, Caledon...!

Do 1

P. K. Albubyn 1

J. 8. de Wit, Caledon....!

H. P. Beyers, Caledon...

G. I. Deiport, Zwellen-
daro.
Do

Do

Do

P. J. Alport, Beaufort

We«t.
W. Joander & Son, Ceres.

26626

Jobs H. Van Dyk, Ceres .
A. Ohllson, Ceres

Do

C. G. de Villiers, Beau-
fort West.
W.J. Merur, Ceres

W. & A. Wieber, Beau-
fort West
Do

Do

Do

Do

Battenhauper Bros

M. & P. Wieber, Beau-
fort West.

Wm. Jansen Van Rex-
burg, Bretstown.
Do

F. C. Bagley , Bretstown . .

Molton& Jackson, Beau-
fort West.
Do

Do

Do

P. D. de Villiers, Beau-
fort West.
Do

26620

26620
26620
26620

Do

Do

P. J. Van Wyk, Ceres ....

C. P. du PI esses, Ceres. . .'.

A. Ohllson, Ceres

Jobs A. Van Dyk, Ceres . .

W.J. Van Wyat, Ceres . . .

Walter Rubridge, Aber-
deen.

Rubidge Bros., Qrofl Rei-
net.
Do

26622

26625

26625
26625
26626

26626
26626
26626

26626

Do

P.J. Alport & Co., Beau-
fort West.
Do

Do

Do

Do

J. C. T. Musts, Beaufort

West.
P. J. Van Wyk, Ceres. .

J. C. T. Muste, Beaufort
West.
Do....

Do

A. J. de Jager, Beaufort
West,

Ex-
hibit
No.

63

67

86
87
89
90
91

85
92b

93
94
95

Breed.

....do..
....do..
....do..
Merino .

do..

....do..

.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.

..do.
.do.
..do.
..do.
..do-

..do.
..do.

..do.
..do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.

.do.

.do.
.do.
.do.

.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.

.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.

.do.

.do.
.do.
.do.

•do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.

.do.
.do.

....do

.....do

Ramboulllet.

Rambouillet..

....do

....do

Sex.

Ram....
Wether.
Lamb. . .

Wether .
...do...
Ram . . . .
WeUier.

Ewe.'.".!

Wether,
...do...
...do...
Ram....

...do.
...do.
Ewe..
...do.
...do.

Age.

.do.
.do.

....do..
....do..
....do..
....do..
Wei her,
Ewe...

Wether ,

...do...
Ewe . . . .
...do...

...do...
...do...
...do...
Wether.

Lamb...
Ewe....
...do...
...do...
Wether .
...do...
...do...
...do...
Ewe....

...do...

.do.
.do.

Ra

Ewe

Ram...
Ewe...
...do...
Lamb..

Wether .
Lamb. . ,

Ewe ...
...do...
...do...

2yrB...
12mos.
9mo6..

12mos.
12 moB.
2yr8...
12mo8.
12 mos.
Syrs...

Syrs.
4 yrs.
4yr8.
2 yrs.

2 yrs...
2 yrs...
lyr....
2yra...
14 mos.

2 yrs.
8 yrs.

3 yrs...
3 yrs...
8 yrs...
8 yrs...
2 yrs...
2A yrs.

2 yrs...

12 mos.
lyr....
14 mos.

lyr...
Uyre.
lyr...
3 yrs..

14 mos.
18 mos.
8 yrs...
2 yrs...
2 yrs...
H yrs. .
18 mos.
2 yrs...
12 mos.

3 yrs...

36 mos.
3 yrs...
18 mos.

3 yrs...
Uyre..
14 mos.

4 yrs. . .
9 mos..

2 yrs..
9 mos.

20 mos.
3 yrs...
13 mos.

Uve
weight.

Pounds.

Cor-
rected
weifht

fleece.

Car-
rected
length

fiber

in

crimp.

Ibs.az. Jneha,

5 8 2.S0

4 12 3w75

5 5 2.20

5 4

6 2

5 3

7 0
4 10

6 0

t

5
11

10
6
6
9
5

8 i
15 j

9 t
13 I

4
8
8
2
5

7 9
6 3

S

3.ao

2. so

3
2.50

2

2.50

3.50

2.50

3.50
3. 70
8
2.50

2.50
3

7 11

3.50

1 7 ^

3

8 10

2.50

! 5 14

2.50

7 10

3.10

8 6

3.60

10 0

3.50

10 2

3.50

7 16

4

5 14

3

5 14

2.42

4 4

2.42

6 4

3

8 10

8

5 12

3.40

6 2

2.30

6 10

3

8 0

2.50

6 6

2.25

5 12

2

6 4

2.70

10 0

3.50

6 4

3

6 14

3

6 U

3

14 14

4

5 5

2,10

8 7

3.50

11 11

8.10

9 6

8.40

9 8

3.50

6 15

3.20

7 11

3

6 4

2.60

8 5

3.70

8 8

2.00

8 7

2.70

Digitized by VjOOQIC

WOELD's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1863.

1635

o/ testn of indwickud samples of wools — Continued.

FOREIGN— Continued.

Fineness of fl

ber.

Frac-
tion of
inch.

strength of fiber.

Total stretch
of fiber.

D'«xS

18109^=

K=|.

Centi-
milli-
meteis.

Thou-

Milli-
meters

Per

D«

Remarks.

sandths

of

inch.

Grains.

in 20-
milli-
meter

cent

of

length.

8'.

R.

length.

i.ses

.734

tAii

3. Ml

61.818

6.316

31.58

18.12

20,518

64,972

2.012

.792

^

4.266

66.834

4.966

24.83

16.86

30,256

121,835

2.408

.948

X

6.300

97.223

5.458

37.29

17.383

19,675

52,775

1.827

.719

lAw

4.616

71.225

6.616

33.08

22.12

26,032

76.708

2.121

.835

JL_

6.268

96.676

7.658

38.29

22.25

25.291 66,790

1.746

.687

rlW

4.158

64.167

6.060

30.26

21.84

24,727 81,741

2.063

.812

fJL,

4.966

77.683

5.666

27.88

18.66

21,130 75.920

2.068

.812

\^\

4.691

7a 949

5.966

29.83

17.261

19,634 65,486

2.447

.963

xAt

6.168

79.600

5.258

26.29

13.782

15,598

59,335

2.r>96

.825

iAt

6.100

78.704

7.060

36.25

18.574

21,070

69,638

2.050

.807

tAb

6.200

80.248

7.174

35.87

19.797

22,407

62,468

2.180

.858

TtW

5.300

81.791

6.290

31.45

17.843

20,196

64,215

1.928

.769

iAt

5.291

81.752

7.640

37.70

22.774

25,776

86,076

1.931

.760

iAj

4.066

62.747

5.574

27.87

38.69

88,180

136,800

2.068

.814

T^A

5.883

90.788

7.640

37.70

22.009

24,911

66,077

2.256

.888

_JLj

6.006

77.286

6.540

32.70

16.748

17,818

54,492

1.812

.713

lAr

3.825

69.026

6.232

31.16

18.68

21,096

67,708

2.017

.794

T^

4.783

78.812

6.782

38.91

18.726

21,295

61,366

2.233

.879

iiVt

5.283

81.628

7.490

37.45

17.034

19,285

51.862

1.809

.712

X

4.291

66.250

6.050

80.26

20.979

23,745

77,697

1.911

.752

1A5

6.888

90.788

7.740

38.70

20.473

23,171

69,875

1.784

.702

lAs

4.426

68.288

5.858

29.29

22.245

25,119

89,560

1.799

.708

_JL^

5.408

83.336

6.408

27.04

26.73

30,260

111,900

1.784

.702

JL

4.708

72.666

6.470

32.36

23.668

12,241

37,841

1.696

.667

_.JL

6.183

105.418

6.550

27.76

34.43

38,970

140,400

1.824

.521

T^

6.741

88.697

6.340

26.70

62.40

69,806

222,160

1.900

.748

T^

4.606

71.112

6.874

29.87

20.42

23,115

78,703

1.847

.727

iJW

4.691

70.949

6.916

84.68

27.107

24,370

70,476

1.862

.733

t3S

4.983

77.127

6.616

28.68

22.765

25,706

90,158

1.916

.754

tS

4.626

69.831

6.382

31.91

19.721

22,372

69,951

1.856

.730

tAw

6.891

106.444

6.624

32.62

32.04

86,266

111,160

1.931

.760

JL_

3.876

69.800

4.400

22

16.62

18,818

85,644

1.654

.651

^JL

4.026

62.116

6.808

29.04

23.64

26,644

91,746

1.761

.693

T^«

6.941

92.683

6.260

31.26

30.65

34.692

111,030

1.860

.732

lA*

6.908

92.174

5.724

28.62

27.32

30,925

85,830

2.005

.789

I3K

6.200

80.248

4.674

23.37

20.69

23,420

100,250

1.550

.610

rS'

5.125

79.090

6.116

30.68

34.13

38,630

126,300

1.748

.688

\T,

6.183

96.418

6.266

31.33

32.37

36,645

116,950

2.228

.877

iaJ

6.783

89.245

4.808

24. M

18.64

21,096

87.756

1.692

.666

JSJ

6.266

81.266

5.016

25.08

29.43

83.310

132,650

1.791

.705

^l

6.233

80.767

6.490

27.46

26.10

29,640

107,600

1.819

.716

ISI

6.241

80.880

7.690

37.95

25.34

28,683

76,564

1.832

.721

\%l

6.100

78,704

8.224

41.12

44.54

50,413

122,650

1.890

.744

lAi

6.666

87.439

6.982

34.66

47.96

54,289

156,650

1.933

.761

rAs

6.041

93.226

6.924

34.62

28.86

29,278

84,670

1.565

.616

JL^

4.876

75.282

5.690

28.46

31.84

36,046

126,700

1.860

.782

tAt

4.500

69.445

6.782

38.91

20.848

23,506

69,686

1.606

.632

tAi

6.341

82.424

6.966

29.88

38.13

37,601

125,710

1.733

.682

tSb

4.726

72.917

6.082

26.41

26.17

28,490

112, 160

1.981

.760

X

4.726

72.917

6.600

33

20.274

22,947

69.537

1.946

.766

taJ

6.225

80.634

10.266

61.83

22.076

24,985

48.676

2,016

.793

lAo

7.191

111.074

8.008

40.04

28.337

32,073

80,472

1.944

.765

iA«

5.900

92.060

4.800

24.00

24.97

28,270

117.800

1.880

.740

]tl

7.266

112,131

6.958

29.79

32.885

37,220

125.220

1.911

.764

tA«

4.766

78.650

5.740

28.70

20.240

22,908

79.820

1.880

.740

SJ

6. 333

82.300

6.774

33.87

24. 142

27,324

80,674

2. 114 .

.882

X

4.483

68.411

4.708

23.54

15.871

17,968

77,870

Digitized by VjOOQIC

1636

BEPOBT OF COMMITTEE OK AWABD8.

Details of history and average results
FORBION-Oontinued.

Name and address.

Record
No.

I

I

CAPi COLONY— cont'd.

John Froot, Queeniitown
Do

Do

Robt, P. Scott, Qaeens-
town.
Do

Do

Do

Do 1 1

J.W.Butler. Stuttenheim
W. R. Southy, Middle-
burg.
Do

"'26621"

26621
'2G&21
26621
26621

Do

Do

Do

George Blaine, Stutten-
heim.
Do

Do

Do

Do

J. W. Butler, Stutenhelm i

Do '

Do::;;:;:::::::::::::::::::::i

G.H. Hutton.Middleburg
Do

26624
•26624
26624

Do

A. N. Robertson, George. -

Geo. King & Sons, Bed
ford.
Do

26623

26623
26623

26623

" '26622*

26622
26622
26622

26624
'26624

Do

Do

J.W. Butler, Stuttenheim
Walter Rubridge, Aber-
deen.
Do

Do

Do

G. J. Delport, Zwellen-

dam.
J.J.Gcrucke.Mornel Ba>
Altem Muller, Morwl

CH.liutton.Middleburg
Do

GUATEMALA.

Unknown

Do 1

Do !

Do

Do 1

1
Do 1

1
Do 1

Do '

Do 1

Do

Do 1

Do:::::::::::;..:........::::

Do 1

Do 1

Do 1 ---

1

Ex-
hibit
No.

100

101
102
103
1(M
106
106

107
108
lOU
110
111

112
113
114

115 I

116 I

117 I
lis

119 ,
133
135 ,

120 '

121 I

Breed.

Merino . .
Tanmanian

blood.
Australian

blood. I

Rambouillet..' Lamb

Pex.

Ewe..
Ram..

Ewe.

Merino

....do

....do

Rambouillet..

Merino

do

.do...
.do...
.do...
.do...
.do I Ram..

Ewe...
Wether
...do..
Lamb .,
Wether
Lamb .,

Ewe...

...do..

...do..

.do..

I

.do.
.do.
-do.
.do.
.do I Wether

Ewe . . .

....do.,
.do.
.do.

Age.

Live
welKfat.

18 moB. .
4 yiB

Pounds.

18 mo8.
18 mos.

2 yra...

8 yrs...
4 yrs...
13 moH.
4 yrs...

9 mofl..

C5or- !
Cor- reeled
reeled length .
weight of 1

of fiber

fleece. . in I
crimp.

Lbs^oz.
8 10
12 11

9
O

14

5
10 !

6
13
13

Uyra...:

liyre...' 13

19moB..| I 8

18moA..! 8

ISmofl.. 8

122 I

123 >

136 I
124;
126

do I do..

do 1 — do..

do I Ewe...

do I — do..

do I — do..

do ' Wether

Spanish Me- ' Ewe...

rino. I

Ta«manian . . . ' Ram...
Spanish Me- , Ewe . . .

rino. I

do I — do ..

Merino Wether

Karroo , Ewe . . .

127 do.

128 I do.

1-29 do.

130b

131
132

133
13.5

. ....do...
.l....do...
.do..

Merino I Wether

I

do I Ewe

Australian ...I — do...

Merino i do .

do do .

Black native.

White native

do I

White, croHs i

Merino.
White native

Black native
White native

2 yn*..
2 yn. .
2 yrs . .

2 yrs . .

3 yrs . .

4 yri! . .
3 yre . .
3 yre . .

2 yrs . .

3 yre..

2 yrs . .
Uyrs.

3 yre . .

5 yra . .

U yrs.
3 yra..
2 yre..

2 yra . . .
14 mos.
2 yra...
4 yre . . .

4 yre.
2 yra.

2 yre.

3 yra.

Black native .
Coarse native,

Black native

Native moun-
tain.

12 '
10

12 ;

"!

12 '

1
14 I

O i

6 i

6

0

2

O
11 .

6
12

14
5

10 I

10 I

12 ."

11 i

3 '

11

0

8

7 0

7 11

Digitized by VjOOQIC

WORLD S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.
0/ te«te of individucd samples of wools-— Continued.

1637

FOREIGN-ConUnued.

fineness of fiber.

Strength of fiber.

Total stretch
of fiber.

D'2XS

18109^.=

^4-

CenU-
mUll-
meters.

Thou-
sandths
of
inch.

Frac-
Uonof
inch.

Grams.

Grains.

Milli-
meters
in 20-
milli-
meter
length.

Per

cent

of

length.

S'.

Remarks.

1.801
2.426

.709
.955

±

4.475
5.908

69.059
93.176

6.732
6.208

33.66
31.04

22.074
16.061

24,983
18, 178

74,224
57,230

1.654

.651

Tl^<

4.075

62.886

6.432

32.16

23.832

26,974

83,876

1.878

.739

lizi

4.875

76.232

5.790

28.96

22.115

25,030

86,462

2.124
2.119
1.880
2.063
1.743
1.707

.836
.834
.740
.808
.686
.672

6.441
4.750
6.483
6.276
4.208
4.166

83.967
72.303
84.615
81.405
64.939
64.291

7.632
6.232
G.390
11.766
7.900
7.478

38.16
31.16
31.96
68.83
34.50
37.29

19.296

16.925

24.82

20.02

22.16

22.35

21,840
19,156
28,092
22,665
25,084
26,891

67,234
61,479
87,929
88,525
72,703
69,431

1.702
1.817
1.659
1.733
1.779

.670
.716
.653
.682
.700

1

5.126
4.283
3.526
3.283
6.516

79.090
65.096
64.401
50.664
86.124

8.658
6.632
7.090
6.658
5.050

42.79
32.66
35.45
28.29
26.26

28.30
20.75
20.49
17.49
27.88

82,039
28,495
28,196
19,793
81,662

74,873
71,980
65,426
69,973
124,998

1.681
1.895
1.618
1.521
1.664
1.695
1.715
1.695
2.241
1.672
1.872
1.867

.662
.746
.637
.599
.655
.667
.675
.667
.882
.658
.737
.735

±

±

6.100
6.358
6.776
6.641
5.333
6.433
6.933
4.783
6.083
4.675
5.568
4.941

94.137
98.118
89. 121
87.053
82.300
99.176
92.560
73.04
93.87
103.01
85.77
77.251

6.824
6.374
6.650
5.350
6.800
6.482
4.916
6.716
6.324
7.208
7.140
7.400

29.12

31.87

33.25

26.75

29

32.41

24.68

33.58

31.62

36.04

36.70

87

34.63
28.32
36.29
39.01
80.81
86.01
32.27
26.86
19.38
26.75
25.96
22.68

89,091
32,062
89,947
44,156
34,878
40,547
36,530
29,830
21,933
80,286
28,720
26,670

134,240
100,603
120, 142
166,070
120,271
125,109
148,620
88,840
69,369
84,028
80,450
69,370

1.602
1.898

.591
.747

±

4.383
6.041

67.639
77.794

6.266
6.816

31.33
34.08

31.08
22.38

36,180
26,340

112,300
74,365

1.969
1.634
1.398

.775
.643
.560

6.650
4.583
4.850

77.192
70.726
73.84

6.766
6.758
7.674

28.83
33.79
38.37

23.31
27.46
39.70

26,391
31,082
44,938

91,640
91,990
117, 150

1.646
1.652
1.654
2.330

.648
.650
.651
.917

it

4.466
4.858
6.450
6.891

68.92
74.97
84.10
106.44

6.424
6.432
7.632
6.974

82.12
82.16
37.66
84.87

26.87
28.47
31.87
20.80

29,862
82.239
36,078
22,982

92,934
100,260
95,794
66,918

1.888
1.647

.743
.609

±

5.866
4.908

90.62
76.74

7.950
7.390

39.76
36.95

26.33
82.81

29,802
37,139

74,970
100,560

2.241
1.672

.882
.658

±

6.083
4.676

93.87
103.01

6.824

7.208

31.62
36.04

19.88
26.75

21,938
30,285

69,869
84,028

2.756
4.frll
3.7*27
4.397

1.085
1.827
1.467
1.731

V T

Fine.

Coarse.

2.378

2.586
3.193
2. 927
1.812
2.899
2.187
4.075

.936

1.018
1.257
1.152

.713
1.141

.861
1.604

1

Bis

Probably
coarse.

Washed.

Coarse.

Do.

3.W13

1.434

«iT

Digitized by VjOOQIC

1638

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

DeUtils of hUstory and average reauiis
FOREiaN-<k>ntinued.

Name and addreivi.

Record
No.

Ex-

hiblt
No.

Bleed.

Sex.

Age.

Uve
weight.

P&unds.

O

rec

wei

c

fle<

Lbi

ted

r

»ce.

1 CO.

! rected
! length

fiber

in
crimp.

on ATBM A LA— continued .
Unknown

228e0a
, 22800b

1

uoe.

India.
3.50

Do

do

:::::::::t:::::":

MKXICO.

1

A 1 Merino and
' native Mex-
1 ican cniSB.

B Native Mexi-

2.60

3
6

Republic.

Affustin Covamibias,
Qullupam.
Do

B
Ca

Cb
D

can.
, do

Do

Black native
! Mexican.
do

1

Do 1

3.25
2

i

Farm of Santa Cruz dc

26339
26358

Merino

6 mos...

Ahualulco, State of

Jalisco.
Santiago Graf, Villa

Guerrero, District of

Mexico.
A. Mercado, Morel ia,

E
F

Native Mexi-
can.

State of Michoacan.
Franclw^o M, de Ijara,

G

Native Mexi-

San Luis Obispo.
Do

H

I

1
I
J

J
J
K

L
M

N

83

84
85
86
87
88
89

90

91

92
93

95

96

9()

97

99

100

101

102

102

103

KM

105

can, black.

2.50
9

Government of State of

26381

Native Mexi-
can.

Puebla.
Do....,

Do... ... .> .

Do

Native Mexi-
can.

3

2
3

Do

1

Do

1

Do

Merino, cross

native.
do

Do

Matias Loberon, San

26397
26349

6172
6173
6174
6175
6176
6177
6178

6179

6180

6181
6182
6183
6184
6185
6185 1

6187

6188 1

6189

6189

6190

♦5191

6192

do

Luis Obispo.
Farm of Santa Cruz de

Cashmere goat

Pure Merino. .
do

6 mo6 . . .

1.50

8.80

3.3

2.51

3

3.96

3.5

4.6

2.9

3.8

3.2
2.8
3.3
3.3
4.3

Ahualulco, State of
Jalisco.

NEW SOUTH WALES.

E. J. Allen, Stony Creek. .
Do

Ewe....
....do...

61 mos. .
54 mos . .
4iyre...
4*yr8...
16 mos . .
4*yrs...
3 yrs

GO
48
76
77
4(H

3
5
10

7

5

10
6
8
0
8
13
10

10

2

9
4

li>
15
6

Do

do

....do...

Do

do

....do...

Do

do

....do...

Do

do

....do...

71i 10

J. B, BlUington, Brond-

ley Park.
E. M. Bowman, War-

G. Bruce, Loombart

Do

do

....do...

10

do

Australian

Merino.
do

....do...
....do...
....do...

5 yrs

24 yrs...

3 yrs

2yr8....
Aged...
3yr«....
Uyrs...
If yrs...

76
102

9
12
17

Do

do

do

do 1

do

do 1

Pure Merino..

do 1

do '

do 1

do '

do

Saxon Merino 1

do

do 1

Ram....
....do...
....do...

Ewe ....
....do...
....do...
....do...
....do...

R*im....
....do...l
....do...

Kwe

Ram....

Ewe....l

101 ' 16
117 ' 21
107 ; 22
75 1 21

Do

Do

Do

Do

F. Campbell, Yamilumla

CollaroyCo., Colhiroy...

Do

2 yra

18
17
15

0
7
0
9
3

""*3.'8*"
3.5
4
4.3

3iyr8...

97 1
92

Do

146
135

17
19

Do

Do

G. H, Cox, Bumindulla. .
Do

Siyrs...
4iyrs...
3yrs....l

104
128
110

12
'24
17

3

7
0

2.6
3.2

Do

2.1

Digitized by VjOOQIC

WOBLB's OOLUMBIAN exposition, 1893.

1639

of tests of individucU samples of wools — Continued.

FOREIGN— ConUnued.

Finenefls of fiber.

Strength of fiber.

Total Stretch
of fiber.

D^XB

IMftQ

H-

denti-
milU-
metere.

Thou-

Frac-
tion of
inch.

Milli-
meters

Per

~^" =

ISIW jyf=

Remarks.

sandths

of

inch.

Qnuns.

Qxains.

in20-
mllli-
meter

cent

of

length.

8'.

R,

length.

5.119
3.697

2.015
1.416

t

2.876

.934

T^T.

16.39

158.03

6.416

32.08

46.57

52,708

164.320

2.916

1.148

nh

14.925

231.32

6.858

81.79

28.07

31,770

99,950

Fine.

5.822

2.292

t

60.783

988.02

8.990

44.96

28.68

32,400

71,920 Coarse.

4.649

1.883

39.741

623.29

7.232

86,16

29.42

83,305

92,102

3.881

1.508

Wl

29.40

468.71

7.758

88.79

32.05

86,275

93,515

2.081

.799

xL

5.891

83.297

4.016

20.08

20.91

23,666

11,787

2.068

.814

w»

8.600

131.174

4.774

23.87

31.80

35,992

150,770

2,378

.936

TiAm

16.39

253.086

4.688

19.87

13.25

14,996

75,474

2.642

l.(MO

«iT

19.13

306.32

5.990

29.95

42.86

490,630

165,720

3.607

1.420

t

16.56

250.612

5.800

29

20.36

23.040

79,480

2.695

1.061

9.860

162.16

7.G06

35.33

21.72

24,586

69,585

Fine.

4.392
8.691

1.729
1.453

8 V

Coarse

'i3.'24"

'"264."47*

"e.'eoo'

*'33*''

"i6.*54*"

'"i7,'596'

■*63*8Si"

Washed.

.2.319

.918

tA»

9.980

165.01

1.150

80.75

29.69

33,606

109,252

White.

3.879

1.330

T T

8.270

120.762

6.558

32.79

11.58

13,112

40,000

Gray.

2.826

1.112

V n

16.32

251.85

6.640

83.20

32.71

87,032

111,600

Brown

3.065

1.206

sU

12.70

195.99

6.150

30.75

21.68

24,485

79,615

3.033

1.194

sir

12.25

189.04

6.066

30.33

21.30

24,115

79,508

2.337

.920

X

6.566

101.328

5.966

29.83

19.23

21,771

72,980

2.576

1.014

As

11.31

174.53

5.950

29.75

27.27

80,860

103,700

1.854

.730

T^I

6.223

80.60

8.300

41.60

24.31

27,516

66,306

1.411

.665

tSx

4.608

69.56

6.616

32.58

36.22

41,003

125,865

2.129

.838

X

6.160

94.90

7.216

86.08

23.26

24,570

68.100

2.068

.810

5.891

91.01

6.268

31.29

17.67

20,006 63,940

2.048

.806

lAo

6.068

78.05

6.990

84.95

20.20

22,860 65,428

1.845

.730

^JL_

5.675

87.57

6.866

34.33

26.67

80.190 87.941

1.814

.714

T^»

5.691

87.92

6.624

32.62

27.66

31,311 76,247

1.991

.784

izffT

6.766

88.98

5.232

26.16

23.27

26,340 1 72,846

2.147

.846

tA,

4.908

76.741

6.474

27.37

17.08

19,281 ' 70,446

2.322

.914

lAs

6.041

93.22

4.676

22.58

17.92

20,289 1 89,857

1.875

.738

tA*

5.458

84.22

5.250

26.25

21.84

28.769 107,100

2.241

.882

lAa

6.016

92.84

4.982

24.66

19.16

21,692 1 87,968

1.761

.689

5.116

78.95

5.890

29.46

26.69

30,216 1 102,600

2.147

.846 1 T^,

4.483

69.18

7.408

37.04

16.20

17.611 47.549

Unwashed.

1.865

.734

TlAlT

4

61.72

5.440

27.20

17.98

20,351

74,821

Washed.

2.190

.862

lA«

6.141

94.77

4.340

21.70

20.48

28,187

106,860

2.228

.877

1 1 SB

5.775

88.12

7.532

37.66

18.61

21,067

55,941

1.944

.766

T^S

5.716

88.21

5.900

29.50

24.20

27,390

92.848

1.969

.775

laVv

6.283

96.96

6.832

29.16

26.92

29,340

100.620

1.674

.659

TsSo

4.460

68.67

7.174

35.87

25.40

28,766

80,170

Unwashed.

2.065

.809

T^

4.907

76.72

4.208

21. M

18.69

21,041

100,000

Waiihed.

1.890

.744

I!^3

4.066

62.74

6.010

30.20

22.92

25,950

85,927

2.329

.917

iJin

6.391

98.72

6.758

28.79

18.86

21,332

74,111

1.982

.780

TiAlI

4.891

76.679

5.282

26.41

19.92

22,546

85,372

Digitized by VjOOQIC

1640

BKJeoBT OF GOMMrrTEE ON AWARDS.

DftaUs of hxtUrry and average resuiU
FOREIGN— Continued.

Name and address.

Record
No.

6198
6197

6198
6199

6200

Ex-
hibit
No.

106
107

108

Breed.

Sex.

Ram....
....do...

....do...

Age.

Uve
weight.

Cor-
rected

fleece.

Cor-
rected
length

fiber

in

crimp.

NEW SOUTH WALES— C'f a.

G. H. Cox, Bammdulla. .
W.& F.C.Diclwon,Yar-
rawin.
Do

Saxon Merino.
Pure Merino. .

do

2tyni...
3yr»....

14mo8..
iiyrs...

8yT8

ISmos..

3 yrs

2iyrs...
llmoA..
IHyn..

eyrs....
23moe..
6yrB —
4yiB....

16mo8..
36mos ..

Pounds.
110
ISO

100

771

92
76
1014
1121

60

70
78
92
283

43
42

14

18

17
14

11

oe.
6
6

10
13

12

IfUihtB.

8.2
3.94

8.90
8

3.5

V.J.Dowllng,LueMud-
iree.
Do

109

110
111

Luc-bred Me-
rino.
do

Ewe....
....do...

Do

::::.do..:!....

....do...

Do

112
113
114
115

116

do

....do...

:::::::::::::::!

Do

Do

6201
6202
6208

6204
6205

do

do

Ram....
....do...

17
14
16

9
8

0

f

7
0

3

8
3.5

Dullmuty & Deakin, Kil-
loola, Peel.
Do

CasRllis-bred

Merino.
do

Ewe....
....do...

Do

117
118

do

....do...

Do

. .do

..do...

Duntroon estate, Qaean-
beyan.

Do

6206

6206
6207
6208

6209

6210
6211

6212

6218

6214
6214
6215
6216
6217

6218
6218
6219

6220
62^'

6221
6222
6223

6223
6224
6225
6226

6227
6228
6229
6280

6281
6282
6233
6234
6235
6236

6287

119.

119
120
121

122

12:^

124

125

126

127
127
128
129
130

131

Lee' 8 Larras
Lake bred
Merino.

do

....do..

11

6
5
14

14

11
11

9

8

11

4

15
15
6

1

11

8

4

10

7
7

1

a

5

3

2.72
3.32
8.5

3

3.6
8.50

8

3.70

8.7

8.74

3.70

8.90

4.10

Do

W. N. Faithful, Spring-
field.
Do

Pure Merino. .
do

Goulbum Me-
rino.
do

Ewe....
Ram....

....do...

Do

....do...

C. Fetheratonbaugh,
Goorlanawa.
Do

Goorlanawa

Merino.
Australian

Merino.
Pure Merino. .

do

Ewe....
....do...
....do...
....do..

Aged...

Aged...

2* yrs...

84 yrs...
34 yrs...
17 mos..
17 moH..
16 mos. .

14 yrs...

109

m

65i
71

J. & James Gibbeon, Ber-
thong.
Do?

Do

do

. do...

71 U
694 10
654 10

Do

do

do

Ram....
....do...

Do

L. McBean Grant, Buth-
erwah.

Do

Colombo ram
from Buth-
erwah ewe.

Merino

Ewe....
..do..

&4

10

Do

181

do

....do...

16 moH. .
16 mos. .

16 mos. .
15 mos..

4 vrs....

74
73

&4
80

10
10

11
9

9
5
19

19
8
7

21

42
27
24
6

8
8
6
9
6
10

11

6
10

3

10

10
14
12

12
0
4
9

18
7
7

12

14

1
8
6
1
11

10

. 4.60
4.60

4.60
2.80

4.40
8.90
3.70
6.20

10
6.20
6.20
3

8

8

3

3

2.55

2.51

3.51

Do

132

133
134

134
135
186

136

Colombo ram
from Buth-
erwah ewe.

do

....do...
....do...

Do

Chas. Castle Hall, Yeum-
burra.

Do

Australian-
Vermont,
three-fourths
Merino.

do

Ram....
....do...

Do

do

do

5 yrs....
5 yrs....

8 yrs....
16 mott..
14 mos. .
3 vrs.

50
120

120
60
70

•Do

Australian

Merino.
do

....do...

....do...
Ewe....
....do...
. . do

Do

Do

137 ' - rtn

R. F. Horsley, Yabtrec . .
F. W. Hume, Farengo,

Burrowa.
• Do

138
139

Pure Merino..
...do

140
141
142
148

144
145
146

do

do

do

Saxon Merino

do

do

do

Ram

Ewe....
Ram....
Ewe....

Ram

3 vrs. . . .

Do

14' mos..

Do :

'2 yrs

H. R. F. Hume, Everton,
Rye Park.

....do...
....do...

Do

Ewe

do. .

Do

. ..do...

....do...

Do

147

do

Ram....

....do...

Do

148 1 do

149 1 SpaniHh Me-

rino.
160 ! do

....do...
Ewe....

....ao...

:::.do::. - .::

Andrew Loder, Colley
Creek.
Do

14 mos. .
2 yrs....

74
82

Digitized by VjOOQIC

WOBLD'8 COLUMBIAN EXTOSITION, 1893.

1641

of tests of individual samples of wools— -Continued.

FOREIGN-<}ontiiined.

Fineness of fiber.

Strength of fiber.

Cent!
milli-
meters.

Thou-
sandths
of
inch

Frac-
tion of
inch.

Orams.

Qrains.

Total stretch
of fiber.

Milli-
meters
in 20-
milli-
meter
length.

Per

cent

of

length.

D'«xS

"dt-

8'.

R.

E-^

Remarks.

2.012
2.0855

l.»i3
2.2075

2.0195

2.126
1.930
1.977

1.685
2.095

2.172
1.768
2.070

2.012

1.941
1.T61

2.207

1.580

1.479

1.7655

1.644

1.864

1.690

1.738
1.766
1.994

2.0O2
1.8695

l.fiOl
1.699
2.131

2.607
1.8695
1.773
2.002

2.291
1.471
2.029
1.715

1.831
1.849
1.799
2.009
1.662
1.727

1.788

.792
.821

.765

.795

±

tAt

3.891
5.466

4.738
4.491

60.147
84.353

72.041
69.406

76.746

7.824

6.874

6.590
6.990

8.475

.837
.760
.778

.663
.823

tAt
tA»

5.749
8.960
5.788

5.258
4.500

88.730
61.967
89.245

81.143
69.445

6.750
8.174
5.008

5.606
7.292

.744

.855
.694
.815

.792

.764
.689

.869

.622

.582
.695
.647
.734
.665

.684

lAi

tAi

Taftnr
Tfn

irko

tAt

H

rsPlif

.785 I xA,

.788
.736

.709

.987
.736
.698

.788

.902
.579
.799
.675

.721
.728
.708
.791
.611
.6802

.700

tA.
Tns

lAi

iins

■prra
im

Tjnri
rA»

4.850

3.626
4.983
5.400

4.716

6.425
4.775

5.091

3.633

4.408
4.708
4.260
4.892
5.691

4.833
5.266
5.320

5.033
3.741

5.183
3.733
8.475

5.200
8.517
4.075
6.792

5.476
4.741
5.583
4.838

4.800
4.516
5.138
5.508
5.658
8.858

3.816

67.180

65.941
77.899
83.384

72.778

109.162

78.666

56.065

68.025
72.655
65.587
75.595
87.925

74.584
81.266
82.115

77.671
57.732

79.986
58.608
180.789

80.248
54.276
62.454
103.906

84.492
78.164
86.158
74.582

74.074
69.69
79. 114
85.001
87.316
59.587

58,889

89.12
34.37

82.95
34.95

42.88

15.414
20.117

20.05
14.74

19.255

17,446
22,769

22,703
16,682

21,794

83.75
40.87
25.04

28.01
36.46

20.812
16.966
28.67

29.68
16.401

28,566
19,203
26,795

83.635
18,666

4.U6

5. 182
7.025
5.890

6.700

7.108
6.850

8.140

6.624

4.474
6.391
6.050 ,
6.875
5.712 1

6.958
6.690
4.950

4.890
6.724

6.258
5.708
8.132

6.942
6.842
7.416
5.933

7.574
4.700
6.424
6.982

6.260
6.850
5.916
6.575
6.474
6.358

6.133

20.58

25.91
35.13
29.45

83.50

35.04
26.76

40.70

33.12

22.37
31.95
30.25
34.37
28.66

34.79
33.45
24.75

24.46
33.62

31.29
28.54
40.66

84.71
34.71
87.08
29.66

37.87
23.50
27.12
84.66

81.26
84.25
29.58
82.87
82.87
81.79

30.66

14.758

12.29
25.651
20.168

18.63

27.286
24.91

16.72

26.284

32.24
24.166
25.159
22.513

31.88

25.60
27.01
21.40

20.09
17.126

26.56
20.67
29.86

13.316
16.472
20.74
27.049

16.68
35.06
21.698
26.290

22.900

21. 134

25.37

21.835

37.583

20.178

19.314

16,698

18,910
29,032
22,821

21,096

30.882
28,208

44,596
66,248

68,901
47,751

51,481

45,864
107,006

119,601
60,824

81,125

53,700
82,577
77,466

62,974

88.135
105,450

46,504

79,571

163,100
83,016
94,185
74,126

126,300

26,353

86,492
27,352
28,476
25,480
86,080

28,975
30,575
24,280

22,740
19,888

28,986
23,409
33,796

16,070
18,220
23,474
30,615

18,920
39,675
24,558
29.750

25,926
30,113
28,725
24,713
42,537
23,370

21,860 71,295

91,410
97,900

93,007
67,654

92,480
82,009
83,119

43,400
67,464
63,877
100,380

49,880
176,386
90,564
86,000

82,970
87,922
97,098
75,204
131,400
73,516

Washed.

Unwa.shed.
Washed.

Do
Unwashed.

Washed.
Unwashed.

Washed.
Unwashed.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

1642

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

Details of history and average remUa
FOREIQN-<)ontlnned.

Name and address.

Record
No.

6238

6288
6239
6240
6241
6242

6243

6244
5245
6246

6247
6248

6249
6250
6251

6252

6258
6254

6255
6256
6257

6258

6259
6260
6261
6262

6263
6264
6265
6266

6267
6268
6269
6270

6271
6272
6272

Ex-
hibit
No.

Breed.

Sex.

Age.

Live
weight.

Cor-
rected

fleece.

Coi^
rected
leojU.

fiber

in

crinip.

NBW SOUTH WALES— C't'd.

Andrew Loder. CoUey
Creek.
Do

151

151
152
153
151
165

166

167
158
159

160
161

162
163
IW

165

166
169

170
171
172

173

174
175
176
177

178
179
180
181

182
183
184
185

186
187
187
188
189

190
191
192
193
194

196
196

197
198
199
200

201

Spanish Me-
rino.
do

Ewe....
....do...

4y«....

48 mos..

4 yrs....
28 mos..
12 mos..

5 yrs

2 yra....

2 yis....
2i yrs...
5 yrs....

2 yrs....
16 mos. .

16 mos..
16 mos..
5yT8....

4 3rr8

2 yra....

2 yra....
2 yra....

2 yra....

26 mos. .

26 mos..
26 mos..
'26 mos. .
3* yra...

16 mos. .
10 mos. .
3Amos.
l| yra...

3 yra

Uyra...
Uyrs...
2* yrs...

3A yra..
2 yrs....

2 yra

U yrs...
7 yra....

4 yra....

3 yra. . . .

U yra...

21 yra...

iHyw.-

21 J yrs..
5yre....

4 yra....

5 yra....
5 yra....
3 yra....

18 mos..

Pounds,

75

75

JUm

18

18

oe.
11

14
4
11
10

8

9
6
3

8
2

7
12
2

9

9
15

8
13
4

8

12
10
0
10

2
2
2
4

12
6
8

14

9

Jndhes.
8.60

5.44

3.5
4.1
8.60
2.5

2.58

3.02
3.50
3.3

2.8
8.4

8.2
3.7
3.2

8.8

8.75
3.8

2.87
2.96
3.65

8

2.60
3

2.50
8

2.54
3.82
8.5
3

3

2.75
2-50
2.64

3.16

Do

do

do

Ram

. . . .do . . .

117 1 18
96 17
85 12

leo 17

80 1 18

84 1 12
89 : 12
157 9

103 10

Do

Do

do

....do...

John C. Manchee. Glen
Moan.
Do

Pure Merino. .

Australian

Merino.
do

....do...
Ewe....
....do...

Do

Do

do

....do...

George Merriman, Ra-
vensworth.
Do

Pure Merino. .

do

Three-fourths

ewebyHav-
ilah ram.

Pure Merino..

do

Ram....

Ewe....
....do...

....do...
....do...

G.J.Mulholland, Oura..
Do

52

•
41

8
7

Do

43 1 5
41 1 13

129i 1 16

113 12
j 9

43|l 8

G J MulhoUand. Rose-

do

....do...

wood Park.
Andrew Murray, Ban-
nockburn.

Do

American-
Spanish Me-
rino.
do..

Saxon Merino

do

do

Ram....

Ewe....
Ram....

Ewe....
. . . .do . . .

Argyle McCallum, Good

^Z:

Do

Do

One-f o u r t h
Vermont
Merino.

Pure Merino..

do

do

do

do

do

....do...

....do...

Ram

Ewe....
Ram....
Ewe ....

....do...

Peel River Land and
Mineral Co.
Do

82

108
82

8

12

8

Do

Do

103i 14

Richard H. Roberts, Tiv-
erton.
Do

104

76
79
89
96

104
96

148
87

96
80
80
67
106

99
96
62
70
68

79
97

131
137
131
62

67

9

8
8
9
14

11
13
16
13

10

Do

Do

James W. Scott, Boga-
mildi.
Do

do

do

(:k)llaroy ram .

Pure Merino..

....do...
....do...
....do...

Do

do

do

do

do

Ewe...:
Ram....
Ewe....

....do...

Do

Alexander Sloane, MuK
wala Station.
Do

Do . .

do

....do...

Do

do

....do...

11
8
10

11
9
8
9
6

8
8

12
18
16
10

7

12
7
6

3

4
1
3
14

0
13

14
3
3

10

12

L2
2.91
3.26

L27
2,92
4.84
2.84
3.06

3.17
2.85

2.12
4.78
3.29
3

Do

do

....do...

John L.Suchllng, Bars-
ham.
Do

5711
5712
5713
5714
5715

5716
6717

5718
5719
5720
5721

5722

do

....do...

do

do

do

Ram....
Ewe ....
....do...

Do

Traill Bros., Llangollen .
Do

do

....do...

W. Vlver's estate, Kings
Plains.
Do

do

....do...

do

....do...

Henry Walker, Tong
Bong.

Do

Do

do

. .do...

do

do

Ram....
....do...

Do

do

. do...

Wilson Sons & Co., Lake
Cowal StaUon.
Do

do

do

Ewe

....do...

Digitized by VjOOQIC

WOBLD's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1648

of tests of indimdual samples of wools — Continued.

FOREIGN— Contlnaed.

Fineneflfl of fiber.

Gentl-
miUi-
meten.

Strength of fiber.

Gramii.

Grains.

Total stretch
of fiber.

Milli-
meters
in20-
milU-
meter
length.

Per

cent

of

length.

jy*xB

8'.

8

18109Di=
R.

Remarks.

1.756

2.006

1.646

1.720

2.0905

2.274

2.088

1.608
1.806
1.746

1.961
1.941

2.045
1.879
2.223

2.149

1.951
1.529

1.890
1.854
1.8925

1.9805

2.200
2.129
1.908
1.887

2.294
2.1235 I
2.061
2.449 I

2.068 '
2.347 I
1.763
1.951

1.8645

2.175

1.9535

1.627

1.763

1.9855

2.195

2.083

2.855

1.8365

2.129
1.788

1.834
1.931
1.722
1.712

1.682

.691

.648
.677

3=

.805
.740
.875

.846

.602

tA» 4.473

4.473
3.916
4.983
3.941
6.782

Tan

.730 , tA»
.746 xA,

•760 , xAii
.866 I

.755
.743

.903
.836
.819
.964 >

.814
.924 I

.784

.601
.694

.762
.864
.820
.927
.723

.704

.722
.760
.678
.674

6.758

3.066
5.133
6.166

4.366
4.216

5.525
7.583
6.266

5.058

5.075
3.900

tAi
jm

TloT

I Aw
iAt

'^

tA»
TvWa

TTtV

iS

rvfn
tAti

tAo
■ma

rM ' 4.075

5.3416

4.8333
3.900
4.660
5.716

6.258
5.466
4.516
7.250

5.283
5.250
6.907
3.962

4.091
4.353
4.953
3.906
4.958

5.800
5.483
7.916
6.000
4.441

5. 100
4.906

4.016
4.641
3.826
3.716

68.013

68.968

61.33

77.89

61.81

89.22

88.86

47.316
79.214
105.16

67.87
65.06

85.28
117.02
96.69

78.057

78.819
71. 186

77.652
69.877
61.700

74.589 '
61. 186 I
71.760

96.576
84.36
69.69
111.88

81.529
81.019
107.69
72.46

63.233
67.177
77.536
61.309
77. 513

78.352
84.615
59.229
92.69

78,704
76.941

61.97
70.078
59.028
67.346

62.885

6.490

6.490
7.268
6.192
7.308
6.724

5.866

6.138
5.933
7.674

6.858
6.966

6.250
6.188
6.200

6.300

6.400
5.300

5.476
5.633
6.525

82.487 7.983

7.150
5.142
7.992
7.266

5.850
7.192
5.132

6.740
3.450
6.600
7.342

7.600
7.790
6.816
4.690
6.550

6.432
6.324
7.190
6.090
7.226

8.533
7.416

4.232
6.666
5.266
7,460

7. 124

32.46

32.45

36.298

80.96

36.54

28.62

29.33

30.66
29.66
38.87

84.29
34.83

31.25
30.94
81

31.60

32
26.60

27:38
27.66
32.68

39.92

35.76
26.71
39.96
86.33

29.25
85.96
25.66
34.29

33.70
17.25
33
36.71

38.95
34.06
23.46
32.75

32.16
31.62
35.96
30.46
36.25

42.66
37.08

21.16

37.25
&5.62

23.21

17.749
28.120
26.951
14.428
17.890

22.181

21.448
25.122
32.396

17.800
18.096

13.486
37.992
20.28

17.93

21.829
26.691

22.543
22.764
17.674

22.932

16.970
13.767
21.400
26.68

19.92
19.394
16.68
19.341

19.764
16.967
36.62
16.742

18.828
14,722
20.?i7
26.214
26.11

24.784

18.250

29.19

17.801

21.075

18
24.563

19.54
19.48
20.638
20.28

23.04

26,268

20,089
26,174
80,601
16,380
20,248

26,102

24,841
28,498
36,689

20,146
20,481

16,268
43,001
22,962

20,296

24,144
30,206

25,516
20,461
19.890

25,965

18,060
15,581
24,220
29,070

22,550

21.951

18,885

'21,890

22,370
18.072
40,200
18,949

21,810
16,663
23,615
29,660
28,886

28,051
20,607
83,088
19,546
28,857

20,386
27,801

22,125
22,088
23,360
22,436

80,957 Washed.

61,908
72,125
98,588
44,692
70,749

86,694

79,175
96,086
96,509

68,764
68,808

48,844
188,983
74,070

64,430

76,461
112,960

98,206
73,976
60,967

65,026

60,580
60,604
60,610
80,016

77,100
61,046
73,592

66,381
104,740
121,820

61,682

56,060
42,781 ;
69,001

123,260 Do.

88,202 Unwashed.

88,896
65,174
171,852
64,190
66,051

47,763
74,976

104,560
52,522
88,716
60,233

26,063 137,640
Digitized by VjOOQIC

1644

EEPOET OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

Details of history and avercige rcmdb

F0REION--Continued.

Name and address.

Record
No.

5951

5952
5953
5954

5956
5956
5957
5958

6959
5960
5961

5962
5962
5963
5964
5965
6966
5967
5968
5969
5970
5970
5971

5972
5973

5974

5975

5976
5977

5978
5979

5980
5981

Ex-
hibit
No.

202

208
204
205

206
207
208
209

210
211
212

213
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
221
222

223

224

225

226

225
128

229
230

231
232

•233
234

234
235

235
236
237
238

239

240
241
242
243
244

245
246
247

248

Breed.

Sex.

A«e.

Live
weight.

i

1 Cor-
Cor- reeled
reeled length
welelit o?

of fiber
fleece. fai
orlBipL

i

NEW SOUTH WALKS—C't'd.

Edmund J. Allen, Stony
Creek.
Do

Pure Merino. .
do

Ewe....
....do...

8 yrs

6yrB

7yw....
2yrs....

Siyrs...
16 moe..
16 moe..
l^yrs..

3 yrs

Syrs

16 mos . .

16 mos..

Pound».
76

82

Lh9. oz

S

3.2
2.»

•

Do

do

....do...

76 1 11 2
76 7 3

76 7 4
60 i 7 1
64 ' 7 9

'

William D. Crozler,

do

do...

3.69

Horse Shoe.
Do

do

... do...

Z.23

Do

do

....do...

3.4^

Do

do

.do .

2.54

William D. Crozler,

do

....do...
.... **w . . .

65
100

10 7
13 4

4.15

Moorna.
Do

do

....do...

3-45

2.77

3.dft

9 «»

Do

do

Australian
Merino.

do

do

Ram....
Ewe

Ram....
do

136 17 12

Devlin & C().,Ganmaln. .
Do

50

8 4
12 8

Do

16 mos

Vincent J. Dowling, Lue.
Do

Lue Merino . .

do

do

do

....do...

Ewe....

Ram....

do

14 mos . .
13 mos . .
16 mos . .
24 yrs . . .
2* yrs...
2jyr«...
2iyrs...

5 yrs

5 yrs

82ii 10 14 I 2.25
60i 13 0 < 3

Do

1041' 16 2 *» 75

Do

128^1 18 0 1 2.50
117i' 17 2 ' 2 75 ■

Do

. .do

do

Do

do

do

Ewe....
....do...

94i 12 16 3.75
91 11 12 3

Do

Do

do

do

Ram....
do

128i' 22 15 2

Do

)

Dulhunty & Deakln,
Killoola.
Do

Pure Merino..
do... .

....do...
do

27 moe..

2 yra....
5 mos . . .

18 moe..

425 dys..

425dys..
4 yrs , . .

105

102
127

100
70
62

14 5

12 0
18 12

11 6

6 5

7 12

7 8

3.75

2.75
2.01

2.5
1.76
2.73

Duntoon estate, Quean-
bey an.

Charles C. Hall, Yeum-

burra.
William Harkness, Lin-

cluden.
Do

Seven-eighths
Vermont
Merino.

Pure Merino. .

do

do

....do...

...do....
Ewe....
do

Horsfall & Co., Kear-

do

.do.

bury.
Do

do

.do

4 yrs. ..

10 9 -? TS 1

C. H. James and J. Gray,

do

...do....

17 mos..

3 yrs....

3 yrs

Uyra...

5 yrs

5 yrs

2Kvr8...

2iyrs...
22 mos..
Uyrs...
171 moH.

17 mos..

15 mos . .
15 mos..
15 mos..

15 mos..

4>TS....

4 yrs....

2 vrs....
2 yrs....

16 mos..

49

7 13

2.88

3.26
2.08

6.08

2.92

Kentucky, Corowa.

G. Merriman, Yasa

Q.J.MulhoUand, Oura..

Andrew Murray, Ban-
nockburn.
Do

do

One-half Ver-
mont Me-
rino.

American Me-
rino.

American-
Spanish Me-
rino
do

Wether .
Ewe

...do....

Ram....
...do....

150
74

75

133

133
147

147
136

86
67

63

68
77
&5
75
941

591
324
224*
178

12 6
7 6

10 1

16 9

Do

JameM W. Scott, Boga-

6132

6132
6133
6134
6135

6136

6137
6138
6139
6140
6141

6142
6143
6144
6145

Collaroyan ...

...do....

20 4

2.5

milde Station.
Do

do

do

Do

do.

do

17 10
12 0
9 12

7 18

8 10
8 10
8 12

8 5
10 11

7 8 .

9 10
10 6
14 2

2 75

Do

Pure Merino. .
Taamanian

Merino.
Pure Merino. .

do

do

do

do

Leicester

do

do

do

do '

Ewe ....
...do....

...do....

...do....
...do....
...do....
...do....
Ram ....

Ewe....

Ram

Ewe ....
Ram

3.25

Tubbo Estate Co., Tubbo.

James E. Warby, BiUen-

bah.
PeterC. Watt, Goonal...
Do

3

2.75

2.75
3.94
2.6
8.03
2.76

.......

7.26
8.09

Do

Do

Duntoon estate, Quean-

"*^S";

Do

Do

Do

Digitized by VjOOQIC

world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1645

of tests ofindividnal samples of wools — Continued.

FOREIGN-Continued.

Fineness of fiber.

strength of fiber.

Total stretch
of fiber.

D'«XS

8'.

18109^=
R.

K=5.

Centi-
milli-
metere.

Thou-
sandths
of
inch.

Frac-
tion of
inch.

Grams.

Grains.

Milli-
meters
in20-
milll-
meter
length.

Per

cent

of

length.

Remarks.

1.670

.618

T^

4.458

68.797

4.406

22.04

28.987

82,761

148,600

2.144
2.220
1.652

.844
.874
.650

;l

6.083
5.841
6.541

93.874
90.140
85.610

4.932
7.182
4.400

24.66
86.91
22

21.666

18.96

82.48

23,964
21,466
86,768

97,178
59,769
167,150

1.913
1.867
1.722
2.121

.753
.735
.678
.885

3.900
6.350
5,233
6.068

61.186
97.996
80.757
93.489

6.011
6.968
7.016
6.650

30.20
29.79
35.08
32.76

17.061
29.147
28.286
21.546

19.299
82,989
31,957
24,386

63,892

110.730

91,100

74,461

2.434
1.887
1.692

.958
.743
.666

±

6.800
4.80K
6.058

104.939
74.198
78.056

6.978
5,524
6.600

29.89
27.62
28

18.364
21.599
28.268

20,785
24,446
31,996

69,640
88,619
U4,272

1.788

1.845

2.1095

1.804

2.020

2.342

2.210

2.237

1.788

2.218

2.822

1.994

.704
.726
.796
.710
.796
.922
.870
.881
.704
.878
.914
.786

tAo

4.926
3.916
6.283
6.668
6.191
6.033
6.583
6.858
6.916
6.108
6.100
5.275

77.004
61.433
81.529
87.316
80.209
77.671
86.168
90.412
92.297
96.371
93.187
81.345

6.740
6.050
6.324
6.066
5.236
4.616
6.708
6.406
8.140
7.870
6.682
6.950

83.70
30.26
26.62
25.33
26.18
22.58
83.64
32.04
40.70
39.35
33.41
34.75

24.64

18.406

20.736

27.816

20.261

14.681

18,289

18.73

29.606

19.865

17.699

21.226

27,897
20,832
23,460
30,901
23,037
16,616
20.700
21,198
33,511
22.483
20,491
24,025

82,781
68,868
88.166
124,230
87,998
73,590
61,718
66,163
82,336
67,138
61,323
69,187

Unwashed.
Washed.

Unwashed.
Washed.

1.746
2.101

.687
.827

±

3.958
4.860

62.081
74.846

6.566
6.990

32.83
34.96

20.323
17,679

23,002
» 19,896

70,066
56,929

1.834

.722

td^K

4.966

77.637

5.784

28.92

23.62

26,736

92,460

1.050

.807

tAh

4.466

68.920

5.416

27.08

17,003

19,244

71,066

1.771
1.412

.697
.656

±

4.600
3.963

71.088
62.467

5.500
6.682

27.50
38.41

23.466
31.963

26,669
86,177

96,678
108,270

1.694
1.582

.667
.60S

±

3.666
5.600

66.021

84.877

6.266
6.924

31.33
34.62

19.791
37.494

22,400
42,436

71,497
122,670

2.0245
1.961

.797
.772

4.383
5.308

67.639
81.914

6. MO
6.782

29.70
33.91

17.118
22.08'4

18,933
24,996

63,751
78,712

2.167

.868 jM

5.041

77.794

7.158

35.79

17.176

19,439

54,316

2.314

.911

±

A.SOO

69.446

5.824

29.12

13.445

16,218

52,262

Unwashed.

2,419
2.484

.952
.977

4.833
5.208

74.584
80.371

6.650
6.774

33.25

28.87

13.214
16.616

14,966
18,806

44.982
61,652

Washed.
Unwashed.

2.484
2.317
2.125
2.063

.978 tA,
.924 j lA,
.«71 j^,
.812 W„

6.408
6.225
4.4.')0
4.266

98.890
96.066
68.673
66.834

7.282
6.682
V.190
5.266

36.41
28.41
35.96
26.33

13.504
18.08
16. 767
16.037

16,284
20,462
17,845
18,161

62,940
72,030
49,640
68,939

Washed.

1.600

.630 ,At

6.(ft8

102.748

7.066

35.33

41.612

47,097

153,307

2.005
2.068
1.893
1.883
3.336

.789 „V,
.810 „S*

. /41 j^g

1.313 ,h

4.900
4.600
4.7tJ6
5.190
13.66

76.618
70.988
73.560
80.193
209.26

7.024
5.532
6.132
7.240
6.432

35.12
27.66
30.66
86.20
32.16

19.502
17.377
21.28
23.46
19.495

22,073
19, 667
24,080
26,560
22,064

62,850
71,106
78,550
73,370
68,610

3.419
3.701
3.531
8.960

1.346
1.457
1.390
1.666

sis

18.33
28.64
28.016
28.291

282.87
364.82
432.35
436.696

4.008
7.616
8.8.'>0
8.458

20.04
38.08
44.25
42.29

25.088
27. 614
35.952
29.666

25,396
31,2.'>3
40,691
33,665

141.680
82,074
91,957
79,870

Digitized by VjOOQIC

1646

BEPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

Details of history cmd average resuUs
FOREIGN-ConUnued.

Name and address.

Record

No.

Ex-
hibit
No.

Breed.

Hex.

Age.

Lire
weight.

Cor-
rected

fleece.

Cor-
rected

fiber

in

crimp.

NEW SOUTH WALM— C'fd.

Duntoon estate, Quean-

•^iS°:

6146

6147
6147
6148
6149

6160
6151

6152
6153
6154
6166
6191

6192
6193
6194
6195
6196
6168

6169
6170
6171

249

250
250
251
252

253
254

255
256
257
258
277

278
279a
27»b
279c
279d
280

281
282
283
5E

7E

9F

119c

21b

25b

31b

41a

44a

46

65b

73

82b

95c

97c

103d

117b

125b

127b

130c

131c

141b

168

•1
2

1
2
Ic

1

1

1
1
2
3
4
6
11

Leicester

Pure Lincoln .
do

Ewe....

Ram....
....do...

15 mos..

13 mos..
13 mos..

lyr

58wk8..
2yni....

2yrs

16 mos..
15 mos. .
21 mos..

i

/\miMJ».ljUw.<K.
168 18 0

109 ; 20 5

109 20 5
961 14 15
98 11 2

128 14 5

164 14 4

165 ' 11 8
188i| 14 2

110 1 11 12

Inches.

8.11

14.04

"9.'i2'
9

9.SS
4.23

8.41

3.17

5.16

5

2.50

3.25
2
2
2

"i'so*

2.57
2.82
2.90
2.50

2.25
2.50

Do

Do

do

do

do

Lincoln Me-
rino.

do

do

do

do

Ewe....
....do...

Ram

Wether.

Ewe....
Wether.
Ewe....
....do...

Andrew Murray, Ban-
nockbum.
Do

Duntoon estate, Quean-

•X!^

Do

Do

Do

7 10

Tubbo Estate Co., Wag-
gaWagga.
Do

Australian

Merino.
do

....do...
....do...

2tyni...

24yr8...
24yr8...
24yr8...
2tyPB...
2ty«...
lyr

myra..
1 iyrs..
2(1 yrs..

85

87
91
91
91
91
53

67
67

78

13 11

8 14

9 10
9 10
9 10
9 10
6 4

6 1
6 1
6 5

Do

do

....do...

Do

do

....do...

Do

do

....do...

Do

do

....do...

Estate of W. Vivere,
Kings Plains.
Do

Pure Merino. .
do

....do...
....do...

Do

do

....do...

Do

do

....do...

Baled wool (name of

breeder, etc,, not
given).
Do

Do

1

Do

Do

3.25

2.50

8.25

3

2.50

2

2.50

2.75

3.75

2.50

2

2.25

2.75

2.75

2.75

2.25

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

:::::::;:::::::::

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

MKW ZEALAND.

John Anderson, Kerem . .

3

4

5.25

6

6

4

2.50

2.50

Do

Merino .....

L. M. Williams, Bartlngs.

Do '.

Cross

Green Hill Station,

Qreen Hill.
Archibald McLean,

Green Hill.
Chas. Goulter, Hawkes-
bury, Blenheim.
Do

Merino

do

,""■ 1

Do

do

hRtudram

Ram 1

Kwe....i

do...i

5 yrs

5 yrs

5 yrs .

148
141

15 0
13 0
11 12
10 0

Do

Do

Merino

do

Do

14 mos . .

Do

do

do . . . i

14 mrw) .1

J. Q. Ward, Invercargil..

do

........

8.50

•Bales.

^ Challenge.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

world's COLOMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1647

of tests of individual samples of wools — Continued.

FOREIGN— Contlnned.

Fineneae of fiber

Strength of fiber.

Total stretch
of fiber.

D'«xS
1)2 -

18109 ^^-

Centi-

milli-

metera.

Thou-

Frac-
tion of
Inch.

Milli-
meters

Per

Remarks.

sandths

of

inch.

Grams.

Grains.

in20-
mllll-
meter

cent

of

length.

S'.

K.

lengrth.

3.770

1.484

«fs

24.55

878.864

7.774

38.87

27.63

31,280

80,470

3.584

1.411

T

B

25.43

392.44

8.724

43.62

31.67

86,850

82,190

Unwashed.

3.9M

1.537

B

S

25.20

388.794

7.840

39.20

26.46

29,940

76,890

Washed.

2.985

1.775

V

B

19.541

311.563

9.040

46.20

35.087

39,712

87,860

2.617

1.302

*

0

22.208

342.72

8.968

44.79

61.866

58,704

181,060

2.588

1.007

•il

19

30.321

9.216

46.68
3^.08

45.388

61,371

110,283

3.112

1.225

.L

14.616

225.550

7.416

23.597

26,708

72,024

2.9?2

1.170

1

9.425

165.44

5.074

25.37

17.072

19.823

76,166

3.226

1.270

TWT

14.68

216.54

5.900

29.50

22.569

25,644

86,690

2.131

.889

TI^T

16.758

258.615

7.658

89.29

59.04

66,826

174,530

3.170

1.248

TOT

18.66

287.967

7.008

35.04

29.71

83.620

95,970

1.893

.745

tAt

4.108

683.960

6.474

27.87

18.34

20,760

75,860

Scoured.

1.684

.668

4.175

64.500

7.600

38

23.656

26.660

70,158

1.785

.688

tSs

4.988

77.899

6.974

34.87

26.48

29,970

86,970

2.3725

.984

liW

5.288

•81.629

6.582

82.91

15.02

17,000

51,670

1.821

.717

8.891

187.209

6.216

31.08

42.899

48.563

156.222 1

1.844

.726

ife

4.691

72.493

6.640

33.20

22.073

24,974

75,247 1 Do.

1.778

.700

4.825

66.744

6.908

34.54

21.889

24,776

71,728

1.5545

.612

tA»

3.841

69.275

6.132

30.66

26.448

28.802

93,942

2.068

.814

_JL^

3.891

47.682

7.268

36.29

14.657

16,476

45,401

2.119

.834

yJL-

6.708

103.520

5.316

26.68

23.902

27.115

101,780

2.124

.836

rS»

7.600

117.28

7.374

36.87

26.95

30,500

82,740

1.860

.732

iA»

5.208

80. sn

6.450

82.25

24.08

27,260

84,530

1.867

.588

^

4.691

72.518

5.816

29.08

31.90

86,108

124,100

1.645

.608

8.516

64.260

6.416

82.08

23.66

26.670

83.140

1.580

.622

_JL_

3.608

56.679

5.032

25.16

28.12

26.170

104,050

1.878

.789

tAi

4.433

68.416

6.240

31.20

19.65

•22,240

71,290

1.852

.729

_JLy

5.350

82.563

5.982

29.66

24.96

28,240

95,230

1.664

.656

Tns

4.991

78.132

6.100

30.50

28.84

32,640

10,700

2.172

.856

5.525

85.263

6.350

31.75

18.73

21.200

66,790

2.088

.822

.JL.

6.350

97.996

5.716

28.58

23.304

26,375

«2,288

2.182

.839

lAi

5.040

77.779

8.060

40.25

17.74

20.074

• 49,886

1.898

.747

lin

4.916

74.322

8.400

42.00

21.834

24.712

58,839

1.563

.615

T^

3.788

58.380

6.682

33.41

24.776

28,012

83.933

1.728

.680

4.300

66.369

7.400

37

23.04

26.078

70,481

1.972

.776

tAt

5.050

77.983

6.916

29.58

20.777

23,616

79,501

1.888

.743

Tni

4.725

72.917

8.760

43.76

21.20

24,005

64,865

1.687

.664

jAt

3.991

62.680

7.166

35.88

22.38

25.330

70,710

2.154

.848

6.175

94.322

7.240

36.20

21.29

24,100

66,570

1.933

.761

i/ts

4.960

77.390

6.682

33.41

21. 19

23,990

71,800

1.733

.682

3.216

49.630

7.758

38.79

17.13

19,390

49,990

1.850

.728

T^9

5.233

80.757

7.980

39.90

24.46

27,682

69,390

1.814

.714

6.460

99.688

8.590

42.96

31.50

35.652

83,010

1.756

.691

"^

3.783

68.880

7.432

87.16

19.628

22,216

69,786

2.198

.865

±

6.716

26.481

7.890

36.96

18.93

21,426

57,966

1.870

.736

3.158

48.736

6.490

27.46

14.41

16.353

69,570

3.224

1.269

X

15.12

233.33

5.582

27.66

23.274

26.342

96,342

2.980

1.178

B" 1

18.07

278.86

8.640

43.20

32.657

36,818

86,295

2.713

1.068

w4«

10.41

160.65

6.924

29.62

22.629

25,612

86,469

2.665

1.049

rf.

8.291

128.01

4.750

23,75

18.678

21, 140

89.010

2.528

.995

rJa

5.033

77.676

7.350

86.76

12.60

14,261

38,806

2.090

.799

tAt

4.916

76.865

4.300

21.60

19.087

21,602

10,040

*i.*736**

"".'683'

"•^'

*'5.*i75'

"**79.'852'

"s.'soo'

' '26.' 60"

"27.' 50*'

"si^iao'

'ii7.'406'

2.256

.888

JT

b

6.900

92.050

6.690

32.95

18.647

20,992

63,710

Digitized by VjOOQIC

1648

REPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWABD8.

Detmls uf kieiory and average remdts
FOREION-^GonUnued.

Name and a«ldrcMg

Record
No.

Ex-
hibit
No.

• 1

Breed.

«
Sex.

Age.

Live
weighL

Cor-
rected

fleece.

Cor-
rected

fiber
Id

crimp.

NEW ZEALAND— cont'd.

J. 0. Ward, Invercargll.
Do

Half cross ....

PovmU.

Lbf.03.

India.
6.50
6
3

a. 50

5.50

2a

•2
•Ih

•1

4

•1

•1
•2
•3a

:t

2

3

11

>le

do

Do

Merino

;

Williams A Kettle, Taw-
roa.
Do

t

1

Half crosR

1

Do

8

Do

..........!.........

4

Wm. Telford, Clifton,

RomneyManh
Merino

Ewe....

J

7.60

Waiwers Otago.
Popcrangi Station

1 1

2.60

Do

do

'

s

Do

do

::::::::::i:::"!::::l::::::::

3.25

Do

2.50

F. M. Chambers, Have-
look.
Do

1 1

4

Half crofls ....

! '
! 1

7

Do

!

4

J. C. Jorks, Hawara

::::;:::::'"""::"!!":::"

9

Doiiglaa McLean, Marae-
Uakaho.

Do

5474

One- fourth

6.75

1

2

2
2

2
3

4

5
6

8

9

cross Battle
Ax.
Merino

Three-fourths

Battle Ax.
Cross

Hoggett
ram.

1
1

3.50

Do

1

i

7.50

Do

1

1

3.75
3

5.50
6

Do

Merino

Half cross

Hoggett
ram.

Do

Do

Three-fourths

cross.
Merino

..do

1

Do

Hoggett
ram.
do.

1

Do

1

1

Do

do

do

...do

Ewe 1 1

Do

Hoggett

ram.
Ewe

I

3

Do -...

Do

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Ik

do

....do...'

4

Do

. ..do

do

1.75

Do

do

....do...

3

Do

do

....do...

3.25

Do

..:..do

....do...

2.50

Do

do

do

Ram

4

Do

....do...

2.50

Do

do

....do...

3.50

John Harding, Warpuk-

wan,
Bernard H. Ward, Marl-
borough.

Do

Do

5473

Romncy Marsh

Merino-Tas-
manian.

do

do

do

6

3.60

2

12.50
3

1

2
3
4
8
•N

Ram....

Stud ram
Ewe ....
....do...

5 yrs —

3yr8....
ISk mos .

126

112
52

48

12 0

11 3
8 0
7 0

Do '

RuHNolI Brothers

Merino

Romuey Marsh

do

Ram

Wm. Telford, Clifton, |

....do...
....do...

16 mew . .

12.50

Waivversstago. |
Do

Trim.ley 1

■1
»1

70

1

7

9
12
13
14b

do

7

Chas. Goulter, Hawkes-

5472

Merino

1

bury.
Do

L.M. Williams

Cross

0;iANOE FREE STATE.

N. Joubert, Bethulle

Merino

11 mos . .

2.72
1.90
2.99
3.26
2.?2

Do

do

11 mo.s . .

Do

do

11 mos . .

Do

do

11 mos . .

1

Do

do

11 moe . .

1

• Bales.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

world's OOLUMBIAN EXPOSITIOK, 1893.

1649

of tests of individual samples of wools — Continued.

FOREIGN--Continued.

Fineness of aber.

Strength of fiber.

Total stretch
of fiber.

D^S^

18109^—
R.

E.«.

Centi-
milli-
meters.

Thou-
sandths
of
inch.

Frac-
tion of
inch.

Grams.

Grains.

Milli-
meters
in 20-
milli-
meter

Per

cent

of

length.

8'.

Remarks.

length.

1.986

.762

6.260

81,019

7.340

86.70

22.41

26,360

69,110

2.593

1.020

yiy

10.65

164.36

6.940

34.70

26.84

28,686

82,660

2,022

.796

Tnv

4.741

73,164

6.832

84.16

18.668

20,996

61,478

3.189

1.256

ris

14.09

217.64

7.082

36.16

22.168

26.090

71,360

2.766

1.086

'^

11.31

174.58

6.090

80.45

23.824

26,964

88,564

2.749

1.082

W^

12.02

186.49

7.358

86.79

.25.44

28,800

78,290

2.174

.856

tX

16.92

262.116

6.000

80

57.28

64,880

216,680

2.977

1.172

^

18.09

279.27

7,540

87.70

32.65

86,968

96,040

2.477

.975

iA»

6.826

106,80

8.866

19.38

17.796

20.144

104,210

2.246

.884

_JL

5.291

81.726

5.682

28.41

16.02

18,135

68,640

2.226

.876

TTkO

4.966

77.68

6.140

80.70

16.085

18,146

60,117

2.180

.868

nW

6.666

87.489

4.750

28.75

16.968

21,491

90,490

2.228

.877

lAv

13.61

210.08

7.982

89.66

48.867

49,650

125.180

2.845

1.120

■ f

15.450

288,42

8.324

41.62

80.541

34,666

83,062

3.506

1.380

▼ V

22,08

340.74

8.006

40.04

28.74

32,520

81,240

2.997

1.172

itv

18.75

289.35

8.150

40.75

88.40

87,802

92,767

1.537

.605

tM

4.0163

61.960

7.082

35.16

27.199

30,785

87,622

3,861

1.520

wh

28.90

448.99

8.006

40.04

81.018

35,107

87,679

3.069

1.208

vir

11.99

186.13

6.690

33.46

20.367

23,054

68,916

1.948
2.850

.767
1.122

7.650

118.06

7.466

37.33

15.066

17,056

45.688

2.159

.849

4.658

71.883

6.356

81.78

15.988

18,096

56,943

2.281

.898

T^

5.108

78.828

4.524

22.62

15.707

17,778

78,506

2.0916

.796

WST

6.308

97.347

6.408

82.01

28.07

26,113

81,500

2.050

.807

^

8.083

128.968

7.024

36.12

62.69

70,960

202,000

1.915

.754

irfrt

5.288

81.629

6.060

26.26

23.08

26.068

106,310

1.780

.681

i*?

8.641

66.169

6.766

83.63

19.464

22,060

65,121

1.812

.713

4.266

66.834

8.400

17

20.78

28,525

141,660

1.756

.691

t/tm

6.376

82.948

7.000

35'

27.89

81,565

110,486

1.908

.751

TnT

4.875

69.516

6.340

82.70

19.28

21.750

66,550

2.129

.838

6.088

77.671

7.268

86.29

17.766

20,109

56,406

2.075

.817

int

5.058

78.066

7.600

38

18.796

21.768

55,962

2.068

.810

5.158

79.600

6.540

27.70

19.041

22.063

79,616

d.460

1.862

22.63

847.09

7. 060

86.26

80. U

84.060

96.680

2.811

.909

J^

4.383

66.868

6.890

84.45

12.96

14,691

42,647

1.7046

.671

tAv

4.125

63.658

6.866

34.83

22.716

26,711

74,894

3.886

1.510

±

25.94

401.31

7.806

89.04

28.17

81,888

81,660

1.568

.625

5.333

82.300

6.832

84.16

34.68

88,248

119,700

*3*886"

**i'6i6'

.h"

'25.' 94"'

"ioi.'si "

"7*808'

"ii.'di'

*28.*i7"

*"8i,'888*

"si.'iw'

3.663

1.442

±

22.67

349.83

7,882

39.16

27.08

80,590

78,130

1.992

.784

4.333

66.86

6.216

26.06

17.47

19,775

75,820

1.611

.684

.......

4.538

69.964

6.458

82.29

27.945

81,629

97,968

2.096

.825

JL.

3.658

66.461

5.666

28.83

13.821

15,012

68,224

1.949

.767

JL

4.000

61.729

5.458

27.29

17.641

19,069

69,873

1.896

.746

^

4.566

70.464

6.282

31.41

20.84

23,025

73,300

2.365

.931

5.850

80.279

7.558

87.79

16.784

18,940

50,120

OOL EXPO— 02-

-104

Digitized by VjOOQIC

1650

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

Details of history and average resuUs
FOREIG .V— C'ontinued.

•Bales.

Name and addretw.

1

i

.Record
No.

1

Ex-
hibit
No.

Breed.

Sex.

Age.

Uve
weight

Cor-
rected
weight

fleece.

Cor-
rected
.enjth

fibcsr

in
dlmp.

ORANGE FREE STATE—

continued.
N. Joubert, Bethnlie

■

16
16
17a
18
19

1

1

2a

2b

2

2

3

Merino

11 mo6..

Pounds.

IJb9.0Z.

Inche*,
2.45
3.26

Do

do

11 mo8 . .

'

Do

do ;

1 1 moe . .

2.17

Do

..:..do: '

llmoe..

3.81

Do 1

do

11 moe . .

2.99

3

6.60

4

Rl'HBIA. i

Unknown

Lnshrirak

KarakuUikaic.
THha<4hka

TATnb., .

Do

....do...

Do . .

....do...

Do '

do

...do...

9.50

Do. . ... 1

Do :

1

Do . . 1

Lushrirak ....

Lamb...

sJdo !

Do

^

1

Do 1 4

PiimHia

do

Lusharsh

I^rnh- , ,

1

5 50

Do 1 1 4

....do...

5.50

Do 1 ' 4

....do...

3

Do 1 R

4.50

Do '

6
ft

1

6 50

Do

Zigala

Lamb...

5

Do ' 1 7

....do...

3

Do •

8
8
9

9

....do...

4

Do

....do...

Do

BaBtard be-
tween Meri-
no and An-
gora goat.

Lushrirsk

....do...

3.50

Do

Ewe....

2.25

Do

9

Do

10

TuRhiiriRkHiA .

Lamb ..

4
3
6.60

6

4

5.50
4.60
6.50

Do

10 ' LushrirBk ....

Ewe....

Do 11 . Tushunskaift

Lamb ..

1
Do 1 1 11

and Oxford-
shire Down.
Lushrirxk

Do

12

R o m a n n w-

Lamb...

Do 1

1 kala.

12 do

13 Lnshrirak

....do...

!

Do ,

Ewe....

Do :..:::..:i

14
14
15
15
16
16
17
17
17

17
1^
19
20

20
•21,22
»21,22

do

do 1

....do...

1

Do 1

Do 1

do !

4.50 1

Do 1

.....do

'

1

.. .

Do 1

do

::::::::::i::::::::::

1 1

Do 1

Merino

:....;.:;:, :::;

Do :: ::::::i :.:

CamerH hair..

3

6

Do ;

do

Do

Manaeu Me-
rino. 1
Camel's hair..l

Do

1

Do

do 1

i

2

2.25

5

Do

do 1

1

Do

Dervishcr i
Dycbaga 1
and Ordyn. 1

Lamb ..

Do

Do

6

6

Do

Do

•23
•23
24
24
25
26
27
28
29
80

1

Do

Do

infantado |

Ewe

.rift

3 yrs

2.50

2

2.50

2

2

2

2

2.50

Do

19314

3yre

14 12
12 7
10 2
18 8 '

10 A

Do

.do. .1

2 yrs

Do

Infantado 1

do 1

do 1

do 1

do

....do...
...do...
Ram....
Ewe....
...do...

2 vrs . . .

1

Do

2 vrs .

Do

2 vrs ....

Do

2yr8 12 14 i

2yrs 114 ol

Do

Digitized by VjOOQIC

world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 18»3.

1651

of tests of individual samples of vxtols — Continued.

FOREIGN-Contlnued.

FineneiH of fiber.

strength of fiber.

Total stretch
of fiber.

D^xS

1810j4=
R.

«=!•

Centi-
milli-
meters.

Thou-
sandths
of
inch.

Frac-
tion of
inch.

Grams.

Grainii.

MiUi-
meters
in 20-
milli-
meter

Per
cent

of
length.

8',

Remarks.

length.

1.681

.462

4.766

73.56

6.690

33.45

28.665

82,444

96,993

1.410

.665

TiAfT

4.583

70.72

6.360

81.76

86.863

41,746

131,470

1.789

.704

T^*

4.033

62.23

5.174

25.87

20.16

22,815

88,206

1.720

.677

3.991

62.690

6.208

26.04

27.178

240,430

93,816

l.«21

.766

JS

7.883

121.65

4.774

23.87

34.178

88,684

162,060

2.6&5

1.045

V "9

33.08

609.730

9.500

47.50

74.97

84,850

178.660

Black.

3.178

1.261

71 S

•26.516

409.204

7.724

38.62

41.997

47,583 ; 123,070

White.

2.891

1.138

■ R

83.76

62.099

7.760

38.75

64.629

73,147 188,760

Coarse.

2.7M
7.346

1.096
2.892

3 S

Fine.

ki'm

"656.'i2i'

*9.*4«2*

""47.'i6'

'*i6.*866"

"'i7,*958 r38,'686*

Black.

3.182

1.233

II «

22.833

344.660

8.900

44.60

36.422

41,222 92,636

White.

4.082

1.607

B fl

22.616

349.017

4.232

21.60

•23.263

24,686 , 116,380

Black.

3.463

1.363

T 5

37.776

582.87

9.616

48.06

50.366

57,004 118,880

White.

2.386

.989

TX IT

21.683

334.619

8.000

40.00

60.98

68,965

172,400

Fine.

4.933

1.942

1 <

44.90

693.912
393. lig

9.740

48.70

29.52

33,415

68,893

Coarse.

2.828

1.113

■ s

25.476

8.624

28.12

50.956

57,672

205,090

Black.

2.873

1.131

1 s

35.868

553.36

7.240

36.20

69.49

78,650

217,200

Fine.

6.815

2.289

« 8

36.800

552.47

8.532

42.66

16.93

19,170

44,940

Coarse.

4.131

1.626

1 <

42.016

649.100

7.208

86.04

39.387

44,576

123,680

2.822

.914

TOVa

9.158

151.329

6.200

31. OU

27. 17

30,755

99.226

2.279

.897

It*!*

8.685

134.029

5.458

27.29

26.67

30, 185

110,610

3.358

1.322

T 1

52.986

818.696

7.174

35.87

75.17

85.063

188.420

1.761

.693

n^i

12.70

195.990

6.624

33.12

66.52

74,161

223,900

3.343

1.316

r

\v

8.726

134.64

6.300

26.50

12.49

14,135

53,850

Fine.

4.685

1.806

c

s

43.125

665.51

3.408

17.04

32.82

87,142

218,000

Coarse.

3.686

1.461

V

V

53.967

833.84

8.600

43

63.54

71.921

167,260

3.631

1.390

T

'■

45.85

707.57

5.250

26.26

58.83

66,593

259,600

2.482

.977

1,^5

20.86

321.91

7.824

39.12

54.17

61,321

156,780

6.509

2.204

xh

•28. 15

434.42

8.150

40.75

34.77

39,350

96,680

2.253

.887

tAt

18.71

288.73

8.966

44.83

58.97

66,750

148,850

Fine.

6.670

2.282

». T

46.32

714.82

8.890

44.45

•23.05

26,092

68,700

Coarse.

2.873

1.181

V 3

23.30

359.57

8.108

40.54

43.22

48,925

120,660

2.035
3.275

.801
1.289

ITS

Fine.

"i7*4i'

""'•268.'67""

" '4*668'

* *26."29'

"25*97*

" *29.*395"

'i44,'856"

8.010

1.185

w :3

9.950

164.55

6.124

25.62

17.57

19,883

77.626

Fine.

4.831

1.902

( (

58.86

831.18

7.574

27.87

29.33

83,190

119, 100

Coarse.

2.960

1.165

« 1

28.37

437.81

9.190

45.95

51.807

58,636

127,600

2.314

.911

IBVT

7.975

124.07

7.200

36

14.56

19,890

55,260

1.319

.519

Light.
Fine.

1.560

.614

" *4.*666'

■■ "'7-2. 667*

"'7.' 266'

*'36*'"

**86.'677'

* '34," 720*

'■96,*446*

2.822

.914

lAs

4.740

1.866

34.866

637.97

5.666

28.33

24.910

28,194

99,620

Coarse.

1.987
2.881
1.992

.782
1.134

■It-

Medium.

::::::::::::::::

Dark.

'i2,'92"

■* 266.88 '

* '8.' 996"

44.95

52.096

'*68,'963"

'i3i,'i66"

Fine.

4.933

1.942

ih

37

570.99

7.016

85.08

24.827

27,634

78,309

Coarse.

6.165

2.427

VlT

36

565.664

8.950

44.75

15.15

17,150

88,330

Do.

2,287

.900

_JL_

6.670

102.93

6.408

32,04

20.40

23,090

72,070

Fine.

5.738

2.260

vii

26.03

886.27

8.516

42.58

12.16

13,765

82,832

Coarse.

2.541

1

_1_

8.210

126.700

7.280

86.40

20.34

23,025

63,288

Fine.

1.979

.779

ins

4.960

77.390

7.640

38.20

20.222

22,885

59,918

1.966

.774

5.460

87.088

4.840

21.70

22.601

25,581

117,870

2,500

.984

tA»

6.068

93.489

6,458

32.29

15.50

17,565

64,360

2.129

.838

tAi

4.708

72.665

6.516

82.58

16.618

18,809

72,682

2.152

.847

9.460

155.83

6.816

34.08

32.64

36.950

106,400

2.063

.820

5.025

77.647

6.100

80.50

18.96

20,970

68,760

2.106

.829

T^K

5.916

92.297

7.616

87.68

21.34

24,155

64,275

2.36S

.930

u

10.38

160.187

5.906

29.64

29.74

38,660

113,900

Digitized by VjO.OQ IC

1652

REPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

DetaiU of history and average retntU*
FOREinN-<k>nttnued.

Name and addren.

Reooid
No.

Ex-
hibit
No.

1
2

3

4

5

Breed.

Sex.

Age.

Uve
weight

Cor-
rected

fleece.

Cor-
rected

"^

fiber

in
crimp.

Jndkca,

RUBBIA— continued.
Unknown

Brown goat

skin.
Black Pereian

Goatskin

Pounds.

Lbg

oz.

Do

Do

Do

Gray Crimean
lamb.

Black Khar-
show Sak-
sak lamb.

Orenburg goat

do....

Do

I i
1

cottage industry, wo-
man'.s work.
Do

1

SPAIN.

Marqu^sde Perales, Mad-
Do

A

B
C
D
E
F
G
H

I

la
2a
3a
4a
5
6
12

aoa

21a
22a
22b
23b
24b
29a
29a
34a
35
43a
43a
131

517
528
560
434
360
561a
562
563
565
566
667
564
616

Merino

4

5
5
8
4
4
4

16

8

14

2.75

2.75

2.50

2.25

S

2.50

2.75

3

2.50

9

6

5.75

4.80

4.60

7

6
10
10

2.60

8
10

4

4.75

do

Do

... .do

Do

do

Do

.... do

Do

do .

Do

. .. do

Ortega Saenz Diente,
Cuenca.
Do

Merino, black.
Merino.white.

Black goat . . .

i

TURKEY.

Adana

Do

do .

'

Do

do

!

Do

do

Do

do

i

Do

Mohair'

1

Do

24381
243K9

;

Sivas

White fat-tall.
Black fat-tail.
Fat- tail

Ewe....
....do...

Syrs... '

Do

Syrs

Bordor

1 yr

Province of Angora

Mohair....

Do

do

Do

do.

Konieh

24360
24360
24359
24371
24378
24378
24383

24381
24352
24374
24381
24374
24373
24376
24392
24375
24395
24388

Fat-tail

lyr

Do

do. .

1 yr

BrUHsa

2
10
6
3.50

Province of Sivas

Fat-tail

do

do

Ram....
Ewe....
....do...

4yr8....

Smyrna

3 yrs ....

Do

3yT8

Dardanelles, Mustapha

Lambs' fleece.

Bey.
Province of Slvas

6.75
6.25
7.60
6

6.25
5
9

6.60
9
10
4

1.50
8.60
8

2
2.4

Province of Bordor

Fat-tail

Province of Konieh

do

do

do

Ewe....

Sivas

Lamb.

Konieh

Wether .
Lamb.

2i yni . . .

Do

Do

Fat-tail

do

do

Ewe ....
Ram....
....do...

4yn!

Do

Svrs

Do

7yrs

Do

... do

do

4 vrs

Province of Stankeny . . .

do

do

do

Wether .

Ewe....

.do...

3 yrs ....

Konieh

2 yrs

Sinope

24390
24393

26643
26644

Lamb...

Province of Kastamuni.

URUGUAY.

Felix Buxarro

1
2

Three-fourths
Vermont.

Vermont-Gil-
bert.

Ewe....
....do...

4 vrs

11

7

0
3

Do

2 vrs.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

WORLDS COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

of tests of individual samples ofwocls — Gontmued.

FOREIGN-Oontinued.

1658

Finenen of fiber.

Strength of fiber.

Total stretch
of fiber.

IVXS^

8
181091^=

-^P-

Centl-
milU-
meten.

Thou-

Frac-
tion of
inch.

Milli-
meters

Per

D* ""

Remarlu.

sandthfl

of

inch.

GramA.

Grains.

in 20-
milU-
meter

cent

of
length.

8'.

R.

length.

1.911

.762

tA»

5.941

92.68

5.700

28.50

26.02

29,458

108,852

D r e ssed

2.784

1.096

vh

12.98

200.540

3.824

19.12

26.69

30,210

158,010

2.109
8.i30

6.777

.830
1.8S0

2.668

^

ih

8.605

65.68

7.76a

38.75

12.55

14,216

86,680

1.678

.660

T^

4.600

70.98

6.740

33.70

26.13

29,582

85,790

Gray.

1.915

.753

tA«

4.600

70.988

7.840

39.20

20.06

22,710

57,948

White.

2.392

.942

T^

6.900

107.48

6.000

30

19.29

21,835

72,796

^

2.829

.917

tAw

4.025

71.374

6.082

30.41

13.642

15,440

60,775

1.882

.741

T^V

4.025

62.115

4.908

24.54

18.182

20,578

83,858

2.306

.907

Tt^T

6.963

108.76

6.132

30.66

21.01

28,780

77,561

1.589

.606

tAv

3.408

52.598

5.182

25.66

23.021

J26,066

99,233

2.067

.813

tAv

4.683

72.269

3.974

19,87

17.537

19,848

99,894

2.884

.918

tAw

4.724

72.902

5.424

27.12

13.88

15,858

67,968

8.061

1.201

j\w

11.183

324.58

5.780

28.90

19.13

21,660

75,445

2.187

.861

tAt

4.224

66.186

4.406

22.04

14.13

15,992

72,566

9.828
7.824
6.645
7.042

8.869
3.080
2.616
2.772

9ft«

"*""* '*

*'*■ 1

'7.'629'
5.969

" "i'964"
2.346

'42.26"

"65i"24"

' '7.' 624*

"36." i2"

"i9.'6i""

21,.'>20

"62," 766'

Coarse.

4.168

1.637

X

38.616

518.75

7.766

38.83

31.101

35,200

90,660

6.236

2.455 ,^

53.433

824.576

8.274

41.37

21.96

24,881

60,142

5.091

2.U04

<«1

50.18

774.39

7.740

38.70

30.906

35,060

90,595

8.770

1.484

•' 1

25.23

389.35

8.252

41.26

28.402

32,141

77.911

8.744

1.474

B W

31.70

489.30

8.900

44.50

36.183

40,952

92,028

2.424

.954

TirrT

23.01

855.09

8.150

40.75

58.88

70,916

174,020

8.264

1.285

T »

17.275

266.59

7.508

37.54

19.948

36.125

96,231

Fine.

4.831

1.901

1 X

25.64

895.685

8.274

41.37

17.577

19,940

48,089

CkMUBe.

5.741

2.260

1 I

28.68

442.59

7.368

86.79

13.92

15,758

42,830

3.747

1.475

B 7

24,758

382.073

7.866

39.33

28.281

32,009

81.386

5.390

2.122

* T

31.03

478.86

4.332

21.66

17.085

19; 840

89,296

Do.

. 2.678

1.054

* B

10.45

161.26

5.182

25.91

28.31

26.880

101,800

Fine.

8.336

1.313

▼¥I

19.23

306.76

6.740

33.70

27.646

31,290

92,860

, 1.58A

.624

\wn

4.491

69.406

4.166

21.83

28.602

32,375

155,410

Do.

2.454

.966

8.200

126.54

5.174

25.87

21.78

24,656

95,316

Do.

8.018

1.188

_1_

12.483

191.870

5.266

26.33

21.840

24,718

81.905

8.358

1.322

Tit

"b.'m

"i'iis'

T "%

*si.*668'

"488.54"

" '8.446"

"'ii'26"

"n.'Mi"

""i9,'853"

"47.'646'

4.097

1.612

V' B

31.55

486.890

8.274

41.37

30.073

34,087

82,276

4.333

1.706

T B

13.741

212.05

6.966

34.83

11.70

13,262

^,062

4.135

1.628

B t

46.82

722.54

4.466

22.33

43.81

49,565

22,200

5.801

2.087

% 1

38.006

586.54

9.732

48.66

21.636

24,488

50,325

2.543

1.001

V V

6.833

105.44

6.458

32.29

16.90

19. 135

59,258

Do.

2.670

1.051

V B

21,18

326.85

7.290

36.45

47.536

53,802

147,600

5.121

2.016

« «

41.68

395.68

5.282

36.41

25.429

28.781

108,960

4.021

1.588

•ii

40.13

620.30

5.162

25.81

39.711

44.946

174,140

Coarse.

1.908

.761

tAt

4.675

72.146

7.700

38.60

20.54

23,250

60,400

1.946

.766

tAb

5.141

79.337

7.766

38.83

21.72

24,580

63,310

Digitized by VjOOQ IC

1654

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARI».

Details of history and average rtrndU

FORKION-Oontinued.

Name and addrem.

Record
No.

26645
■26640
28647

26648

26649
26650

26661

26652
'2665a

266&1

UBUQU A Y— conti niied .
Felix Buxarro

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do i..

Do

Do

P S. Harrison

Felix Buflcareo

Do

26655

P S. Harrison

26656

Federico CastellanoH ....

Domingo Ordonana

Iirnacio Urtulev

'26657 ,
'21)651) 1

Do

'2666U 1

Do

26662

Do

26663

Do

■26661 ,

Do

'26665

Federico CastellanoH —

26666 ;

Ex- :
hibit
No. 1

Breed.

Do.

Conrad Hughes

Benjamin Martinez .

Nanazalah y Maisterra.

Angel R. Mendez

Do

Benjamin Martinez

P. Bergheder y Peyre. .
Do

Do

Agusto Johnson .

Do

Do

Do

Do

Enrique Ohney..

Do

26670

26669
'26671
'26672 '
•26673

26675

26676 I

26677 1
26679 i

Do.

Temun Thmegin

Josi^ Ma. Castellanoo . . .

George Coweld

' D. Etchejoinberry

Aguflto Johnscjn

Do

'26681 I

26684 I
2668;) I
2t)686 '

26687
26683
26688
26689

Do.
Do.,

Kuperto Mendez.

Do

Do

Diego Young

26692
'2(k)93
26694
26695
'26696

•26697

26698

3 ! Gilbert

4 Hhrop«hire ...

5 I Gilbert - Ver-

mont Meri-
no.

6 One-half Ver-
j mont Merl-
' no.

7 do

8 One-half Oil-
I bert, one-
' half Stein-

ger Merino.

One-half Gil-
bert Merino.

Shropshire ...

Vermont Me-
rino.

RambouiUet..

One-fourth
Vermont.

Merino

Rambouillet-
Meriuo.

....do

....do

Kambouillet. .

RambouiUet-
Merino.

....do

....do

23 I Saxon Merino.

24 Rambouillet-
I Merino.

•25 do

25 Saxony

27 Lincoln cross .

28 Rambouillet-

Merino.
'29 do

30 do

31 Lincoln

32 , Rambouillet-

Merino.

34 Devon

35 Rambouil let-

Merino.

36 do

38 do I

38»i do

40 do

41 do

43 do

44 Lincoln '

45 Rtimbouillet-

Merino. I

46 do '

42 do

47 do

48 Lincoln cross .

49 , RambouiUet..

...do

...do

...do

...do

55 I Rambouillet-
Merino.

66 do

67 do

67 do

68 I do

Sex.

Age.

Live
ureifrht.

I I Ptpuntis.

Ewe 4 yrs

...do... 2yT8

Ram 4 yrs.

Cor-
Oor- rected
reded length
weight of

of flbrt

fleece. in
i crimp.

1

do ... I 3 yrs

Ewe..
...do.

...do.

Ram..
...do.

Ewe..
...do.

6yn.
4yni.

4yiB.

8 yrs.
3yni.

4yra.
6 yrs.

4yr8.
4 yrs.

JJw. OS. lufka.

8 13 3

9 11 4
15 0 2.5

2.5

1.90

2yrB.... 4 3

18mo8..i 10 10

|3yrs....i 8 14

4yr8....' 6 12

...do.
...do.
...do.
...do.

...do.
...do.
...do.
...do.

Ram..
...do.
...do.
...do.

...do.
Ewe . .

51
52
53
54

...do.
...do.
...do.
Ram..
Ewe . .
Ram..
...do.
...do.

Ewe..
...do.
Ram..
Ewe..
Ram..
...do.
...do.
...do.
Ewe . .
...do.

Ram..
Ewe ..
Ram..
...do.

Syrs..
4 yrs . .

3 yrs..
4yni..

4 yrs..
4 yrs..
4 yrs . -

2 yrs . .

4 yrs..
24 yrs.
Syra..
3yrs..

3 yrs..

3 yrs . .

2iyr8.
8 yrs . .

4 yrs . .
3 yrs..
8 yrs..
3 yrs..
6 yrs..
3 yrs..

9 2

11 7

10 8

11 7

4 4

4 4

8 1

6 4

7 4

4 8

9 12
10 10

7 0

5 10

6 11
5 11

. 4 yrs .
. lyr..
.; 3yr«.
.| 3 yrs.
., 4 yrs.
. 4 yrs.
.4 yrs.
., Syrs.
.[ Syrs.
.1 3 yra.

I 3 vrs...

j 2iyr8,.-

I 6 yi^...

I 3 yrs...

. 4

.1 5

3 7

4 13
4 13

11 4

2.50 1

I

3.5 I

2.50J

2.4 i

2.5

2,5
SL5
3.5
2.25

3.50
3

2.5
2.50

2.50
3.50
3
2.5

3
8

5.50
2.60

&»)
3.50

2.25

2

1.75

2.25

2.25

2.50

9.50

2.25 '

3.50 I

1.50 >

2.75

3

2

8.26

8.80

2.50

2.60

2.60

2.50
S.25

Digitized by VjOOQIC

WORLD 8 COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1655

ofteMs of individual samples of wools — Continued.

FOREIGN— Continued.

Fincnew of fiber.

Strength of fiber.

Total Stretch
of fiber.

D'«X8

18109^ —

R

Milli-

Centi-

milli-

meters.

Thou-

Randth.s

of

inch.

Frac-
tion of
inch.

(tramK.

Grains.

meters
in 20-
milli-
meter
length.

Per

cent

of

length.

S'.

R.

E-f.

Remarks.

1.824

.718

T^«>

4.033

62.238

5.108

25.54

19.860

21,961

85,961

4.242

1.670

ill

26.96

416.90

7.740

38.70

28.963

27,121

70,081

2.149

.846

rAi

7.266

112. 13

6.840

34.20

25.17

28,490

83,306

2.088

.822 1 ,Ab

5.916

92,297

6.366

31.83

21.711

24,673

77,201

1.987

.781 1 1^5

5.200

80.248

7.190

36.95

21.072

23,850

66,344

2,060

.811

1^1

5.175

79.862

•

7.758

88.79

19.656

22,083

66,931

2.070

.803

tAx

4.CT5

72.146

6.360

81.75

17.496

19,767

62,228

8.010

1.185

>2«

14.27

220.219

6.366

31.83

25.142

28,522

89,606

1.928

.757 1 j^

3.941

61.818

5

'25

17.061

19,299

77,197

2.061

.819 ' ,A,

6.466

98.785

5.140

25.70

23,889

27,0«8

105.200

2.015

.793 ! ,A»

5.860

89.279

6.390

26.96

28,a63

26,092

96,817

2.216

.872 ' xAit

5.400

83.346

7.008

:».04

17.61

19.931

56.882

2.007

.790 1 tA»

4.516

69.692

6.274

31.37

17.938

20,302

64,720

2.2&9

.889 ! tA,

6.975

10.864

6.982

34.91

21.818

24,751

71,616

1.842

.725 ,At

5.833

89.196

8.016

40.08

27.60

81,132

77,670

1.786

.703 TiVr

4.616

71.235

7.(^40

38.20

23.16

26,205

68,602

1.852

.729 xJr,

.5.860

80.279

6.J00

31

27.28

80,880

99,(&»

2.015

.793 , tAb

4.888

74.581

7

35

19.045

21.555

61,587

1.946

.766

lAs

4. .526

71. 374

5.668

28.29

19.54

22,116

81,862

i.te6

.758

xiiw

5.208

80.371

7.024

35.12

22.463

28,424

72,393

2.046

.805

tAi

4.616

71.235

7.182

36.66

17.782

19,988

56,062

1.716

.©75

tAb

4.783

78.812

7.840

36.70

25.988

29,414

80,148

2. 167

.863

ttVt

5.491

84.839

5.874

29.37

18.709

21,175

72,096

2.840

1. 1181

^.

14.66

226.06

8.350

41.76

29.06

82,890

78,780

1.935

.760

4.968

T7.513

6.690

83.45

21.18

28,978

71,688

2.167

.853

ifc

6.850

106.865

6.816

34.08

23.389

26,414

76,611

1.961

.772

5.068

78.066

6.100

80.50

21.044

23,819

78,094

3.663

1.442

i

21.66

834.26

8.158

40.79

25.828

29,233

71,667

2.104

.828

6.808

106.06

4.632

22.66

24.606

27,849

122,620

3.747

1.475

th

19.58

312.16

15.766

78.88

22.318

25,254

82,036

1.491

.587

X

4.383

£7.es»

4.666

22.83

80.969

86,051

158,630

1.982

.780

tAt

4.426

68.288

5.740

28.70

18.022

20,398

71,075

2.060

.81!

±

5.638

86.990

6.^

27.54

21.810

24,125

98,7-20

1.667

.656

4.158

64,167

6.266

26.38

28.94

27,096

102,430

2.322

.914

r^s

.6.383

88.072

5.682

28.41

16.346

18,500

65, 121

2.013

.m

T^>

5

77. 161

5.708

28.51

19. 161

21,693

76,010

2.287

.900

Tl*tO

4.700

.72. .682

6.290

31.46

14.374

16,241

51,741

3.465

1.364

18.17

280.40

6.116

30.58

24.214

27,405

89.620

1.629

.641

tA»

4.050

62,501

5.606

28.04

24.42.

27,637

96,668

' 2.027

. .798

1^9

4,838

74.684

6.682

33.41

18,80

21,281

63,691

1 1.872

.7370

IsKt

4.a68

67.254

7.400

87

19.897

22,520

60,860

2.073

.816

tAk

7.141

110.202

6,432

32.16

26.68

30,091

93,670

2.236

.880

nsi

7.258

112.007

6.200

31

23.22

26,288

84,802

2,W3

.804

Tl^S

6. -200

80.248

5.690

27.95

19.933

22,561

80,719

1.989

.783

ir^s

5.408

8!). 468

6.408

32.04

21.87

24,755

T7,26r

2.139

.W2

iS'

5. 611

87.068

4.366

21.83

19.72

'22.325

102,260

1.954

.769

]^u

5.226

80.634

.6..W2

27.91

21.89

24.785

88,790

1.939

.763

iTw

7.766

119. JM9

5.566

27.83

33.019

37,406

134,460

1.860

1

.732

i:Ai'

5.725

88.349

5.7'24

28.62

26.47

29,977

104,700

, 1.578

,621

lAf

5.458

84.229

5.324

26.62

35.07

39,693

149.410

1 1.679

.661

i/is

6.050

98.366

5.9-10

29.70

34.417

38,86:^

130,860

'

1.893

. 745

5.0-26

77. M

7.458

37.29

22. 43

2.5,390

68.100

1 2.116

.8:«

11^9

7.833

120.981

6.168

30.79

27.99

31,680

102.650

Digitized by VjOOQIC

1656

BEPOBT OF OOMMITTBE ON AWABD6.

DetaUs of hittory and average remdU
FOREION-Continued.

Name and addrem.

RecoTd
No.

26700
26701
26702
26704
26710
26716
26n7

2S718
26718
26720
26n9
26721
26722
28723
26724
26726
26726

Ex-
hibit
No.

60
61
63

m

75
76

77
77
79
78
80
81
82
83
84
86

85
86
87
91
91
92
93
94
95
IW
96
99
100
101

104
106
109
116
120
122

123

Breed.

Sex.

Agt*.
3 yw....

Live
weight

Cor-
rected

fleece.

Coi^ '
rected

liber

in
crimp.

UBvarxY— continued.

Juan P. Etchegoyen

Pedro Canlro . ...

Gilbert

do

do

Ewe....
Ram....
....do ...

Pound*.

3

8

ox.
12
15

Inches.
8

3 yrs

8

Domingo Ordonana

Genta y Hambiague

H\iffo Tledeman .........

3yr8

2.75

:.::.do::.:::::

do...

4 yrs

do

....do...

5 yrs

3
6
2.25

7

3

2.50

3.50

2.50

9

2.50

2.6

&50

3

5.60
2.50
2.75
2.50
3.25
6

5.50
2
3

3.50
2.50
5
11
8

2.5

1.71

2.70

3

2.60

2.50

2

2.60

4.25

2.75

2,5

2.5

2.5

2.5

3.7

2

2.7

3.5

3

3.5

2.5

4.11
S.60

4

4

4

4

4.50

2.50

4

3.60

Manuel Sterling

Lincoln

Rambouillet-

Merino.
Lincoln

Ewe....
....do...

....do...

2 yr§

6

14

6

7
10

4

Do T

4 yrs

Do

lyr

Do

Rambouillet..

do

do

do

Ram....
Ewe....
Ram....
....do...

4 yrs....

Do

3 yrs

13
7

16
10
IS
14
8
13

7
8

4
8

11
8

12
3
4
5

8
10

2 yrs. ...

Do

3 yis

Do

Lincoln

....do...

3 yrs. ..

Do

Rambouillet..
do

Ewe....
....do...

3 yrs

Do

3 yrH....

Do

Lincoln

....do...

4 yrs. . . .

Do

Rambouillet-

Merino.
Lincoln

Ram....
....do...

Do

Do

26727
26728
26731
26732
26733
26734
26736
26736
26737
26789
26740
26741
26742

26745
26746
26750

Rambouillet. .
Merino

....do...
....do...

i yr

Juan P. Echegoyen

Miguel Bidart

4 yrs

do

..;.do...

4 yrs

Do

do

Lincoln

do

Ewe....
Ram....
....do...

4 yrs

Do

4 yrs

.

Santos L. Urioflte

3 yrs

Hugo Tiedeman

Rambouillet..
do

....do...
....do...

3 yn

5

8

Do

4yrs-...

Do

do

do

Lincoln

do

RamboulUet-

Merina
do

Ewe....
Ram....
Ewe....
Ram....
....do...

....do...

3 yrs....

Do

4 yis

Do

2 yni....

7

14
16

3
12

7

10
9

11
0

Do

4 y«

Do

3 yrs....

Do

14 mos. .

11

5

Do

do

....do...

14moe..

Do

do

do

Ewe....
....do...

8yM....'

7
7

Do

3 yrs....

Do '

do

Rambouillet-

Merlno.
.... do

Ram....
....do...

....do...

3 yrs....

Do 1

4 yrs

Jamefl Molins, jr

Do

26764

6 vrs. ...

7

6

126

T JfiAoln r.mtM .

Ewe....
Ram

Ewe....
Ram....
....do...

....ao...

....do...

3 yrs

Do ----

237 1 Rambooiilet-
Merino.

88 ' do

42 , do

39 ' Nf>in><»tt{ And

4 yrs

Miffuel Birdart

26729
26683
26680

26705
26706
26708
26685
26658
26661
26674
26691
26747

5446
21686
21687
21688
21689
21690
21691
21692
21693
21694

4 yrs

5
5
12

6
6
5
4

6
11
6
8
6

7
10
9

8
7
8
8
7
7
9

11
13
18

15
4

8
2
3
10
15
4
11
6
5
8

Julian Eiro

4 yrs

A. Fltz Herbert . .

3 yrs....

Tenta y Hamliague

Joagnue Hanhuen

T. P. Harrison

64
65
67
44
47
20
S3
60
106

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9c

Vermont..
Rambouillet..
do

4 yrs

5 yrs

do

do

do

Ewe....
Ram....
....do...

4 yrs

Juan C Canenu

6 yrs

Domingo Ordonana

Ignacio Urtuley

3 yrs

Saxony

Rambouillet. .
do

Ewe ....
Ram....
....do...

4 yrs

P. Bergheder y Peyre. . . .
Julian Cirro

3 yPB

4 yrs

Maximo y Ricardo AIr. . .

VICTORIA.

Wm. Lewis, Stoneleigh..
Do

do

....do...

14 moe. .

Pure Merino..
do

Ewe....
....do...

2^ yrs ..

2 A yrs..

Do

do

.-..do...

2 A yrs . .

Do

do

....do ...

2^^ yrs . .

Do

do

do...

2 A yrs . .

Do

do.. .

do...

2 yrs

Do

do

....do...

2 yrs

Do..

. do.

do..

2A vrs . .

Do

.... do

....do...

2 yrs

Do

10

do

....do...

31 moe . .

Digitized by VjOOQIC

world's COLUMBIAN EXFOSmOH, 1803.

1657

of tests of indwidtud samples of wools — Continaed.

FOREIGN— Oontinued.

Finenen of fiber.

Strength of fiber.

Total stretch
ot fiber.

iy«xs

18109^=
R.

-4-

Centl-

mlUl-

meters.

Thon-

mndthB

of

inch.

Frac-
tion of
inch.

Grams.

Graine.

Milll-
metere
in20-
mllll-
meter
length.

Per

cent

of

length.

D* '

S'.

1.900

.748

4.091

72.493

6.490

82.46

20.79

23,530

74,205

1.865

.780

z^n

4.817

66.621

6.560

32.76

20.07

22,716

69,370

1.900

.784

T^^

8.791

68.604

7.416

87.08

16.80

19,016

61,285

2.297

.904

rAif

7.438

114.70

6.240

81.20

23.598

26,703

85,586

2.667

1.054

V '■

8.088

124.78

6.008

25.04

18.606

20,578

82,184

3.188

1.258

T T

21.75

886.65

7.940

89.70

84.848

> 39.781

100,200

2.144

.844

tAi

6.088

98.874

7.800

36.60

21.173

23.964

66,655

$.661

1.898

X

18.30

282.41

8.882

44.16

23.22

: 26,281

59,472

2.066

.818

4.868

74.870

6.400

82

18.21

20,610

64,408

2.162

.851

Yrn

5.525

85.282

6.600

83

18.911

21,404

64,860

2.2b8

.904

.-JL_

6.606

85

6.140

80.70

17.474

19,777

64,424

2.467

.971

TvWv

5.816

80.754

6.916

29.58

15.29

17,306

58,608

3.066

1.208

lil

20.641

818.52

7.632

38.16

35.362

40,028

104,884

2.886

.989

tA<

5.900

92.050

6.232

31.16

16.681

18,767

60,229

2.124

.836

-JLy

7.060

108.79

6.582

87.91

25.003

28,299

74.648

3.198

1.259

^

23.66

36.389

7.616

87.68

86.89

41,762

111,100

2.058

.806

6.491

100.271

8.366

41.83

24.627

27,888

66,671

2.759

1.086

^

21.16

326.89

8.332

41.66

44.465

60,315

120,770

2.585

.998

7.488

115.48

6.400

32

18.631

^1,086

65,896

1.992

.784

jJL-

4.541

70.077

6

30

18.81

20,723

69,079

2.048

.804

wsJ

5.683

87.702

3.900

19.60

21.785

24,656

126,440

2.276

.896

5.258

81.143

6.400

32

16.24

18,381

57.440

8.196

1.268

jX^

18.95

298.44

6.866

34.88

29.683

88,696

96,088

8.125

1.280

VTV

16.16

249.38

7.240

86.20

26.476

29,982

82,780

2.030

.799

rnT

4.625

71.374

6.266

" 33

17.957

• 20.324

64,871

1.917

.764

^

6.568

85.772

6.716

88.58

24.198

27,388

81.862

2.129

.838

6.008

77.285

6.282

31.41

17.678

20,008

63,700

1.931

.760

tAi

4.508

69.569

6.332

31.66

19.343

21,893

69,162

4.019

1.582

28.41

438.43

8.708

43,64

28.135

31,991

73,137

3.782

1.489

V7T

30.29

467.53

8.250

41.25

83,88

38,345

92,965

2.129

.838

rAn

5.841

90.140

7,224

36.12

20.C18

23,386

64,687

1.911

.762

±

5.600

86.421

7.682

38.41

24.53

27,765

72,290

1.961

.772

5.316

82.085

6.582

32.91

22.11

25,080

76,060

2.043

.844

tAs

5.238

80.757

6.316

81.58

20.06

22.700

71,895

2.048

.806

^

5.260

81.019

6.760

83.75

20.02

22,660

«7,ieo

2.467

.971

6.550

85.649

7.066

86.88

14.69

16,510

46,740

2.215

.872

nW

4.900

76.185

7.574

37.87

15.97

18,086

47,755

2.388

.940

11^

4.625

71.374

6.690

32.95

12.97

14,686

44,578

2.627

1.034

±

12.08

185.67

6.460

32.26

27.89

31,570

97,886

2.251

.872

4.583

70.726

8.400

42

14.471

16,378

38,996

1.587

.605

4.600

70.988

7.190

86.95

31.156

36,261

98,085

1.787

.684

4.833

74.584

6.858

34.29

26.614

28,990

86.515

1.896

.746

tAv

5.875

90.664

7.940

89.70

26.17

29,626

74,629

1.783

,702

T^

4.733

73.041

7.690

37.96

23.82

26,960

71,040

1.910

.752

5.141

79.887

7.474

S7.37

22.547

26,519

68,289

1.081

.709

.JL-

4.060

62.501

6.352

31.76

66.46

62,762

197,610

1.639

.606

iJtv

4.191

64.776

6

80.00

28.311

32,043

106,810

1.797

.706

_JL_

4.625

71.874

7.166

35.83

22.91

25,930

72,390

1.966

.774

tAt

4.966

77.637

8.024

40.12

20.666

23,266

58.006

2.390

.941

tAv

4.525

69.831

6.474

27.37

12.67

14,342

62,413

Remarks.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

1668

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

DetaiU of hittory and {xnerage remtMi
FOREION-<}onUnued.

Name and nddrem.

I ^"- No.

vicTOEi A— continued .

Wm. Lewla, Stoneleigh . .
Do

21696
21G96

Do

21697

Do

21698

Do

21699

Do

2170U

Do

21701

Do

21702

Do

21703

Do

21704

Do

21705

Do

21706

Do

21707

Do

21708

Do

21709

Do

21710

Do

21711

Do

21712

Do

21713

Do

21714

Do

21716

Do

21716

Do

21717

Do

21718

Do

Do

21719
21720

Do

5469

Do

5471

Ballev & Wymne, Teri-
nallium.
Do

5456
21753

Do

217r>4

Do

Do

'"*5466

Jos. Mack, Berry Bank..
Do

5452
21741

Do

21742

Do

Do

21743
21744

Do

21745

Do

21746

Do

21747

Do

21748

Do

21749

Do

21750

Do

21751

Do

21751

Do

21752

J. L. Curry & Co., lArra. .
Do.......

5449
21731

1)0

21782

Do

Do ...

^ Do...

21765

r>454
5155

I

.j 5155

Geo. RuMsell Sons. Baru- i 5458
nak Plains.

Breed.

Bex. I Age.

'w^^'£t.-^f»»«

I Car
Cor- j ncted
reeted I leneth .

of ; llber
fleece. in I
criaipL

11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
•29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36

I
l*ure Merino. .j Ewe . . .

do I do..

do ! do..

do ' do..

do I do..

.do do.

2Ay«.
2A3

.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do .
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
-do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.

5

10

2 do

3 do

3 , do

..I do

1 I Three-fourths

Vermont
, Merino.

2 do

3 Vermont and

Austral! a n
I Merino.

4 I Three-fourths

Vermont
) Merino.
Vermont and
Austral! a n
Merino.

do

do

do

Three-fourths
Vermont
Merino.
Australian-
Vermon t
MeHno.

do

One-half Ver-
mont M e -
rino.

Merino

Australian-
Verm o n t
Merino.

Merino

do

do

do

Pure Merino. .

do

1 , Merino

.do..

do..
...do..
...do..
...do..
...do..
...do..
...do..
, . . .do . .
...do..
...do..
...do..
...do..
...do..
...do..
...do..
...do..
...do..
...do..
...do..
Liamb..
Ewe . . .
...do..

...do...
Wether
Ewe....
Ram....
...do...

2^yre.

,! 3yn!.
3yrs.
S vre.
Syrs.
8 yn* .
Syra.

3>TR.

Syrs.

3yrH.

3yr8...

8 yrs . . .

ISmos.

18 max.

ISmos.

ISmos.

18 moH .

18 mos .

ISmos.

18 mo8 .

18 raos .

18mo6.

18mo6.

ISmos.

..do...
..do...

...do...
Ewe . . . ,

...do...
...do...
...do..
...do...

Ewe . . . ,
...do...

Ewe ...
...do..

.do.,
.do.,
.do.,
.do.,
.do.,
.do.,
.do..

19mos.
2 yrs...

lyr...
3 ytt..

2 yrs..,

3 yrs..
2* yrs.,

2tyr8.
2tyr8.

2* yrs..
17mos.

Pounds.

Um.az.
9 12

8
7
8
5
6
9
7
7
5
7
7
5

8
13

4
12
9 .
•2 !
6
1
8
5
5
8

1 .
15 j

9 I

15 '
6
4 I

16 '

2 ■
5

51

13

8 ,

,

8 4

8 12

10 12

14 10

17 4
16 3

20 0 I
8 6 I

S.70

3
3

2.5
4
- 3-4
3

2.56
3.9
3,»
3.40
4. 3D
3

3.4
3.8
3.4
3.7
3.8
3.8
3.4
3.8
3.4
3.4
ZJs
2

4.5
3.5

4- .TO

4.5

3.50

3.5

3.5

3.5
3

3

3.50

I

17 mos 6 8 • 3

17mos 7 0 I 3.50

17mo8..' 8 8 3

2* yrs... I I 14 4 1 3,5

6 yrs.

17 mos.

17mofl 8

4 12

8

17 mos.
17 mos.

3 yrs. .
3 yrs..
3 yra..

3 yrs..
21 yrs.
24 yrs

4 yrs..

8 0

8 0

1.10

3.50
3.21

3.75
2.5

3.50

3.6

4

4

5.1

3.5

4.50

Digitized by VjOOQIC

world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1659

of test of individual mmples of wqoU — Continued.

FOREIGN— Continned.

Fineness of fiber.

Strength of fiber.

Total stretch
of fiber.

D'txS

S'.

18109^,=
R.

Centi-

milli-

meters.

Thou-
sandths
of
inch.

Frac-
tion of
inch.

Gramn.

Grains.

Milli-
meters
in 20-
milll-
meter

Per

cent

of

length.

1
E=^-. Remarks.

length.

2.045

.806

T^T

4.283

66.096

■ ■ -
5.024

25.12

16.768

18,546

78,830 !

1.M6

.648

t£«

6.716

88.211

7.332

36.66

33.756

38,205

104,216

1.659

.658

^l

5.250

81.019

6.850

34.25

30.620

84.543

100.855

1.9S0

.760

I^S

6.491

100.271

6.458

32.29

27.879

31,556

97.7-29

1.801

.709

Jg

6

92.594

6.432

31.66

29.596

88,498

105,804

2.058

.808

6.541

100.94

7. 424

37. 12

24.83

28,105

75,710

2.208

.869

6.083

93.87

6.682

33.41

19.96

22,595

67,630

1.886

.742

i^I

4.325

66.744

6.974

29.87

19.480

21,991

73,624

1.7031

.708

4.266

65.884

5.516

27.58

23.682

26,684

96,569

1.878

.739

\tl

4.216

80.495

6.816

29.06

18. 791

21,273

73,156

2.082

.800

4.841

66.991

6.308

26 64

16.821

19,038

93,009

1.608

.631

T^4

6.158

95.092

6.682

38.41

88.34

43,395

129,860

1.9865

.782

T^fi

4.095

68. '289

6.666

28.33

16.603

18,791

66,830

1.740

.685

tAv

4.125

68.658

5.290

26.46

21.804

24,678

93,302

1.773

.698

tA«

3.106

47.932

8.966

19.83

15.808

17,892

90, -230

1.865

.734

T^T

4.700

72; 582

6.350

.8175

21.62

24,470

77,075

2.0475

.806

T»0

7.400

114.199

7.682

.3841

28.242

31,966

83,221

1.5675

.617

Tns

6.491

84.839

6.216

.3108

85.756

40.469

130,211

1.847

.727

T^.

4.388

67.264

5.724

.2862

20.439

28,183

82,713

1.5445

.608

3.491

68.974

6.390

.2696

23.415

26,501

98,836

1.692

.666

T^^

6.441

85.967

7.658

.3829

30.408

34,416

88,885

1.601

.630

tAv

4.033

62.238

5.082

.2616

25.761

28,493

113,347

1.9585

.771

T^97

4

61.729

6.458

.3229

16.68

18,884

58,470

1.5775

.621

ili

3.616

64.260

5.708

.2854

22.606

25,586

89,629

1.839

.724

8.733

67.608

6.040

.3020

17.660

19,988

66,188

1.773

.696

5.400

83.334

6.800

.3400

28.840

31.108

91,493

1.652

.662

T^T

5.400

88.334

6.616

.26.>8

31.658

35,831

125,360

1.812

.713

±

4.666

72.007

6.066

.8083

22.73

25,730

84,850

1.867

.736

3.758

67.904

6.900

.8450

16.857

19,079

55,302

2.1565

.849

tAt

4.391

67.868

7.686

.3843

15.107

17,099

44,494

1.8365

.723

tAs

4.775

78:689

6.582

.3266

22.652

25,688

78,499

1.8925

.746

tAs

5; 488

84.615

7.250

.3626

22.869

25.872

70,260

2.263

.890

iA«

7.450

114.97

6.090

.3045

23.291

26,361

86,572

2.325

.915

tAo

6.391

98.726

5.566

.2783

18.916

21,410

76,981

1.9665

.782

t«Vb

4.850

74.847

6.124

.8060

19.774

32,267

73,464

2.263

.891

lA.

4.208

64.939

6.974

.3487

13. 147

14,880

42.672

2.4715

.973

tAt

6.911

92.683

7.982

.3991

16.264.

18,408

46,124

1.824

.718

tAt

4.833

74.684

7.616

.3806

23.242

26,305

67,799

1.689

.665

tAs

4.541

70.078

6.140

.3070

25.468

28,819

93,874

2.162

.851

tA«

4.700

72.532

6.974

.2987

16.088

18,208

60,950

1.928

.759

iAt

4.325

66.744

6.658

.8279

18.616

21,070

64,257

2.370

.983

lAO

8.

123.458

6.150

.3075

22.788

25,792

83,877

2.0605

.819

iAt

4.825

74.461

6.658

.2829

17.835

20,181

89,830

161 days.

1.664

.655

5fe

7.083

109.30

7.932

.3966

22.91

26,938

76,020

1.796

.707

5.491

84. 8:^

5.482

..2741

27.23

30,820

112.400

1.814

.714

tAii

4.208

65.03

4.658

.2329

20.46

23,158

99,432

2.129

.838

iA>

6.266

81.26

5.66

.3283

18.58

21,035

64,080

1.963

.761

lAa

4.675

72. 146

7.216

.3608

20.018

22,657

62.434

1.7985

.708

iSJ

5.26<)

81.266

4.582

.2291

20.062

29,497

128, 740

1.771

.697

lA*

4.950

77.390

6.782

.3391

22. 113

25,028

58,626

2.312

.910

j?A

5.333

82.:«o

8.424

.4212

26.161

29,609

70.297

1.560

.614

iAr

b.O^

78.056

7.450

.3725

'33.254

37,637

101.040

1.809

.712

tA3

5.391

83.295

6.374

.3187

26.357

29,832

98,605

1.6995

.669

tAs

4.275

65.973

7.8416

.89208

28.681

26.803

68,361

Digitized by VjOOQIC

1660

BEPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

DeUnh of history and average remtUs
FOREIGN-Continued.

Name and addrem.

vicTOBi A— con tinned.

J. L. Curry & Co., Larra. .

Do

Do

Do

Do

Geo. Russell

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

T. Riueell. Wurrook,
Rokewooa.

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

T.Russell & Son. Wur-
rook, Rokewood.

Do

Russell Bros., Carrigham

Do

Do -

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

W. Cumming & Son,
Mount Fvans.

Do

Do

Do

Mrs. F. Ritchie, Blythe-
vale.

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Do

Jno. Saunderson <b Co.,

Brie Brie.
N. G. Elder, The Mead-
ows.
Robt. Slmson, Langikal-
kal.

Do

Wm. Davidson

Do

Do

Sir Wm. Clark

Record
No.

Ex-
hibit
No.

21768
217W
21768

5468f
21766
21767
21760
21770
21771
217?2
21773
21766

21758
21769
21760
21762

5467
5457

21761
21721
21782
21783
21724
21726
21726
21727
21729
21730

4447

4447

21728

21774

21775
21776
5459

5451
21734
21735
21736
21737
21738
21739

5465

&160

5461
5461
5463

7a

2

3

4

5

6

7

8
10
11
12

Breed.

A«e.

Merino

....do

....do

....do

....do

....do

Pure Merino.

....do

Merino

....do

....do

....do

....do

.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.

.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.

Pure Merino.

Merino ,

Pure Merino.
Merino

.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.

....do.
Linsey.

Pure Merino.

....do

....do

Second cross
Merino-Lei-
cestershire.

Ewe..
....do.

Ram..

Ewe..
....do.
....do.
....do.
....do.
....do.
....do.
....do.
....do.
....do.

...do.
...do.
Ram..
Ewe..
...do.
...do.
...do.

I

Ram..
Ewe..
...do.
...do.
...do.
...do.
Ram..
..Ido.
...do.
...do.
...do.
Ewe..
...do.
Ram..
Ewe..

...do.
...do.
Ram..
Ewe..

Lamb..
Ram...
...do..
...do..
...do.
...do..
...do.,
Ewe . . .

2yT8.

2 yn.
4 yns.

3 yn.

Ram..
...do.

Ram.

4 yrs..

3 yrs..
2 yrs..
2 yrs..
2 yn..

4 yrs..
4 yrs..
2yrB..

Syrs..
2yrB..
Aged.
lyr...
Aged.
2 yrs..
Syrs..

Aged.
2 yrs.,
8 yrs . .
8 yrs . .
2yi8..
2yrB..

2>T8..

2yr8..
2 yrs . .
2 yrs..
2yr8..

2 yrs.
2yrB.
4 yrs.

4yre.
8 yrs .
Sjnrs.
4 yrs.

2 yrs.
2 yrs.
2 yrs.
2 yrs.,
2 yrs.
2 yrs.,
2 yrs.,
2 yrs..

Live
weight

Poaudt.

COT-

rected
weiffht

fleece.

Lbs. oz.
10 6
10 18

12 8

13 12

12 12

7 JS
6 0

10 10

8 9

8 4

8 4

16 15

10 2

3 15

4 9
9 8

10 4

15 12
13 13

13 4

16 14

14 0

15 11

16 14

2 14
5 15

13 2
3 6

fiber

in
dimp.

Inekea.

4

4

4.50

8

8.60

4

4

4.50

4

3.50

4

4

4.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1661

oj teMs of indioidtjuil samples of ivools — Continued.

FOREIGN— ConUnued.

Fineness of fiber.

strength of fiber.

Total stretch
of fiber.

D'=«x8

18109^2-

e4-

Ccntf-
mUli-

Thou-

Frac-
tion of

MUh-
meters

Per

Dt -

Remarks.

sandths

of

inch.

Orams.

Grains.

in20-
milli-

cent
of

S',

R.

meten.

inch.

meter

length.

length.

.3445

12.613

2.245

.884

8.975

62.843

6.890

14,276

41,439

1.969

.771

nVv

8.916

61.438

5.658

.2829

16.326

18,478

65,318

2.007

.790

Tnv

1.702

.670

T^

■'4.' 808"

"*'74."i98"

'*6*682'

'.3341'

"26*65"

""so'oeo*

"*89,'9e2'

1.679

.661

jrn

4.691

72.498

6.9S2

.3466

26.624

30,133

86,941

1.7966

.708

TTk9

4.491

60.406

6.432

.8216

22.214

25,143

78,180

2.2075

.869

4.208

64.989

6.366

.3183

13.81

15,637

49,128

1.895

.746

4.000

61.729

8.160

.4075

17.822

20,171

49,500

2.065

.813

1^^

4.350

67.130

6.958

.3479

16.321

18,473

53,099

2.1565

.849

TlVr

3.991

62.680

5.890

.2945

10.658

12,063

40,963

1.890

.744

TTtS

4.925

77.003

6.408

.3204

22.06

24,960

77,920

1.819

.716

yJL^

8.783

58.380

7.316

.3668

18.293

20.704

71,420

1.969

.775

T^

8.633

188.225

7.066

.8538

85.62

40,324

114,100

1.9025

.749

±

4.641

71.621

7.540

.3770

20.515

28,219

61,500

2.068

.810

4.166

64.289

5.458

.2729

15.734

17,812

66,270

20625

.808

.iJr

5.883

90.788

7.490

.8745

22.86

26,300

67,558

1 758

.692 ^r

4.333

66.868

6.582

.3291

22.43

25,380

77,140

2066

.809

i^

5.066

78.180

7.074

.3537

19.198

21,723

61,418

2.004

.789

iSt

4.927

77.085

7.066

.3538

20.712

23,442

66,362

1.845

.768

X

3.691

57.060

6.466

.3283

14.70

16,639

51,462

1.946

.766

lA»

3.975

62.343

6.450

.8225

16.089

18,152

56,290

1.994

.785

I^S

4.541

70.072

7.474

.3737

18.273

20,682

55,344

1.8925

.745

5.483

84.615

7.250

.8625

22.869

26,872

70,250

1.806

.711

^

7.458

115.094

7.280

.3625

86.584

41.400

114,200

2.2865

.900

5.366

82.809

7.090

.3505

16.422

18,163

31,700

2.480

.976

j^n

6.483

100.047

6.708

.3354

16.86

19,086

56,910

2.167

.858

TtVl

4.1863

64.604

7.8416

.8671

14.263

16,144

45,220

1.7985

.708

tVh

4

61.729

8.160

.4075

19.79

22,406

54,985

2.291

.902

tAh

5.516

85.124

8.250

.4125

16.816

19,031

46,136

1.997

.786

tJVt

4.250

66.587

7.116

.3558

17.05

19,300

54,240

2.126

.887

tA»

4.683

72.269

8.558

.4279

16.577

18,762

43,847

1.992

.784

T^Vl

5.441

83.967

6.224

.3112

21.938

31.260

100,450

2.060

.807

_JL^

5.875

82.948

6.100

.3050

20.463

23,161

75,989

1.918

.755

tAi

6.183

96.417

8.240

.4120

26.891

30,436

73,870

1.7706

.697

TOO

1.715

.675

5.483

84.615

14.566

.7283

29.82

33,768

41,194

2.129

.838

5.366

82.789

7.874

.3937

16.06

18, 178

46,170

2.291

.902

JL

5.616

86.668

6.840

.3420

17. 119

19,376

66,650

1.700

.669

tAs

5.016

77.407

7.824

.3662

27.77

31,430

86,830

1.814

.n4

tA«

3.791

58.604

6.408

.3204

32.947

37,290

119,096

1.968

.773

ins

4.499

79.540

6.016

.3008

18.680

21,143

70.290

1.875

.788

4.183

64.558

7.566

.3788

19.087

25,546

56,956

1.675

.660

tAb

4.491

69.406

8.250

.4125

25.566

28,935

70,146

1.4225

.560

Wil

3.466

53.488

6.732

.3366

27.425

31.040

92,217

2.206

.868

Si

4.816

74.32

6.090

.3045

15.84

17,980

58,900

2.007

.790

IXI

5.158

79.60

6.758

.8379

20.53

23.245

68,780

1.575

.620

X

4.866

75.091

6.016

.3008

31.884

35,521

188,100

2.088

.828

lA.

4.941

77.251

6.558

.3279

18.133

20,523

62,590

1.558

.613

tA.

5.200

80.248

6.058

.3029

34.245

38,793

128,070

1.779

.700

tAt

4.141

68.905

5.290

.2645

29.44

23,705

89,623

1.654

.651

tAi

4.266

65.834

5.682

.2816

24.949

28,238

100,270

1.271

.500

JL

3.166

48.858

6.182

.3066

31.357

35,490

85,480

1.761
1.946

.693
.766

tAi

5.925

92.436

6.990

.8192

3U.499

34.598

98,996

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1662

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1664 REPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

BECAPrrULATION AND OONGLUBION8.

In the preceding tables we have presented the averages of the results
obtained from the measurements of individual samples, and with them
the history of the samples so far as this was given and can be stated
in tabular form. The tables must serve for extended study in many
lines, and it is hoped that there are those interested in the various
branches of sheep breeding and woolgrowing who will take it up and
work out the relations to be found having practical value to all con-
cerned. In the present work we have undertaken to do this to a
limited extent, as time and opportunity have allowed, and in the fol-
lowing tables have brought together general averages of the results
for each sex in the different breeds as shown in the material offered by
the several countries represented. The figures of this table are in-
tended to exhibit as far as possible all the qualities of the staple, and
include the weight of the fleece and the length, fineness, strength, and
elasticity of the staple.

The number of samples represented in each quality is given along
with the figures for that quality. Since the fineness, sti'ength, and
3lasticity as we have stated them are closely interdependent and the
number of samples represented in each is necessarily the same, we have
given this figure only once in front of the column for fineness. The
table will otherwise explain itself.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

WOULD 8 COLUUBIAN EXPOSITIOIf, 1893.

1665

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1667

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III lit

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26,972 87,577
28.882 81,126

41,782 95,241
88,846 89,947

88,994

95,902

138,612

109,714

120,260

1

24,734 77,867
22, 149 61, 748
26,161 88,892
28,154 82,764
29,478 76,946

60,986
140,895
61,125
56,095
80,060

21.888
28,391
42,869
82.467
44,725

17,544
87,406
16,622
20.100
82,808

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1671

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167^

REPORT OF CoMMnTEK ON AWARDS.

The difficulties to be met in the comparisons to lie made in suefa
tables are many and manifest. The most important is the great
inequality in the number of samples oflFered in each class. Thus, it
would be very interesting to compare the results for fleeces in the
same class but from animals of different ages, but on this account it
was almost impracticable. So, also, absolute comparison of ewes'
fleeces with rams' fleec&s is extremely difficult, because from many of
the countries we have large numbers of samples from one sex and a
small number from the other. Thus, from the Argentine Republic
we have a large number of ewes' fleeces and a very small number of
rams' fleeces. As a fact, excepting for 8 fleeces of Lincoln and 1
fleece of Negretti Merino, the collection was wanting in rams' fleeces-
The same relation is found in the collection from Cape Colony. In
the class of Merinos we have 52 ewes, 34 wethers, and only 10 i^ams.
This fact shows? the popular knowledge of what our tables, in spite of
the disproportion mentioned, also cormborate, that except in the mat-
ter of the weight of the fleece, the ewes' fleeces are better than the
rams' fleeces. Let us illustrate this by some abstracts from the tables
and bring together general averages for the Merino ewes and rams
from those countries from which a sufficient number of each sex was
offered.

(k)untry or State.

Number
I ofsam-
I pies.

Ewes:

Cape Colony . .
iWa

New South V^aies.

Victoria

Uruguay

Ohio

New York

Ranui:

Cape Colony

New South Wales .

Victoria

Uruguay

Ohio

New Yoric

70
112
78
24

Average

weight of

fleece.

Number

of !«am-

ple«.

FinenesB.

Ultimate
strength.

Modnlns of
elasticity.

Lb9. OZ8.

1

7 2.6

70

.7237 '

28,285

86.S62

10 6.5

115

.76JJ1

25,760

83,688

8 7.6

85

.7466

25,995

80. 304

7 10

27

.7720

25,308

82,500

10 7.26

90

.8391 !

24,084

69.374

13 1.4

10

.7920

25.165

69,601

9 0

9

.7414 1

27,117

91,198

16 7

67

.7889 ,

23,368

75,280

11 11.7

22

.7867 1

22,709

66,254

8 8

S3

.8234 1

28,740

76,809

12 2.68

56

.8462

23,125

67,514

18 8

10

.8^6

23,896

87,875

These examples might be extended, but they are quite sufficient to
establish the fact. There will, of course, be individual exceptions,
and we find such in the records for Ohio. Thirteen American Merino
ewes' fleeces have an average of 0.901 inch, while 6 rams' fleeces of the
same breed or strain have fineness of 0.870 inch; 28 Delaine Merino
ewes have fineness corresponding with 0.853 inch, while the 24 rams
in that class have fineness of U.843 inch. Yet, notwithstanding these
exceptions, the preponderance of evidence is in favor of the general
rule that, while the rams' fleeces are heavier, they are inferior to the
ewes' fleeces in fineness, strength, and elasticit3% and upon the whole
are of lower quality for manufacturing purposes.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 18^1. 1675

If now ^e pass to the comparison of the general averages of all
results for the different breeds and crosses, irrespective of sex, age,
or other conditions, from the several countries and States represented
in the Exposition, we find further interesting relations. The following
table exhibits a compilation of such general averages for each country.
No attempt has been made to make a general avei*age for each State or
wool district in the foreign countries, for we are scarcely sufficiently
familiar with the divisions to do it properly. However, the figures
offered will serve the purpose in view. The foi*eign countries and the
idiflferent States of our own country are respectively arranged in alpha-
betical order, and the breeds and crosses are placed in as nearly as pos-
sible the same order for convenience in comparison.

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1677

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1677

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WORLD 8 COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1679

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1680

BEPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARI>8.

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Digitized by VjOOQIC

WORLD 8 COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1681

In every exhibition, whether local or international, the interest
of wool men naturally centers in the fine wools first of all. The Merino
breeds and their crosses produce the larger proportion of the wools
sent to the markets, and for manufacturing pui'poses are most sought
after. The coarse wools are merely secondary products. The animals
producing them are grown principally for mutton, and the carcass is
the most precious portion. Let us then, for the sake of comparison,
bring together the figures showing the qualities of the staple in the
fine wools, Merino and its crosses, from the different countries.

Country.

Num-
ber of
flam-
pies.

Arg«ntin«-

Cape Colon ..
New South Wales.

New Zealand

Ruasla

Spain

Uruguay

Victoria

United States

.121
173

7

7

59

99

295

Weiffht
fleece.

Num- ;

berof ' Length

8am- of staple.

pies.

38
121
173
15
8
9
75
101
303

Num-
ber of
sam-
ples.

Fine-

Ultimate
strength

Modulus

(PfJS'S"'! o.el«,tlc.

cross sec-
tion).

ity.

Inches.

Inch.

Pomvds.

2.70

89

.860

22,096

3.09

123

.7406

27,617

4.50

178

.7676

26,582

4.276

17

.8454

28.056

2.12

8

.860

26,070

2.74

9

.878

20,069

2.67

77

.7969

24,180

8.52

110

.7524

25,496

2.86

821

.887

25,667

68,619
87,197
80,516
92,106
82,496
76,676
77,789
84,694
80,974

If the different countries are arranged in the order of the fineness of
the wool, from the finest to the coarsest, they will stand as follows:

Cape Colony 0.7405 Russia.. 0.860

Victoria 7524 | Argentina 860

New South Wales 7675 i Spain 878

Uruguay .7969 | Tinted States 887

NewZealand .8454 i

It is interesting to note that apparently a fairly close relation pre-
vails between the gross weight of the fleece and the fineness of the
staple, and that the ratio is invei-se, as it were — that is, the greater the
weight of the fleece the lower the fineness or the greater the diameter
of the fiber. If we leave out of account the fleeces of Argentina and
Uruguay, which were believed by the judges to have been skirted before
being offered for exhibition, and bring together the figures for weight
and fineness for the difl'erent countries offering a suflicient number of
fleeces for proper comparison, we have the following:

Country.

of fleeces. ^^*--^«f'"-

Fineness.

United States

New South Wales.

Victoria

Cape Colony ,

'I9^h

13 14
11 6

9 0 I

Inch.
.887

173

.7675

99

.7624

121

.7405

COL EXPO — 02-

-106

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1682

REPORT OF COMMITTEE' ON AWARDS.

In the matter of ultimate strength and modulus of elasticity, differ-
ent orders will be found if we arrange the figures in descending series,
thus:

I

Aigentina j

Cape Colony ,

New South Wales ,

New Zealand

Rii&sia i

Spain

ITnited States

Uruguay

Victoria

Ultimate

strength

(per square

Modulus ol

inch of

elasticity.

croee sec-

tion).

Pounds.

22,096

68,619

27.617

87,197

25,582

80,516

28.056

92.106

25.070

82,495

20.059

76,675

25,667

80.974

24.180

77.789

25.498

84,691

It is perhaps questionable upon which of the two sets of figures the
manufacturing value of the staple should be based, whether upon the
ultimate strength alone, or upon both the strength and elasticity com-
bined, as illustrated in the modulus of elasticity. It will be remem-
bered that this latter, being determined by dividing the ultimate
strength or tenacity, expressed in pounds per square inch of cross sec-
tion by the percentage of stretch, expressed in a decimal, suffered by
the fib^^rs of the sample at rupture — that is, this figure, or the mod-
ulus of elasticity, expresses the power required to produce a given
equal amount or unit of elongation in the fiber of the assumed cross
section of 1 square inch when subjected to strain. It would there-
fore indicate the power of the fiber to resist strain, and therefore its
power to resist wear. For this reason, in our previous work (Report
of 1886) we used this modulus of elasticity as the standard of value,
and it would still seem to be the natural one.

The grade Merino wools of Argentina are almost worthy to be
classed among the pure-bred wools, foi* they are of such high
quality. While the weight of the fleece is small, the wool is of good
length, 2.65 inches, and its fineness is even superior to that of the
pure- bred Merino wool, being 0.837 inch against 0.860. And in the
matter of strength and elasticity there is practically no difference.
The figures illustrate the value of the great Mestizo flocks of Argen-
tina, and show how carefully the selection of stock in breeding
has been carried on, and how thoroughly the qualities of the fine-
wooled Merino blood has been fixed.

An attempt to compare in the same waj" the fine wools of the
different States of our country seems almost useless. In the first
place, so many of the States are not represented at all, while others are
so inadequately represented as to make the results of no practical
value. Such a« they are, however, we will offer them.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1683

state.

Arizona

Colorado

Illinois

Iowa

Michigan

MiS'iouri

Montana*

New York

Ohio

Pennsylvania .
South Dakota .

Utah

Vermont

WestVirglna..

Wisconsin

Wyoming

' i I , Ultimate I

Kum- Nnm- Num- I strength

ber of I Weight of ber of i Length of ber of ,,.*_-_ -^^ i (per square 'Modulus of
sam- j fleecer, sam- ; staple. sam- '^"»*^"«^- iuch of , elasticity,
pies. I pies. cross sec- I

I , , tion). ;

pies.

1

2

1 ,
11
10
20

13 ,
20
168
21
8

15
7

Ubi. OZ8.

10
18
16
11
20

19 10
10 5 ,
15 15

11
13
10

3
2J

7

16
14

Inches, i

Inch.

Pounds. '

1

1.30 ,

1 '

.785

22,062 ,

79,208

1 ;

2.50

2 1

.922 1

26,972

87,517

1 1

2.00 1

1 '

1.049 '

21,838

88,994

11 i

2.70

12

.813 1

20,079 1

57,428

6'

2.35 i

11

.844 1

27,887 '

89,566

18

2.11 1

20

.886 1

23,606 .

72,288

13

2.79 ,

13

.804 1

26,344

86,845

15

2.40 i

20

.816 1

24,580 1

78,738

164 ,

3.11 1

165

.903 1

24,871

78,960

20

3.12 '

21

.836 ;

22,200

63,889

2 1

2.53

3

.777

38,795

122,715

2 ,

8.07

2

.773 I

20,991

78,776

15

2.67

15

1.028 ,

31,158

100,462

6 1

2.08

/

.778 1

25,914

81,913

37 1

2.53 '

37

.908 '

24,980 ,

95,742

^

3.08
Merino.

4

.852 1

27,470 1

90,955

•Gradt

Now, if we arrange in the order of the general averages of fineness
for the fine-wool fleeces, and particularly the fine-bred Merino, those
States which oflfered any considerably number, we have the following
exhibit:

Number
of fleeces.

I Fineness.

West Virginia,

Montana

Iowa

New York

Pennsylvania

Michigan

Missouri

Ohio

Wisconsin

Vermont

.778
.804
.813
.816
.836
.844
.886
.903
.908
1.028

Both West Virginia and Pennsylvania exhibited larger numbers of
fleeces, but as information concerning them was lacking, samples
were not taken from them. A larger collection would doubtless cause
important changes in the order here presented.

Again arranging the States in the order of the qualities of strength
and elasticity, we have some further interesting relations;

Statft

Strength.

Modulus of
elasMcity.

Vermont

81.158
27,887
26,344
25,914
24,980
24,871
24,580
23,606
22,200
20,079

100,462
85,742

Michigan

Montana

89,566

West Virginia

86,845

Wisconsin

81,913

Ohio

78.960

New York

78,738

Missouri

72,288

Pennsylvania ..

63,889

Iowa ■

57,428

Digitized by VjOOQIC

1684

BEPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON AWABDS.

It is almost, if not quite, unprecedented to find so close a relation
between the strength and elasticity as is here shown. The only excep-
tion in the entire list is Wisconsin. If this were left out, the States
would occupy exactly the same order as regards both the qualities
represented. Most of the animals represented in the fleeces giving
these figures were, it may almost fairly be presumed, from stud flocks,
and it would be interesting to extend the investigation and determine
whether in all cases when animals are carefully selected and cared
for this close relation between strength and elasticity prevails.

It will be interesting to compare with the figures given above the
results of a special examination of merino wools from the different
States collected in 1882. These are as follows:

Qeneral averages of all remits of tests made in 1880 to 188S upon merino ux>ols from

different States,

states.

Fractions
of inch.

Ultimate

stren^h

per square

inch croee

section.

Modulus of
elasticity.

California....

Illinois

Minnesota . . .

New York

Pennsylvania

Texas

Vermont

Wisconsin

Pounds.

T^l

21.961

61,948

Wtv

22,774

91,751

Tl^S

26,879

77,010

T^f

21,382

63,795

jJ^I

28.259

68,000

tAs

19,918

62,197

iiVo

1*1,280

68,360

22,031

62,667

Unfortunately, again, only four of the States practically occur in
both tables: New York, Pennsylvania, Vermont, and Wisconsin. We
may, however, bring these together for more ready comparison.

Fineness.
1882. I 1893. I 1882.

ntimate Htrength. , ^^"^^X^. ^^"^

New York

Pennsylvania .

Vermont

Wisconsin

.8003

.816

. «i826

.836

.7874

1.028

.8;y)9

.908

21,382
23.259
19,280
22.031

1893.

24.630
22,200 i
31,158 I
24.980

63,795 ,
63,000
68,360 I
62,667 '

1893.

78,738
63,889
100,462
95, 742

So it seems that there has been pretty general increase in the aver-
age diameter of the fiber in these States, and, with the exception of
Pennsylvania, in the ultimate strength and elasticity as well. It fur-
ther illustrates the fact that our breeders by seeking larger f mme and
hardier constitutions have sacrificed fineness to the other qualities
which have been improved.

Before leaving this subject we should call attention to the compar-
atively high strength and elasticity of the wools from the States located
in the high elevations west of the Mississippi. Although the few
fleeces from there were unprepossessing in appeai-ance for the most

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WORLD S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.

1685

part and indicated deficient care of the flocks, the wool was of good
quality and shows the possibilities of the section for yielding a good
product. The modulus of elasticity is in some cases exceptionally
high; thus:

Number
' of siim-
I pleb.

-I - " '

Arizona j

Colorado |

Montana i

South Dakota '

Utah I

Wyoming

Fineness; StrengthJM^Sci??'

I

.785 '
.922 1
.804
.777
.773
.852 I

22.062 i

26,972

26.344

38.795

20,991

27,470

79,208
87,617
86,845
122,715
78,775
90,955

In two cases, Arizona and Utah, the strength is almost abnormally
low, and it is possible that all these figures might be greatly modified
if a larger number of samples were examined, but they are significant
and should lead to further study of the wools of that section.

Now we may take up the consideration of the different breeds as
they are related to each other in the qualities of their wools. It is
true that as they are bred and grown for such widely different purposes,
the Merinos principally for their fine wools and the middle and long
wool breeds principally for their mutton, we should expect to find the
highest qualities in the merino wools. Our expectations, however,
are not always realized, and this is particularly the case in the present
instance.

To compare these breeds in the relations of fineness, length, and
weight of fleece is also almost useless. In the matter of fineness the
Merino stands alone; in its uses, too, for the coarse wools can by no
means enter into the fine and delicate fibers to the manufacture of which
the merino wool is devoted. Between themselves, however, they may
be compared upon all these points, and, in view of the work being done
in the different countries, with a good deal of profit. Unfortunately,
however, we are unable to extend our study to any extent to the
wools of foreign countries, because we have not had the material.
Naturally, in entering into an exhibition of wool the greatest compe-
tition is expected to be in the fine wools, and for this reason, perhaps,
only such were sent to the Exposition. Practically, only the Argen-
tine Republic, Uruguay, and New South Wales are represented in the
coarse wools. In each case the Lincoln seems to lead all the other
breeds in strength and elasticity, and, if we leave out of account the
Merino, in fineness also. We shall bring more closely together for the
purposes of comparison these breeds from the different countries, con-
fining ourselves, however, to simply the strength and elasticity.

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Lincoln.

Leicester. Shropshire.

Modulus! • ^^^' I I Modu-

Strength, of eliu. Stren^. ^^^SV^tTengtr^^^^l
""*>• I ity. I i ity.

Argentine Republic » 37, 081

New South Wales < 43. 115

Uruguay ' '35,336

119,172 ,.

97,554 <i§0,708 ' 90,693

91,384 1 ' k27,281

79,848

Merino.

Modtt-
Strength., ^j^^..
I ity.

''22.096 I 68,619
•25,682 I 80.516
"24,180 77,789

»22 samples.
^ 33 samples.

' 5 samples.
* 6 samples.

• ITS samples.
'9 samples.

( 2 samples.
>> 50 samples.

In this table the merino fleeces represented are so much more
numerous and the numbers of the fleeces from other breeds so limited
that it is possible that here, too, an equalization of the number of
samples examined might bring about a change in the relations con-
sidered. The figures obtained from samples from the Argentine
Republic, as well as the others, lead undoubtedly to the conclusion
that the Lincoln wool is superior to that from the other breeds and
particularly better than the Merino. And this superiority of quality
holds even in the crosses, for we find with greater intensit}" of the
Lincoln blood in the cross higher figures for strength and elasticity,
and that as the Lincoln blood declines with repeated crossing and
intensification of the Merino blood these qualities decline.

In the wools from the United States we have better opportunities for
comparison and the relations are most interesting. Here the greater
interest in the coarse-wool breeds attaches to the Downs, and the indica-
tions are that flocks of these breeds are the more numerous and that
the long- wool breeds, such as the Leicester, Cots wold, and Lincoln, are
giving way to them. Nevertheless we shall find that the latter at the
present time, so far as we can judge from our figures, are producing
stronger and more elastic wools. Let us bring together and arrange
in the order of their fineness the pure-bred wools of the United States
represented in the Exposition.

1893. 1880.

Breed.

Number
of sam-
ples.

Number
Fineness.! ofgam-
; pies.

Fineness.

Merino ;

321

\t

6
77

6
35

6
37

i
0.887 S90

0.7948

Hampshire Down , , .

1.187
1.166
1.192
1.321
1.339

SoutHdown

20

1.1192

Dorset Horn

Shropshire Down

Cheviot

Oxford Down

1.884
1.407
L41S

4
9
27

1.737

Lincoln , .,..,, ^ - ^ --,--,,.-,, - r

1.4807

Cotswold .'

1.650

Generally, then, the Down wools are finer than the long wools. They
are very diflferent in the qualities of softness and sometimes of luster,
though in the latter particular they rank fairly high. The relations of
fineness between the breeds seem to have changed somewhat since 1880,

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1687

if the collections we were able to make at that time may be considered
representative. Certainly the material was then obtained from highly
bred animals produced under conditions favorable to the growth of
good wool. In the last column we have entered the results of the
measurements of fineness made in our earlier work. Here we find
that the Oxford Down breed furnished the coarsest wool. With this
exception, however, the breeds stand in the same order in both cases.
Still, in the earlier investigation only 4 samples of Oxford Down
wool were tested and in the latter 35. Here again is the possibility
of having a more accurate average had a larger number of samples
been examined.

In this comparison we have left out of account the result for the
single sample of native wool from the West. It may have been excep-
tional, and yet the average fineness is good and the strength and elas-
ticity both very high. The native sheep have had such a powerful
influence in the formation of the large flocks of the West that further
study of their qualities would be full of interest and, doubtless, of
value also. If the qualities here shown should prove to be prevalent
and the figures to represent true averages, would it not be worth while
to carefully breed these sheep to be used for communication of the
high qualities to the wool-prodncing breeds? The}'^ have been so
extensively used, particularly in the Southwest, as a basis for the
formation of the ranch flocks, that they have become an important
factor in the sheep and wool history of this country.

The following table exhibits the order in which the several breeds
of the United States stand to each other in the matter of strength and
elasticity:

Breed.

Number
of sam-
ples.

Strength.

Breed.

Number
of sam-
ples.

Modulus
of elas-
ticity.

Cheviot

5

%
35
6
77
295
41
14
11

32,834
31,593
31,499
28,751
27,120
27,037
25,667
24,551
24,241
10,191

Cotswold

37
295
77
41
5
6
14
86
6
11

84,271

Cotswold

MtTlllO.

80,974

Lincoln

Sh n mHhi re Down

79, 745

Oxford Down

Soi 1 1 ndo wn

79,604
77,725

Dorset Horn

Clu'viot

ShmnRhirp Down

LiiK'oln

76,719

Merino

HHinpshire Down

76,021

Southdown .......

Oxford Down

74,761

Hampshire Down

Dtirsel Horn

61,408

Fat Tail (Turkey)

Fat Tail (Turkey)

59,108

These general avemges show that as regards the ultimate strength
or tenacity the merino stands pretty well down in the scale and that
the long wools lead. It is really interesting to note how remarkably
close this quality is allied to the fineness. In our fineness table, im-
mediately preceding, reading from the bottom upward, we have tlie
Cotswold, Lincoln, and Oxford Down in the order named, and we
have them in the same order reading downward in the table before us.
Here the Cheviot leads; in the former table it would foot the list. At

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any rate the four breeds occupy opposite ends of the column in the two
tables, and the figures thus support the relation, and the coarser fibers
are relativelj- stronger.

In the combination of the qualities of strength and elasticity
expressed in the modulus of elasticity, which we have agreed shall
serve us as the standard of the value of the wools for manufacturing
purposes, we have still a different order. Here the Merino stands at
the other end of the scale and is second only to the Cotswold. The
Shropshire Down and Southdown are higher in the scale, and the
Cheviot, which in the column for strength stands at the top, forms
the median line as it were, being nearly an average of the two
extremes.

Let us now consider the like figures obtained for the same breeds
in 1880 to 1883. They are as follows:

Breed.

Number
of sam-
ples.

20
9

27

4

390

Strength.

Southdown

33,338

Lincoln ...

30,116

Cot*»wold

29.493

Oxford

27,963
22,656

Merino

Breed.

Number
of sam-
ples.

Modulus
of elas-
ticity.

Southdown

20
9

27

390

4

150.990
88 085

Lincoln

Cotswold

83,643
74 30f^

Merino

Oxford Down

72,084

How different are the relations here! The Southdown leads both
in the strength and modulus of elasticity in the earlier tests, while in
the present investigation it takes only a medium or even inferior posi-
tion. Before, the Merino wools occupied an inferior position as
regards both the ultimate btreugth and the modulus of elasticity, or
general value for manufacturing. Our later works place it next to
the head of the list for the latter most important quality. We have
already stated that the Southdown breed, once so popular in this
country, is declining in favor. Has a diminution of enthusiasm with
regard to it led to less care in breeding it, and so brought about a
deterioration in the quality of the wool? Does it not seem an apt
illustration of the necessity for the highest and best care and selection
in the maintenance of flocks and the quality of their products?

Our later results would not seem to justify the decline in favor
manifested toward the long-wool breeds, if we may judge from our
results and confine ourselves to these considerations alone. The Cots-
wold breed has an excellent record and is worthy of thoughtful atten-
tion and study. Evidently progress has been made during the past
ten years in breeding it. Its relation to the other breeds in the qual-
ity of the wool, as exhibited in these results, has decidedly changed,
and in the study of the internal structure of the fiber we have likewise
noticed diflferences which must have an important influence upon its
strength. Thus, in our earlier study of the fiber the pigment canal
through the middle of it was very prominent and extensively devel-
oped. In our later examinations this was much less marked, the fibers

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world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 1689

were far more uniform in structure throughout, and the fibro-cellular
structure more homogeneous. The breed has been led further away
from the native type of aboriginal sheep, in which the peculiarity
mentioned is quite prominent.

The modulus of elasticity for the Shropshire Down justifies the favor
accorded it by the breeders in all parts of the United States. It yields
a fleece of good weight, and wool which is not too coarse for certain
kinds of clothing, and particularly of blankets, while its manufactur-
ing and wearing value is high. It would seem to be the coming mut-
ton breed, combining, as it does in a large degree, the abundant
production of good mutton and good wool.

The Cheviot and the Dorset Horn are the latest additions to the
breeds of the country, and the value of their products remain to be
fully determined. The few fleeces of Cheviot wool examined have given
good results, such as must encourage those who have taken them up,
The superior strength and the reasonably high modulus of elasticity
commend them to our favorable consideration. In the hands of
American breeders they will doubtless grow in prominence and value
and find a useful place in our sheep- breeding economy.

The study of the minute structure of the fiber has led us to consider
that the Dorset Horn would be a valuable addition to our list of breeds,
particularly for intermingling with the Merino blood. In its fineness
and length it is more closely allied with the coarser wool Down bmeds.
But in the minute structure of the fiber it is more closely allied than
they to the Merino breeds. The wool is softer and smoother, simi-
lar indeed, in this respect, to the Lincoln; but in the arrangement and
structure of the epithelial sheath it favors more closely the Merino.
Perhaps further breeding in this country will develop higher qualities
than are shown here, or examination of a larger number of samples
from other and diflferent localities will furnish different and better
results. At any rate it is our present feeling that no discouragement
should be produced by the figures here presented and that the breed
is worthy of the most careful and persistent attention.

It is interesting to note that the Lincoln breed is the favorite among
the larger bodied breeds in foreign countries and that the wool pro-
duced by it is of the highest quality and considerably better than that
produced by the same breed in the United States. Compare for
instance the strength and modulus of elasticit}' of the Lincoln wools
of the Argentine Republic, Uruguay, New South Wales, and the
United States, thus:

Country.

AiKentlne Republic .

Uruguay

New South Wales...
United State*

Number
of sam-
ples.

Strength.

Modulus
of elas-
ticity.

87,061 ! 119,172

85.335 ' 91,334

43,115 97,554

31.499 76,719

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1690 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

In the foreign countries named the Lincoln constitutes extensive
stud flocks and it is carefully bred for the purpose of crossing- with
the Merino to secui*e a larger carcass for the frozen-meat trade, com-
bined with fine, soft, medium wool for market. Has the appai^ent
neglect of the breed in this country caused deterioitition of its wool?

Our tables show that in all countries the practice of crossing- the
breeds is ver}^ common and in many cases this has brought valuable
results. It is particularly the case in our own country, where, as has
already been stated, so much has been accomplished by crossing the
native Mexican with the best Merino blood, and in the Argentine
Republic, which furnishes interesting in the Mestizo and grade Meri-
nos. In many cases the quality of the wool yielded is as high as that
furnished by the Merino, not only in fineness, but in strength and elai»-
ticity as well. But genei-ally, as might be expected, it is slightly
inferior, and lacks the strength and spring common to the pure-bred
wool. In this country the struggle to secure larger wool-bearing-
animals has led to intermingling of blood, and in later years the Down8
and the Merino seem to make the more popular crossing. Our tables
show a good many such. Without entering into details we may call
attention to the exhibits from South Dakota in which the definite
crosses are so largely represented, but particularly to those from
Wisconsin. From the latter State some cross-bred wools were sent
from the State University and individuals, including representatives of
crosses of Shropshire and Oxford Downs with the Merino, In the
case of the Shropshire crosses we find that in all qualities the wool of
the first cross is superior, while in the Oxford crosses the results are
variable, the weight of fleece declines, the length of staple increases,
the wool becomes coarser but stronger and better with increase of the
Oxford blood. Such results should be multiplied under intelligent
direction. They are full of suggestion, and experiment in this line
must prove exceedingly fruitful.

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MERINO, CAPE COLONY, 112.

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MERINO. VICTORIA 21687.

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MERINO, NEW SOUTH WALES, 127.

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MERINO, NEW ZEALAND, D. McL. NO. 2.

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\

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MERINO, URUGUAY, 26652.

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m

'^'•''■'.•'-'.^..V-;..;,

\.tii: ■-'^mim

INFANTADO, RUSSIA, 24.

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MERINO, SPAIN, E.

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MERINO, NEW YORK, 8.

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"^te<Lw^

SAXON, WEST VIRGINrA, 4.

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■>--W'j

INFANTADO, RUSSIA, 24.

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MERINO, SPAIN, E.

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MERINO, NEW YORK, 8.

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-^^if/^rjk^

SAXON, WEST VIRGINrA, 4.

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MERINO, OHIO, 5078.

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MERINO, MISSOURI, 5390.

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MERINO, VERMONT, 12.

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SOUTHDOWN, NEW YORK, 4668.

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HAMPSHIRE DOWN, WISCONSIN, 85.

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■ r

or

^1

^ >.

J -j^-1 r

OXFORDSHIRE DOWN, NEW YORK, 4671.

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T^i^^r\t0*'' .1

A »

SHROPSHIRE, NEW YORK, 22.

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DORSET MORN, SOUTH DAKOTA, 24244.

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CHEVIOT, NEW YORK, 4649.

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COTSWOLD, NEW YORK, 4643.

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LEICESTER, NEW SOUTH WALES, 249.

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LINCOLN, WISCONSIN, 29.

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ONE-HALF MERINO AND ONE-HALF SHROPSHIRE, SOUTH DAKOTA, 24260.

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ONE-FOURTH MERINO AND THREE-FOURTHS SHROPSHIRE, SOUTH DAKOTA, 24243.

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ONE-EIQHTH MERINO AND SEVEN-EIGHTHS SHROPSHIRE, SOUTH DAKOTA, 24262.

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MERINO AND SOUTHDOWN ANQORA, 27065.

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MERINO AND OXFORDSHIRE, MONTANA, 15.

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ONE-HALF MERINO AND ONE-HALF C0T8W0LD, SOUTH DAKOTA, 24270.

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THREE-FOURTHS MERINO AND ONE-FOURTH GOTSWOLD, SOUTH DAKOTA, 24255.

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THREE-FOURTHS MERINO AND ONE-FOURTH LINCOLN, SOUTH DAKOTA, 24269.

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ONE-FOURTH MERINO AND THREE-FOURTHS LINCOLN, WISCONSIN, 3794.

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NATIVE, ECUADOR.

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FLAT TAIL, TURKEY.

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MOHAIR, TURKEY, 22 B.

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ANQORA AND MERINO, RUSSIA.

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ORENBURG GOAT, RUSSIA.

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I

Ik

I

>-
t
o

I-

co

<

D

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I

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MOHAIR, TURKEY, 22 B.

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ANGORA AND MERINO, RUSSIA.

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ORENBURG GOAT, RUSSIA.

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2
D

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YOM KIPPUR ON THE MIDWAY.

BY

ISIDOR LEW^I.

1691

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YOM KIPPUR ON THE MIDWAY.

By IsiDOR Lewi.

About four-fifths of the inhabitants of the Turkish village on the
Midway Plaisance at the Chicago Exposition were Jews. Merchants,
clerks, actors, servants, musicians, and even the dancing girls, were
of the Mosaic faith, though their looks and garb would lead one to
believe them Mohammedans. That their Judaism was not of the pas-
sive character was demonstrated by the closed booths, shops, and curio
places, by the silence in the otherwise noisy theaters and the genei*al
Sabbath day air which pervaded the *' Streets of Constantinople" on
Yom Kippur — the Day of Atonement.

A more unique observance of the day never occurred in this country,
and to the few Americans who had the good fortune to be present it
presented a picture of rare beauty and solemnity.

The Turkish mosque was so arranged that it could be used as a Jew-
ish house of worship also — the paraphernalia was all there and the
Moslem is liberal enough to allow religious service other than his own
to take place in his houses of worship — a point which he thinks the
Western people would do well to ponder.

It was in this gorgeously equipped and dimly lighted mosque that
the oriental Jews assembled on Tuesday evening, September 19, 1893,
and read the Kol Nidra service. A screen of carved wood was
placed across one corner of the mosque, and behind this the women,
robed in white, with faces partially concealed behind white veils, wor-
shiped. The men, gorgeous in varicolored silken garments, some wear-
ing the simple fez and some the more elaborate turban, removed their
shoes at the door before entering, and when they did not stand facing
the East, where the cantor intoned the prayers, they sat cross-legged
on the matted floor.

Each and every one had brought with him from his home the scarf
which the orthodox Jew wears at pi-ayer time and the Hebrew book
of prayers. In the course of the ceremonial Mr. Robert Levy, the
Ottoman concessionnaire, approached the altar and asked a blessing on
the President of the United States and on the Sultan of Turkey. The
services lasted long into the night, and when silence reigned all over

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1694 RE1H>RT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

the White City, when the robe of night and sleep covered the kaleido-
Hcopic Midway, these Jews from the land of the Wise Men were 8till
worshiping in the mosque.

On Wednesday, September 20, the mosque was too small to hold the
worshipers, and a great bazaar, in which rugs and tapestries were on
exhibition, was converted into a sj^nagogue, and with its dark hang-
ings, great banks of fantastic webs, its improvised altar and ark,
against which the costumes of the Turks gained in brilliancy', looked
even more picturesque than the mosque. Here again were the white-
rol)ed women, separated from the men by a man-high screen; here
again the men in rich oriental costume, and except the few who came
in full evening dress — which is nothing unusual at a day function in
Turkey — no two were clad alike. They came from all pai*ts of the
Orient. Constantinople had the largest representation /though there
were men from Adrianople, Tunis, Tripoli, Damascus, Smyrna, Bom-
bay, Calcutta, from Algeria and other E^istern points, and two lone
men from New York. And here it was seen how wise were those who
made the Hebrew the language of praj^er for the Jews. Coming from
lands far apart, unfamiliar with one another's language, unable to
converse with one another in many instances, still in pi*ayei% bj" the
use of the same language, the}- were united.

In one corner, bent over his book of prayers, dressed in a brown
silken robe and ample turban, stood the white-bearded, venerable
"Faraway Moses'' whom Mark Twain introduced to his readers years
ago; at every turn stood or reclined a figure which might have been a
Dore model. The fakir's cries, the clang of cymbals, the din of tom-
toms, the endless drone and buzz of hurrying thousands came from
the wonderful street a few steps oflf ; above these the strains of martial
music from the (lerman village across the way, and above all rose the
chant of these strangely habited men and women: ''Hear, O Israel!
The Lord our God, the Lord is one."

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DATE DUE

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DEMCO 38-297

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